- Email: [email protected]
Effect of Physical and Chemical Treatment of Grains on Growth of and Feed Utilization by the Chick
922
R. K.
Nevertheless, growers can (and should) use the techniques demonstrated here to evaluate the alternatives available to them. REFERENCES Noles, R. K., and M. Y. Dendy, 1968. Broiler production: a study of growers costs and returns. Unpublished paper prepared for publication as a University of Georgia bulletin. Noles, R. K., 1969. Teaching poultry management principles. Determining optimum broiler weights in the growing operation. Poultry Sci. 48: 910917. Roy, E. P., 1965. A method of comparing contract proposals for broiler-chicken production. J. Farm Econ. 47: 973-978.
Effect of Physical and Chemical Treatment of Grains on Growth of and Feed Utilization by the Chick 2. E F F E C T O F W A T E R A N D A C I D T R E A T M E N T S OF G R A I N S A N D G R A I N C O M P O N E N T S ON C H I C K G R O W T H , N I T R O G E N R E T E N T I O N AND ENERGY UTILIZATION1 O Z I E L. ADAMS 2 AND E D W A R D C. N A B E R
Department of Poultry Science, The Ohio A gricultural Research and Development Center, Columbus, Ohio 43210 (Received for publication October 25, 1968)
I
N A recent study conducted at this station, Adams and Naber (1969) found t h a t water t r e a t m e n t of cereal grains was as effective in improving their nutritive value as acid or enzyme soaking treatments. Since the acid t r e a t m e n t of grains did improve the nutritive value in most cases, it seems t h a t microbial fermentation has little or no influence on the growth response obtained from the watersoaking treatment, and t h a t endogenous enzymes do not aid in the soaking process. Willingham et al. (1960) presented evi1
Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center Journal Article No. 84-68. 2 Present Address: Tennessee A & I University, Nashville, Tennessee.
dence which indicated t h a t the superiority of water-treated barley over enzyme supplements was due to the presence of an effective antibiotic in the treated barley for chick growth. Leong et al. (1960) conducted experiments with wheat milling fractions (flour, bran, germ, shorts, middlings and wheat millfeed). T h e y showed t h a t water treatment improved the utilization of all milling fractions except flour. These same workers (1962) showed t h a t the metabolizable energy of pearled barley for chicks was increased by water treatment or fungal enzyme supplementation. The present study was undertaken to determine the effect of water and acid
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at University of Manchester on May 21, 2015
T h e best t h a t a grower can hope to do is assemble the best appropriate d a t a and budget the possible alternatives. The grower should recognize t h a t a contractor must have the freedom of determining bird size as m a r k e t conditions warrant change. The contractor will need to vary feed ingredients as ingredient prices vary in order to minimize feed costs per pound of broiler produced. There will be variations in chick quality. Some integrators are now using a cost-of-production contract with p a y m e n t schedules designed to reward the least-cost producers. This procedure permits the contractor to adjust operations without penalizing growers.
NOLES
TREATMENTS
treatments of grain components on chick performance and to study the mechanism of action involved during t h e soaking treatments. EXPERIMENTAL
PROCEDURE
TABLE 1.—Composition oj basal rations Basal Basal ration A ration B
% Ground yellow corn Starch Soybean meal (44% protein) M e a t a n d bone scrap (50% protein) Menhaden fish meal (60% protein) Dried whey product (16% protein) Dehydrated alfalfa meal (17% protein) Defluorinated rock phosphate Ground limestone (95% calcium carbonate) Iodized1 salt Premix
%
57.00
—
29.44 3.00 3.00 2.00 2.00 1.50 1.50 0.50 0.56
42.50 43.49 3.00 3.00 2.00 2.00 1.50 1.50 0.50 0.56
1 Premix supplied the following per kilogram of complete diet: vitamin A, 3,520 I.U.; vitamin Da, 660 I.C.U.; vitamin B12, 13 meg.; vitamin E, 22 I.U.; riboflavin, 44 mg.; calcium pantothenate, 8.8 mg.; niacin, 22 mg.; choline chloride, 550 mg.; oleandomycin, 2.2 mg.; methionine, 500 mg.; and manganese sulfate (70%), 250 mgs.
wheat flour extract), hard and soft varieties of reconstituted wheat (wheat flour, shorts, and wheat bran) and reconstituted corn. T h e grains or by-products were soaked b y treating them with water, 0.1 or 0.2 normal hydrochloric acid solution. T h e feedstuffs were soaked in an equal weight of water or acid solution for 20 hours a t room temperature, dried in shallow trays placed in a forced draft oven at 66°C. and reground in a hammer mill with 0.32 cm. screen before incorporation into t h e diets. Nitrogen retention tests, conducted t o Two basal rations of the corn-soybean type were used (Table 1). I n comparison measure the protein utilization of t h e to basal ration A, the protein level of basal experimental diets b y t h e chicks, were ration B was raised from 22 to 24 percent performed b y the indirect method involvb y increasing the amount of soybean meal. ing an analysis of diet and excreta. Special Soybean meal in basal ration B was in- wire cages holding 4 to 6 birds were placed creased to compensate for the protein re- on battery wire floors. Porcelain trays moved from the basal diet when the corn measuring 30 c m . X 4 5 c m . X 7 j cm. t h a t or wheat was replaced b y corn or wheat fitted conveniently under each cage were starch and to compensate for the increased used as receptacles for the feces. I n order energy content of basal ration B . T h e to prevent the loss of nitrogen to t h e experimental diets were formulated in the atmosphere, 1.5 liters of a 1 normal same manner as the basal rations except solution of sulfuric acid were placed in t h a t the ground corn or starch in the basal each receptacle. At the end of the two-day test period during t h e 4th week of t h e rations was replaced b y an equal weight of treated grains or by-products of corn or trial, the acid mixtures were transferred to wheat. T h e by-products were corn a n d tared gallon jars and weighed. T h e total wheat starches, wheat flour, reconstituted nitrogen excreted was determined b y wheat flour (wheat starch, gluten and mechanically stirring the acid mixture to
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at University of Manchester on May 21, 2015
Day-old sex-linked broiler type chicks bred for rapid growth were used in these experiments. All chicks were wingbanded, weighed a n d distributed a t random in electrically heated, thermostatically controlled b a t t e r y brooders equipped with raised wire floors. T h e chicks received constant lighting and the room in which t h e b a t t e r y brooders were located was heated to provide a minimum temperature of 24°C. Ventilation was provided b y thermostatically controlled exhaust fans. Feed and water was supplied ad libitum. I n dividual chick weight and group feed consumptions were recorded at bi-weekly intervals during the experimental period. Feed efficiency was calculated a t the end of each experiment. Mortality was recorded on the day of occurrence, and only surviving chicks were included in t h e statistical analysis.
923
OF G R A I N S
924
0. L. ADAMS AND E. C. NABER
TABLE 2.—Effect
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Wheat flour and its components (wheat starch, gluten and wheat flour extract) were used to study the effect of physical treatment of the materials on the growth response observed from the water or acid soaking treatments. The results of this experiment (Table 2) show that when untreated wheat flour or wheat starch was present as the major source of energy in the chick diets, growth was significantly depressed. The flour caked in the mouths of the birds and caused the development of crossed beaks. The poor growth ob-
of water and acid treatments of wheat and wheat components on chick performance
Grain components in diet
Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat
lations for metabohzable energy were based on the total feed consumption and total excreta. The combustible energy values were determined with a Parr plain jacket oxygen bomb calorimeter. Data from each experiment was collected and subjected to statistical treatment by the analysis of variance and when a significant difference was detected, a comparison of the mean differences due to treatment was determined by computing the least significant difference, (Snedecor, 1950).
flour flour flour starch starch starch starch plus wheat gluten starch plus wheat gluten starch plus wheat gluten
Experiment l a Treatment Average weight of Feed 4-weeks component conversion (gms.) None Water Acid0 None Water Acid" None Water Acid0
Experiment 2 b Average weight Feed 4-weeks conversion (gms.)
357 482d
2.50 1.81
338
—
377 353
—
2.33 2.12
442 384
—
—
352
2.06
— — —
— — —
451 483 d 478d
1.82 1.79 1.81
—d —
2.53
—
1.83 1.98
—
a Duplicate lots of 14 chicks each per treatment. Basal ration A used. Gluten added in the last 3 treatments to increase crude protein content of ration to that provided by the wheat flour. b Duplicate lots of 11 chicks each per treatment. Basal ration B was used to avoid low protein levels when starches were added. 0 0.1 N H C 1 solution. d Statistically significant at the 5% level of probability.
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form a uniform slurry, from which a sample of approximately 500 ml. was transferred to a Waring blender and completely homogenized, after which a 20 to to 30. ml. aliquot was weighed into a digestion flask, and the nitrogen was then determined by the Kjeldahl method. The individual chick weights and the feed consumption were recorded for the test period. Kjeldahl nitrogen values were also obtained on the samples of feed used. The nitrogen retained by the birds was calculated as the difference between total nitrogen content of the feed consumed and the total nitrogen content of the feces excreted during the test period. Feed and fecal samples collected for the nitrogen balance trials were aJso used in the determination of the metabohzable energy values of the diets in order to test for improvement in energy utilization. The analyses of feed and excreta for moisture, nitrogen and combustible energy were carried out in the manner described by Hill and Anderson (1958). The exceptions were (1) chromic oxide was not used as an indicator and (2) corrections for nitrogen retention were not made. Calcu-
T R E A T M E N T S OF G R A I N S
Increasing the protein level in the starch basal diet to compensate for the protein contributed b y the wheat gluten improved the growth rate on the starch experimental rations (Table 3). Again, water and acid t r e a t m e n t s of the starch component was ineffective in improving the growth rate of the chicks. Grinding or mechanical damage of the starch granules during the milling process probably has the same effect on starch utilization as does the water soaking treatment. Since the starches tested in TABLE 3.—Effect of water and acid treatments of wheat and corn starches on chick performance* Type of stlrch in diet
Treatment of starch
Wheat starch Wheat starch Wheat starch Corn starch Corn starch Corn starch
None Water Acidb None Water Acibb
Ave
™Se g 4 w e e ks , * (gms.) 521 483 492 469 452 470 W
Feed conversion 1.91 1.89 1.90 2.01 1.98 1.91
a Quadruplicate lots of 11 chicks each. Starch substitutions made in basal ration B. b 0.1 N H C 1 solution.
this study were produced from ground grains t h a t had been water treated to remove the starch, it is not too surprising t h a t soaking of corn or wheat starch in water or acid solution was ineffective in improving their nutritive value. This finding was apparent in these studies when the starch was substituted for the corn in the basal diet (equal weight) with or without compensation for the protein loss t h a t occurred when starch was substituted for grain. I n an a t t e m p t to determine whether the growth response obtained from water treatments of grains was due to a specific component of the grain, experiments were designed using ground wheat and reconstituted wheat from both a hard and a soft variety. H a r d and soft wheat and all the products and by-products of flour milling of these wheats were obtained. T h e chemical composition of the starting wheats was reconstituted b y blending the milling products and by-products. This procedure permitted the physical treatment of one or more components of the grain followed b y reconstitution to simulate the original grain prior to dietary incorporation. T h e formulas for reconstitution of the grains supplied b y the manufacturer is shown in Table 4. D a t a presented in Table 5 show t h a t when chicks were fed diets containing soft wheat or reconstituted soft wheat, water t r e a t m e n t of these feedstuffs was not effective in significantly improving the growth of the experimental birds when compared to growth of the chicks fed untreated soft wheat. However, growth was significantly depressed b y the reconstituted soft wheat when the flour was untreated due to beak impaction. On the other hand, water t r e a t m e n t of the ground h a r d wheat and the flour portion of the h a r d wheat significantly improved growth of the chicks. Water t r e a t m e n t of the re-
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served in the birds could probably be attributed to poor feed consumption brought about b y the crossed beaks. T h e growth depression observed in the birds fed the diets containing the starch m a y have been due to the low protein level of these diets. A growth response was observed in the birds fed diets containing the wheat starch plus wheat gluten. Water or acid t r e a t m e n t of the wheat flour, or the wheat starch plus gluten, significantly improved the nutritive value of the components when fed to growing chicks. Neither water nor acid t r e a t m e n t was effective in improving the nutritive value of the starch. T h e results indicate t h a t both the wheat flour and the wheat gluten can be improved b y soaking b u t t h a t starch cannot be improved.
925
926
0 . L. ADAMS AND E. C. N A B E R
TABLE 4.—Composition of the reconstituted grains'Grain Reconstituted Soft Wheat Soft wheat flour, straight Soft wheat red dog Soft wheat shorts Soft wheat bran
Percent 73.45 3.68 8.90 13.97 100.00
Total
65.90 3.57 4.20 7.84 18.49 100.00
Total Reconstituted Corn Corn starch Crude corn oil Corn oil meal Corn gluten meal Corn gluten feed Total
69.00 3.81 4.94 6.10 16.15 100.00
a The amount of the various by-products used to reconstitute the grains was determined from figures supplied by the processors of the grain components.
constituted hard wheat improved growth, but the difference was slightly below t h a t required for significance. These findings indicate t h a t the water soaking effect resides primarily in the flour portion of the hard wheat grain. T h e failure of the soft wheat to respond to t r e a t m e n t m a y be TABLE 5.—Effect
of water and acid treatments of ground wheat and wheat components on chick performance11
Type of grain components in basal ration A Soft Soft Soft Soft
wheat wheat wheat, reconstituted wheat, reconstituted
Soft wheat, reconstituted Hard Hard Hard Hard
wheat wheat wheat, reconstituted wheat, reconstituted
Hard wheat, reconstituted a b
Experiments were also undertaken to determine what effect water and acid soaking of grain has on protein and energy utilization b y the chick. Since t h e water or acid t r e a t m e n t effect on growth appeared to reside primarily in the flour fraction of hard wheat, it seemed logical t h a t native starch utilization was being affected b y these treatments. Hence, metabolism tests were conducted to evaluate nitrogen retention and the metabolizable energy value of the diet. The nitrogen retention d a t a presented in Table 6 indicate t h a t the improved
Treatment of components
Average weight 4-weeks (gms.)
Feed conversion
None Water None Water (all components) Water (flour only) None Water None Water (all components) Water (patent flour only)
503 503 395 b
1.94 1.82 2.36
526
1.79
497 466 504^ 440
1.88 2.03 1.76 2.28
491
1.87
Duplicate lots of 12 chicks each per treatment. Statistically significant at the 5 % level of probability.
505
b
1.83
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Reconstituted Hard Wheat Hard wheat patent flour Hard wheat second flour Hard wheat red dog Hard wheat shorts Hard wheat bran
due to its production under higher moisture conditions t h a n those t h a t prevail where hard wheats are grown. An additional experiment was carried out using corn and milling products and by-products of corn. In this study (data not presented) the ground corn did not respond to water, acid or enzyme soaking treatments. T r e a t m e n t by water of the starch component or water t r e a t m e n t of all components in reconstituted corn (Table 4) failed to improve growth of the chicks. Hence, corn and soft wheat failed to respond; b u t hard wheat clearly responded to the physical treatments employed.
TREATMENTS OF GRAINS
SUMMARY
In a series of experiments meat-type chicks were used to study the effect of water or acid treatments of grains and their components on chick growth and TABLE 6.—Effect of water or acid treatment of grains on nitrogen retention of chicks and the metabolizable energy value of the diet* Chicks fed basal ration A with: Response Untreated Water or acid grain treated grain Average gain to 4 weeks (gnis.) Gain during metabolism test (gms.) Total nitrogen ingested (gms.) Fecal nitrogen eliminated (gms.) % nitrogen retention Feed consumed (gms.) Combustible energy value of diet (Kcal./gm.) Energy intake (Kcal.) Feces excreted (gms.) Combustible energy value of feces (Kcal./gm.) Fecal energy output (Kcal.) Caloric retention (Kcal.) % Gross energy retained Metabolizable energy value (Kcal. retained/gm. diet intake)
416 41 38.4 17.0 56.2 1,006
466 b 44 39.2 17.0 56.7°» 1,073
3.98 4,013 460
4.01°s 4,298 446
2.47 1,133 2,880 71.6
2.55 1,122 3,176 73.7b
2.85
2.96b
a Average data from seven trials in which a statistically significant growth response was obtained due to grain treatment with water or acid. b Response due to grain treatment statistically significant at the 5 % level of probability. ns indicates that a statistical analysis revealed no significant differences due to grain treatment.
feed utilization. The results of these experiments indicated that: 1. Water or acid treatment of wheat flour or wheat gluten significantly improved growth rate of chicks while untreated wheat flour depressed growth due to beak impaction that limited feed consumption. 2. Water and acid soaking treatments of commercial corn and wheat starches were not effective in improving growth rate. 3. Soft wheat, probably due to the conditions under which it was grown, did not respond to the water-soaking treatment. On the other hand, significant growth response in chicks was obtained from feeding hard wheat subjected to the water-soaking treatment. 4. The data indicate that the watersoaking effect resides in the flour portion of the hard wheat variety. 5. The results of other experiments indicate that the improved growth response in chicks fed the grains subjected to the water or acid treatments may be attributed to the increased metabolizable energy values of the experimental diets. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Wheat flour, wheat starch and wheat gluten were provided by The Keever Starch Company, Columbus, Ohio. Hard and soft varieties of wheat and their milling products and by-products were supplied by Gwin Brothers and Company, Huntington, West Virginia. Corn starch and other corn milling by-products were furnished by the A. E. Staley Manufacturing Company, Decatur, Illinois. REFERENCES Adams, O. L., and E. C. Naber, 1969. Effect of physical and chemical treatment of grains on growth and feed utilization by the chick. 1. Effect of water and acid treatment of grains on chick performance. Poultry Sci. 48: 853-858. Hill, F. W., and D. L. Anderson, 1958. Comparison
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growth response obtained by feeding chicks diets containing grains subjected to water or acid treatment cannot be attributed to the protein portion of the diet. Since the difference in the percentage of nitrogen retained by chicks fed the basal diets and those fed the experimental diets was not significant, it can be concluded that the utilization of the protein in the two groups was similar. Combustible energy data on diets and feces indicated that the metabolizable energy values of the experimental diets were increased by the water or acid treatment. Thus it appears that the increase in the metabolizable energy value of the experimental diets was responsible for the improved growth response observed in the chicks. This observation is supported by the work of Leong et al. (1962).
927
928
0 . L. ADAMS AND E. C. NABER
of metabolizable energy and productive energy determinations with growing chicks. J. Nutrition, 64: 587-604. Leong, K. C , L. S. Jensen and J. McGinnis, 1962. Effect of water treatment and enzyme supplementation on the metabolizable energy of barley. Poultry Sci. 41: 36-39. Leong, K. C , L. S. Jensen and J. McGinnis, 1960.
Improvement of feeding value of wheat fractions for poultry. Poultry Sci. 39: 1269. Snedecor, G. W., 1950. Statistical Methods, Fourth Edition, Iowa State College Press, Ames, Iowa. Willingham, H. E., J. McGinnis, F. Nelson and L. S. Jensen, 1960. Relation of superiority of watertreated barley over enzyme supplements to antibiotics. Poultry Sci. 39: 1307.
Effects of Six Single Species of Coccidia on Egg Production and Culling Rate of Susceptible Layers1
(Received for publication October 26, 1968)
I
T IS generally accepted that coccidiosis in susceptible layers causes marked reduction in egg yield. However, there have been few controlled trials demonstrating either the duration of reduced production or the period required for full recovery. Limited observations on effects of different species of coccidia on egg production have been made. Temporary cessation in egg production in hens inoculated with E. acervulina, E. maxima and E. tenella has been reported by Johnson (1932) who also noted a slight decrease in egg production in birds inoculated with E. mitis and E. praecox. Johnson was also the first to report (1933) that fowls unexposed to immunizing coccidia during the rearing period might be affected with disastrous death losses in the laying house. Edgar (1958a) reported that hens kept coccidiosis-free and subsequently inoculated with 1,000,000 oocysts of E. tenella at 6, 12 and 18 months suffered weight loss, cessation of egg production and a 50% mortality. 1
University of Georgia College of Agriculture Experiment Station Journal Series Paper 353, College Station, Athens, Georgia 30601. 2 Department of Parasitology, Veterinary College, University of Agricultural Sciences, Hebbal. Bangalore, India.
Similarly infections induced by three to five million oocysts of E. acervulina at nine and 15 months of age caused a marked drop in egg production but no mortality. Edgar also reported (1958b) a natural outbreak due to E. mitis in which egg production was reduced from 80 to 30%. A few observations are recorded on flock recovery following coccidiosis. A natural outbreak of cecal coccidiosis (Bressler and Gordeuk, 1951) resulting in 8.3% mortality did not deleteriously affect ultimate egg production or hatchability. Peterson (1949) reported a 25% culling rate following infection with E. acervulina. From experimental and field observations Dickinson (1942) reported that pullets after a severe attack of intestinal coccidiosis returned to profitable egg production following recovery. The present study has been undertaken to determine the effects of six different species of coccidia on egg production and culling rate of susceptible layers. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Two successive commercial flocks of 300, one-day-old White Leghorn chicks, were obtained from a local hatchery. The
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at University of Manchester on May 21, 2015
K. S. HEGDE 2 AND W. M. REID Department of Poultry Science, University of Georgia, A thens, Georgia 30601
R. K.
Nevertheless, growers can (and should) use the techniques demonstrated here to evaluate the alternatives available to them. REFERENCES Noles, R. K., and M. Y. Dendy, 1968. Broiler production: a study of growers costs and returns. Unpublished paper prepared for publication as a University of Georgia bulletin. Noles, R. K., 1969. Teaching poultry management principles. Determining optimum broiler weights in the growing operation. Poultry Sci. 48: 910917. Roy, E. P., 1965. A method of comparing contract proposals for broiler-chicken production. J. Farm Econ. 47: 973-978.
Effect of Physical and Chemical Treatment of Grains on Growth of and Feed Utilization by the Chick 2. E F F E C T O F W A T E R A N D A C I D T R E A T M E N T S OF G R A I N S A N D G R A I N C O M P O N E N T S ON C H I C K G R O W T H , N I T R O G E N R E T E N T I O N AND ENERGY UTILIZATION1 O Z I E L. ADAMS 2 AND E D W A R D C. N A B E R
Department of Poultry Science, The Ohio A gricultural Research and Development Center, Columbus, Ohio 43210 (Received for publication October 25, 1968)
I
N A recent study conducted at this station, Adams and Naber (1969) found t h a t water t r e a t m e n t of cereal grains was as effective in improving their nutritive value as acid or enzyme soaking treatments. Since the acid t r e a t m e n t of grains did improve the nutritive value in most cases, it seems t h a t microbial fermentation has little or no influence on the growth response obtained from the watersoaking treatment, and t h a t endogenous enzymes do not aid in the soaking process. Willingham et al. (1960) presented evi1
Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center Journal Article No. 84-68. 2 Present Address: Tennessee A & I University, Nashville, Tennessee.
dence which indicated t h a t the superiority of water-treated barley over enzyme supplements was due to the presence of an effective antibiotic in the treated barley for chick growth. Leong et al. (1960) conducted experiments with wheat milling fractions (flour, bran, germ, shorts, middlings and wheat millfeed). T h e y showed t h a t water treatment improved the utilization of all milling fractions except flour. These same workers (1962) showed t h a t the metabolizable energy of pearled barley for chicks was increased by water treatment or fungal enzyme supplementation. The present study was undertaken to determine the effect of water and acid
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at University of Manchester on May 21, 2015
T h e best t h a t a grower can hope to do is assemble the best appropriate d a t a and budget the possible alternatives. The grower should recognize t h a t a contractor must have the freedom of determining bird size as m a r k e t conditions warrant change. The contractor will need to vary feed ingredients as ingredient prices vary in order to minimize feed costs per pound of broiler produced. There will be variations in chick quality. Some integrators are now using a cost-of-production contract with p a y m e n t schedules designed to reward the least-cost producers. This procedure permits the contractor to adjust operations without penalizing growers.
NOLES
TREATMENTS
treatments of grain components on chick performance and to study the mechanism of action involved during t h e soaking treatments. EXPERIMENTAL
PROCEDURE
TABLE 1.—Composition oj basal rations Basal Basal ration A ration B
% Ground yellow corn Starch Soybean meal (44% protein) M e a t a n d bone scrap (50% protein) Menhaden fish meal (60% protein) Dried whey product (16% protein) Dehydrated alfalfa meal (17% protein) Defluorinated rock phosphate Ground limestone (95% calcium carbonate) Iodized1 salt Premix
%
57.00
—
29.44 3.00 3.00 2.00 2.00 1.50 1.50 0.50 0.56
42.50 43.49 3.00 3.00 2.00 2.00 1.50 1.50 0.50 0.56
1 Premix supplied the following per kilogram of complete diet: vitamin A, 3,520 I.U.; vitamin Da, 660 I.C.U.; vitamin B12, 13 meg.; vitamin E, 22 I.U.; riboflavin, 44 mg.; calcium pantothenate, 8.8 mg.; niacin, 22 mg.; choline chloride, 550 mg.; oleandomycin, 2.2 mg.; methionine, 500 mg.; and manganese sulfate (70%), 250 mgs.
wheat flour extract), hard and soft varieties of reconstituted wheat (wheat flour, shorts, and wheat bran) and reconstituted corn. T h e grains or by-products were soaked b y treating them with water, 0.1 or 0.2 normal hydrochloric acid solution. T h e feedstuffs were soaked in an equal weight of water or acid solution for 20 hours a t room temperature, dried in shallow trays placed in a forced draft oven at 66°C. and reground in a hammer mill with 0.32 cm. screen before incorporation into t h e diets. Nitrogen retention tests, conducted t o Two basal rations of the corn-soybean type were used (Table 1). I n comparison measure the protein utilization of t h e to basal ration A, the protein level of basal experimental diets b y t h e chicks, were ration B was raised from 22 to 24 percent performed b y the indirect method involvb y increasing the amount of soybean meal. ing an analysis of diet and excreta. Special Soybean meal in basal ration B was in- wire cages holding 4 to 6 birds were placed creased to compensate for the protein re- on battery wire floors. Porcelain trays moved from the basal diet when the corn measuring 30 c m . X 4 5 c m . X 7 j cm. t h a t or wheat was replaced b y corn or wheat fitted conveniently under each cage were starch and to compensate for the increased used as receptacles for the feces. I n order energy content of basal ration B . T h e to prevent the loss of nitrogen to t h e experimental diets were formulated in the atmosphere, 1.5 liters of a 1 normal same manner as the basal rations except solution of sulfuric acid were placed in t h a t the ground corn or starch in the basal each receptacle. At the end of the two-day test period during t h e 4th week of t h e rations was replaced b y an equal weight of treated grains or by-products of corn or trial, the acid mixtures were transferred to wheat. T h e by-products were corn a n d tared gallon jars and weighed. T h e total wheat starches, wheat flour, reconstituted nitrogen excreted was determined b y wheat flour (wheat starch, gluten and mechanically stirring the acid mixture to
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at University of Manchester on May 21, 2015
Day-old sex-linked broiler type chicks bred for rapid growth were used in these experiments. All chicks were wingbanded, weighed a n d distributed a t random in electrically heated, thermostatically controlled b a t t e r y brooders equipped with raised wire floors. T h e chicks received constant lighting and the room in which t h e b a t t e r y brooders were located was heated to provide a minimum temperature of 24°C. Ventilation was provided b y thermostatically controlled exhaust fans. Feed and water was supplied ad libitum. I n dividual chick weight and group feed consumptions were recorded at bi-weekly intervals during the experimental period. Feed efficiency was calculated a t the end of each experiment. Mortality was recorded on the day of occurrence, and only surviving chicks were included in t h e statistical analysis.
923
OF G R A I N S
924
0. L. ADAMS AND E. C. NABER
TABLE 2.—Effect
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Wheat flour and its components (wheat starch, gluten and wheat flour extract) were used to study the effect of physical treatment of the materials on the growth response observed from the water or acid soaking treatments. The results of this experiment (Table 2) show that when untreated wheat flour or wheat starch was present as the major source of energy in the chick diets, growth was significantly depressed. The flour caked in the mouths of the birds and caused the development of crossed beaks. The poor growth ob-
of water and acid treatments of wheat and wheat components on chick performance
Grain components in diet
Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat
lations for metabohzable energy were based on the total feed consumption and total excreta. The combustible energy values were determined with a Parr plain jacket oxygen bomb calorimeter. Data from each experiment was collected and subjected to statistical treatment by the analysis of variance and when a significant difference was detected, a comparison of the mean differences due to treatment was determined by computing the least significant difference, (Snedecor, 1950).
flour flour flour starch starch starch starch plus wheat gluten starch plus wheat gluten starch plus wheat gluten
Experiment l a Treatment Average weight of Feed 4-weeks component conversion (gms.) None Water Acid0 None Water Acid" None Water Acid0
Experiment 2 b Average weight Feed 4-weeks conversion (gms.)
357 482d
2.50 1.81
338
—
377 353
—
2.33 2.12
442 384
—
—
352
2.06
— — —
— — —
451 483 d 478d
1.82 1.79 1.81
—d —
2.53
—
1.83 1.98
—
a Duplicate lots of 14 chicks each per treatment. Basal ration A used. Gluten added in the last 3 treatments to increase crude protein content of ration to that provided by the wheat flour. b Duplicate lots of 11 chicks each per treatment. Basal ration B was used to avoid low protein levels when starches were added. 0 0.1 N H C 1 solution. d Statistically significant at the 5% level of probability.
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form a uniform slurry, from which a sample of approximately 500 ml. was transferred to a Waring blender and completely homogenized, after which a 20 to to 30. ml. aliquot was weighed into a digestion flask, and the nitrogen was then determined by the Kjeldahl method. The individual chick weights and the feed consumption were recorded for the test period. Kjeldahl nitrogen values were also obtained on the samples of feed used. The nitrogen retained by the birds was calculated as the difference between total nitrogen content of the feed consumed and the total nitrogen content of the feces excreted during the test period. Feed and fecal samples collected for the nitrogen balance trials were aJso used in the determination of the metabohzable energy values of the diets in order to test for improvement in energy utilization. The analyses of feed and excreta for moisture, nitrogen and combustible energy were carried out in the manner described by Hill and Anderson (1958). The exceptions were (1) chromic oxide was not used as an indicator and (2) corrections for nitrogen retention were not made. Calcu-
T R E A T M E N T S OF G R A I N S
Increasing the protein level in the starch basal diet to compensate for the protein contributed b y the wheat gluten improved the growth rate on the starch experimental rations (Table 3). Again, water and acid t r e a t m e n t s of the starch component was ineffective in improving the growth rate of the chicks. Grinding or mechanical damage of the starch granules during the milling process probably has the same effect on starch utilization as does the water soaking treatment. Since the starches tested in TABLE 3.—Effect of water and acid treatments of wheat and corn starches on chick performance* Type of stlrch in diet
Treatment of starch
Wheat starch Wheat starch Wheat starch Corn starch Corn starch Corn starch
None Water Acidb None Water Acibb
Ave
™Se g 4 w e e ks , * (gms.) 521 483 492 469 452 470 W
Feed conversion 1.91 1.89 1.90 2.01 1.98 1.91
a Quadruplicate lots of 11 chicks each. Starch substitutions made in basal ration B. b 0.1 N H C 1 solution.
this study were produced from ground grains t h a t had been water treated to remove the starch, it is not too surprising t h a t soaking of corn or wheat starch in water or acid solution was ineffective in improving their nutritive value. This finding was apparent in these studies when the starch was substituted for the corn in the basal diet (equal weight) with or without compensation for the protein loss t h a t occurred when starch was substituted for grain. I n an a t t e m p t to determine whether the growth response obtained from water treatments of grains was due to a specific component of the grain, experiments were designed using ground wheat and reconstituted wheat from both a hard and a soft variety. H a r d and soft wheat and all the products and by-products of flour milling of these wheats were obtained. T h e chemical composition of the starting wheats was reconstituted b y blending the milling products and by-products. This procedure permitted the physical treatment of one or more components of the grain followed b y reconstitution to simulate the original grain prior to dietary incorporation. T h e formulas for reconstitution of the grains supplied b y the manufacturer is shown in Table 4. D a t a presented in Table 5 show t h a t when chicks were fed diets containing soft wheat or reconstituted soft wheat, water t r e a t m e n t of these feedstuffs was not effective in significantly improving the growth of the experimental birds when compared to growth of the chicks fed untreated soft wheat. However, growth was significantly depressed b y the reconstituted soft wheat when the flour was untreated due to beak impaction. On the other hand, water t r e a t m e n t of the ground h a r d wheat and the flour portion of the h a r d wheat significantly improved growth of the chicks. Water t r e a t m e n t of the re-
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served in the birds could probably be attributed to poor feed consumption brought about b y the crossed beaks. T h e growth depression observed in the birds fed the diets containing the starch m a y have been due to the low protein level of these diets. A growth response was observed in the birds fed diets containing the wheat starch plus wheat gluten. Water or acid t r e a t m e n t of the wheat flour, or the wheat starch plus gluten, significantly improved the nutritive value of the components when fed to growing chicks. Neither water nor acid t r e a t m e n t was effective in improving the nutritive value of the starch. T h e results indicate t h a t both the wheat flour and the wheat gluten can be improved b y soaking b u t t h a t starch cannot be improved.
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TABLE 4.—Composition of the reconstituted grains'Grain Reconstituted Soft Wheat Soft wheat flour, straight Soft wheat red dog Soft wheat shorts Soft wheat bran
Percent 73.45 3.68 8.90 13.97 100.00
Total
65.90 3.57 4.20 7.84 18.49 100.00
Total Reconstituted Corn Corn starch Crude corn oil Corn oil meal Corn gluten meal Corn gluten feed Total
69.00 3.81 4.94 6.10 16.15 100.00
a The amount of the various by-products used to reconstitute the grains was determined from figures supplied by the processors of the grain components.
constituted hard wheat improved growth, but the difference was slightly below t h a t required for significance. These findings indicate t h a t the water soaking effect resides primarily in the flour portion of the hard wheat grain. T h e failure of the soft wheat to respond to t r e a t m e n t m a y be TABLE 5.—Effect
of water and acid treatments of ground wheat and wheat components on chick performance11
Type of grain components in basal ration A Soft Soft Soft Soft
wheat wheat wheat, reconstituted wheat, reconstituted
Soft wheat, reconstituted Hard Hard Hard Hard
wheat wheat wheat, reconstituted wheat, reconstituted
Hard wheat, reconstituted a b
Experiments were also undertaken to determine what effect water and acid soaking of grain has on protein and energy utilization b y the chick. Since t h e water or acid t r e a t m e n t effect on growth appeared to reside primarily in the flour fraction of hard wheat, it seemed logical t h a t native starch utilization was being affected b y these treatments. Hence, metabolism tests were conducted to evaluate nitrogen retention and the metabolizable energy value of the diet. The nitrogen retention d a t a presented in Table 6 indicate t h a t the improved
Treatment of components
Average weight 4-weeks (gms.)
Feed conversion
None Water None Water (all components) Water (flour only) None Water None Water (all components) Water (patent flour only)
503 503 395 b
1.94 1.82 2.36
526
1.79
497 466 504^ 440
1.88 2.03 1.76 2.28
491
1.87
Duplicate lots of 12 chicks each per treatment. Statistically significant at the 5 % level of probability.
505
b
1.83
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Reconstituted Hard Wheat Hard wheat patent flour Hard wheat second flour Hard wheat red dog Hard wheat shorts Hard wheat bran
due to its production under higher moisture conditions t h a n those t h a t prevail where hard wheats are grown. An additional experiment was carried out using corn and milling products and by-products of corn. In this study (data not presented) the ground corn did not respond to water, acid or enzyme soaking treatments. T r e a t m e n t by water of the starch component or water t r e a t m e n t of all components in reconstituted corn (Table 4) failed to improve growth of the chicks. Hence, corn and soft wheat failed to respond; b u t hard wheat clearly responded to the physical treatments employed.
TREATMENTS OF GRAINS
SUMMARY
In a series of experiments meat-type chicks were used to study the effect of water or acid treatments of grains and their components on chick growth and TABLE 6.—Effect of water or acid treatment of grains on nitrogen retention of chicks and the metabolizable energy value of the diet* Chicks fed basal ration A with: Response Untreated Water or acid grain treated grain Average gain to 4 weeks (gnis.) Gain during metabolism test (gms.) Total nitrogen ingested (gms.) Fecal nitrogen eliminated (gms.) % nitrogen retention Feed consumed (gms.) Combustible energy value of diet (Kcal./gm.) Energy intake (Kcal.) Feces excreted (gms.) Combustible energy value of feces (Kcal./gm.) Fecal energy output (Kcal.) Caloric retention (Kcal.) % Gross energy retained Metabolizable energy value (Kcal. retained/gm. diet intake)
416 41 38.4 17.0 56.2 1,006
466 b 44 39.2 17.0 56.7°» 1,073
3.98 4,013 460
4.01°s 4,298 446
2.47 1,133 2,880 71.6
2.55 1,122 3,176 73.7b
2.85
2.96b
a Average data from seven trials in which a statistically significant growth response was obtained due to grain treatment with water or acid. b Response due to grain treatment statistically significant at the 5 % level of probability. ns indicates that a statistical analysis revealed no significant differences due to grain treatment.
feed utilization. The results of these experiments indicated that: 1. Water or acid treatment of wheat flour or wheat gluten significantly improved growth rate of chicks while untreated wheat flour depressed growth due to beak impaction that limited feed consumption. 2. Water and acid soaking treatments of commercial corn and wheat starches were not effective in improving growth rate. 3. Soft wheat, probably due to the conditions under which it was grown, did not respond to the water-soaking treatment. On the other hand, significant growth response in chicks was obtained from feeding hard wheat subjected to the water-soaking treatment. 4. The data indicate that the watersoaking effect resides in the flour portion of the hard wheat variety. 5. The results of other experiments indicate that the improved growth response in chicks fed the grains subjected to the water or acid treatments may be attributed to the increased metabolizable energy values of the experimental diets. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Wheat flour, wheat starch and wheat gluten were provided by The Keever Starch Company, Columbus, Ohio. Hard and soft varieties of wheat and their milling products and by-products were supplied by Gwin Brothers and Company, Huntington, West Virginia. Corn starch and other corn milling by-products were furnished by the A. E. Staley Manufacturing Company, Decatur, Illinois. REFERENCES Adams, O. L., and E. C. Naber, 1969. Effect of physical and chemical treatment of grains on growth and feed utilization by the chick. 1. Effect of water and acid treatment of grains on chick performance. Poultry Sci. 48: 853-858. Hill, F. W., and D. L. Anderson, 1958. Comparison
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growth response obtained by feeding chicks diets containing grains subjected to water or acid treatment cannot be attributed to the protein portion of the diet. Since the difference in the percentage of nitrogen retained by chicks fed the basal diets and those fed the experimental diets was not significant, it can be concluded that the utilization of the protein in the two groups was similar. Combustible energy data on diets and feces indicated that the metabolizable energy values of the experimental diets were increased by the water or acid treatment. Thus it appears that the increase in the metabolizable energy value of the experimental diets was responsible for the improved growth response observed in the chicks. This observation is supported by the work of Leong et al. (1962).
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of metabolizable energy and productive energy determinations with growing chicks. J. Nutrition, 64: 587-604. Leong, K. C , L. S. Jensen and J. McGinnis, 1962. Effect of water treatment and enzyme supplementation on the metabolizable energy of barley. Poultry Sci. 41: 36-39. Leong, K. C , L. S. Jensen and J. McGinnis, 1960.
Improvement of feeding value of wheat fractions for poultry. Poultry Sci. 39: 1269. Snedecor, G. W., 1950. Statistical Methods, Fourth Edition, Iowa State College Press, Ames, Iowa. Willingham, H. E., J. McGinnis, F. Nelson and L. S. Jensen, 1960. Relation of superiority of watertreated barley over enzyme supplements to antibiotics. Poultry Sci. 39: 1307.
Effects of Six Single Species of Coccidia on Egg Production and Culling Rate of Susceptible Layers1
(Received for publication October 26, 1968)
I
T IS generally accepted that coccidiosis in susceptible layers causes marked reduction in egg yield. However, there have been few controlled trials demonstrating either the duration of reduced production or the period required for full recovery. Limited observations on effects of different species of coccidia on egg production have been made. Temporary cessation in egg production in hens inoculated with E. acervulina, E. maxima and E. tenella has been reported by Johnson (1932) who also noted a slight decrease in egg production in birds inoculated with E. mitis and E. praecox. Johnson was also the first to report (1933) that fowls unexposed to immunizing coccidia during the rearing period might be affected with disastrous death losses in the laying house. Edgar (1958a) reported that hens kept coccidiosis-free and subsequently inoculated with 1,000,000 oocysts of E. tenella at 6, 12 and 18 months suffered weight loss, cessation of egg production and a 50% mortality. 1
University of Georgia College of Agriculture Experiment Station Journal Series Paper 353, College Station, Athens, Georgia 30601. 2 Department of Parasitology, Veterinary College, University of Agricultural Sciences, Hebbal. Bangalore, India.
Similarly infections induced by three to five million oocysts of E. acervulina at nine and 15 months of age caused a marked drop in egg production but no mortality. Edgar also reported (1958b) a natural outbreak due to E. mitis in which egg production was reduced from 80 to 30%. A few observations are recorded on flock recovery following coccidiosis. A natural outbreak of cecal coccidiosis (Bressler and Gordeuk, 1951) resulting in 8.3% mortality did not deleteriously affect ultimate egg production or hatchability. Peterson (1949) reported a 25% culling rate following infection with E. acervulina. From experimental and field observations Dickinson (1942) reported that pullets after a severe attack of intestinal coccidiosis returned to profitable egg production following recovery. The present study has been undertaken to determine the effects of six different species of coccidia on egg production and culling rate of susceptible layers. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Two successive commercial flocks of 300, one-day-old White Leghorn chicks, were obtained from a local hatchery. The
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K. S. HEGDE 2 AND W. M. REID Department of Poultry Science, University of Georgia, A thens, Georgia 30601