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Emissions from international shipping in the Belgian part of the North Sea and the Belgian seaports
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Atmospheric Environment 42 (2008) 196–206 www.elsevier.com/locate/atmosenv
Emissions from international shipping in the Belgian part of the North Sea and the Belgian seaports Pieter De Meyera,, Frank Maesa, Annemie Volckaertb a
Maritime Institute, Ghent University, Universiteitstraat 6, 9000 Ghent, Belgium b ECOLAS N.V., Ghent, Belgium
Received 29 January 2007; received in revised form 21 June 2007; accepted 27 June 2007
Abstract The objective of this study is to estimate the atmospheric emissions by international merchant shipping of carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) during 1 year in the Belgian part of the North Sea, including the four Belgian seaports: Antwerp, Ghent, Ostend and Zeebrugge. The estimated emissions are based on a bottom-up, activity-based methodology (Group 1), covering more than 90% of shipping activity, complemented with a top-down fuel consumption methodology for the remaining activities. In total, an estimate of 1880 kton CO2, 31 kton SO2 and 39 kton NOX is emitted over the period April 2003 until March 2004. Compared to national inventories (2003 data) this accounts to 1.5% for CO2, 30% for SO2 and 22% for NOX of total emissions of these gases in Belgium. When the CO2 figure is compared with the current estimate of CO2 emissions from international shipping, based on sold bunker fuels (22 754 kton CO2), the relevance of a detailed and precise emission inventory becomes clear. In the end, the Belgian estimates are validated by comparing them with Dutch, EU and international emission estimates. r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: International shipping; Atmospheric emissions; Belgium; Carbon dioxide; Sulphur dioxide; Nitrogen oxides
1. Introduction This article describes the methodology and results for estimating the atmospheric emissions of international shipping for carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) in the Belgian part of the North Sea (BPNS)1 and the four Corresponding author. Tel.: +32 9 264 84 41; fax: +32 9 264 69 89. E-mail address: [email protected] (P. De Meyer). 1 The Belgian part of the North Sea consists of the territorial sea and the exclusive economic zone, excluding the Noordhinder traffic separation scheme for vessels in transit in the exclusive economic zone without calling at a Belgian port.
1352-2310/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.06.059
sea ports: Antwerp, Ghent, Ostend and Zeebrugge. This exercise has resulted in a model that can be used to produce annual inventories of international shipping emissions for Belgium (Maes et al., 2007). The research was done to give a better insight in emission inventories on a national scale, as opposed to most work being done at global or regional level (Endresen et al., 2003; Corbett and Koehler, 2003; Whall et al., 2002; Stavrakaki et al., 2005; Cofala et al., 2006). CO2 emissions of international shipping are not officially reported in national inventories for reporting to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC); they are
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just mentioned as information. For the moment, these estimates are based on sold bunker fuels (in Belgium: 22 754 kton CO2—UNFCCC, 2006). While it is reasonable to say that this is not the amount of CO2 being emitted in the BPNS and Belgian ports, no exact figures have been available until now. The figures presented in this article indicate that the current practice leads to an overestimation of CO2 shipping emissions. For SO2 and NOX emissions from marine fuels, the same situation occurs: no specific data for Belgium was available. On an EU level, methods are being developed to incorporate SO2 and NOX emissions into national reporting and inventories (Cofala et al., 2006). Parallel matters are also developed in the framework of MARPOL Annex VI and in the field of the NEC (National Emissions Ceilings) Directive (2001/81/EC). Having precise emission data will contribute to the discussion in this field and will allow for a science-based discussion on the allocation of emission rights for these substances. For CO2, the results can contribute as a possible baseline to future discussions and decisions in case emissions of marine bunker fuels will be attributed to national parties under the UNFCCC framework. For the moment, IMO is charged by the UNFCCC to develop a system to include emissions from ship’s bunker fuels in national inventories (UNFCCC, 1996, 2005; IMO, 2003). For SO2 and NOX the results contribute to ongoing discussions in the framework of MARPOL Annex VI, the Convention on Long Rang Transboundary Air Pollutants and the EU directive on sulphur content of marine fuels (2003/33/EC) and the NEC directive, regulating nitrogen emissions in the EU. Often, this kind of research is being done on a wider geographical scale. Although, with the forecasted inclusion of international shipping emissions in national inventories and the possible impact of shipping emissions on long range and local air pollution it is a challenge to estimate atmospheric shipping emissions in a precise way. Because of the limited geographical scope it is possible to take into account the specific situation of Belgium and produce more accurate figures. Taking a smaller geographical area allows for further detail, while at the same time some limitations are identified that should be easy to deal with. This research paper presents estimated emissions of international shipping for Belgium and identifies some elements for improvement that will allow
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producing a clearer picture in the future. By finetuning this model to local circumstances, it can also be used for similar exercises in other countries or broader geographical areas. 1.1. Study area: the Belgian part of the North Sea, the four sea ports and international shipping The study area is categorised into areas according to primordial criteria for emission calculation. Three areas are specified: (1) the BPNS; (2) port areas, represented by the four largest Belgian seaports and traffic to the ports on Belgian land territory; and (3) anchorage areas. These areas are shown in Fig. 1. The second phase identifies per area several types of activities, like: (1) cruising; (2) anchoring; (3) manoeuvring; (4) hauling; and (5) mooring. The total sea area of the BPNS is estimated at 3600 square kilometres. The port areas include Ghent and Antwerp (situated inland) and Ostend and Zeebrugge (marked on Fig. 1). Within the route system, one anchorage zone is established south of the Westhinder Bank, named Westhinder anchorage. It is situated near Wandelaar pilot station and receives vessels waiting to enter the final lap to their destination. The target group is merchant shipping and the emissions are estimated for a 1 year period (April 2003–March 2004). The vessels considered are commercial vessels on international routes2 that pass the BPNS on their way to visit one of the four sea ports and on their way back into the North Sea,3 complemented with emissions from Belgian fishery vessels in Belgian territorial sea and exclusive economic zone, and the domestic emissions of dredgers and tug-boats, as these are active on a national level. Due to the small fleet size of Belgian governmental vessels (except tug boats) and the negligible amount of coasters and the related problem of getting reliable data, these emissions are exempted. The group is split into 15 different vessel types (see Table 1). Emissions of liquid natural gas (LNG) tankers are estimated differently because of the specific engine characteristics. For some ferries, a 2 An international voyage means a voyage between a port in one country and a port in another country (SOLAS Convention). 3 Part of the voyage from the North Sea to the port of Antwerp passes through the river Scheldt and over Dutch territory. This part is not taken into account when estimating the emissions.
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Fig. 1. Belgian part of the North Sea.
different identification system is used. While most emissions are calculated according to an activity-based bottom-up approach (Group 1), emissions of dredgers and tugboats (Group 2) are calculated according to a top-down approach. The reason is that dredgers and tugboats are only active within the BPNS, so all exhaust gases of the consumed fuel are emitted in that area; while for the other vessels it is more complicated to determine the precise fuel consumption in the BPNS. That is the reason why an activity-based model to estimate fuel consumption and related emission figures was designed for Group 1. 1.2. Registered vessels Vessels are registered by radar (IVS-SRK4). Due to the limitations of the radar chain, the covered area 4
IVS-SRK stands for the Information Processing System for the Scheldt Radar Chain. This is a bilateral organisation
for the reference period is limited to the territorial sea, meaning that only vessels visiting one of the four sea ports could be taken into account. This means that vessels (and their relative emissions) transiting the Belgian exclusive economic zone through the Noordhinder TSS, situated North in the Belgian North Sea area, could not be included (see Fig. 1). 1.2.1. LNG vessels In the BPNS two LNG vessels are frequently sailing to Zeebrugge. During the study period, those two vessels performed 99 voyages. These LNG vessels use their cargo boil off (natural gas) instead of traditional marine fuel types for propulsion purposes. This implies that LNG (footnote continued) responsible for the operation and maintenance of the radar installation covering the Scheldt estuary. This also covers the Belgian part of the North Sea under consideration.
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vessels consume a ‘clean’ fuel with regards to emissions of NOX and SO2. During the 53rd Maritime Environment Protection Committee meeting (IMO, 2005b) of IMO, Admiral Robert C. North (Marshall Islands) presented emission calculations of one LNG tanker and 30 oil tankers based on the actual fuel they consumed and on actual voyage data. Among other results, the data shows that the use of boil off on LNG tankers gives a very high CO2 index: three to four times higher than oil tankers with combustion engines for propulsion (IMO, 2005a).Taking this into account, emissions of LNG tankers are estimated with the standard activity-based model for gas carriers, as presented in this paper, with the end results for CO2 emissions multiplied by a factor 3.5 and setting the NOX and SO2 emissions to zero. 1.2.2. Ferries Because the ferry lines sailing to and from Ostend are not registered in IVS-SRK, the number of voyages and sailing time are calculated according to the time tables from the ferry operators. As these are regular voyages, the data are considered to be accurate and relevant for use. Ferries are, depending on their use, classified under RoRo or RoRo cargo. 1.3. The activity-based model (Group 1) The estimated emissions are calculated according to the following formula: E ¼ At IP LF/ CF EF. This is an expansion and a more specific interpretation of the basic formula: energy use (At IP LF/CF) emission factor. Emissions [E (g)] are estimated by multiplying the activity time [At (h)] by the installed engine power [IP (kW)] and the load factor [LF (%)], divided by a correction factor [CF] and finally multiplied by a specific emission factor [EF (g kWh1)] for each of the exhaust gasses and different activities. The emission factors are taken from ENTEC (Whall et al., 2002). Assumptions on engine and fuel type are this way the same as ENTEC has applied in its 2002 study (Whall et al., 2002). Considering the specificity of the vessel types and activity, emissions are estimated separately for activities at sea (sailing/at anchor) and in port (at berth/manoeuvring/hauling) per vessel type. At the end, the figures are presented in kton. The only parameter that stays constant, for both sea and port operations is the installed engine power. For the model, average installed engine
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power per vessel type is determined via a randomised sample of one hundred vessels per vessel type, both for main as for auxiliary engines (AEs). The randomised method and the number of one hundred vessels is considered to represent a realistic average engine power figure. Where for main engines (MEs) Lloyd’s Register of Ships covers 98% of the vessels, for AEs this was only 19% on average. Therefore, the installed auxiliary power was extrapolated from the data for auxiliary generators (48% coverage in the Register of Ships). The power of the auxiliary generators is estimated on an average of 83% of the AE power and this way the average installed auxiliary power per vessel type is determined. The load factor and correction factor are used to adjust the ENTEC emission factors to the specific situation in the BPNS and the ports. The load factor compensates for the specific activity of the vessel. This implies that the main or AEs are not always running on optimal capacity (80% maximum continuous rate (MCR)). For the ME the load factor will depend on the specific activity. For the AE, load factors vary per vessel type: container vessels use AEs for powering refrigerated containers, while RoRo vessels use more auxiliary power for venting the cargo bay. The load factors are mentioned in Table 4. These figures have been compared to the ones used by ENTEC (Whall et al., 2002) and adjusted according to expert’s advice (pilots, harbour masters, Antwerp Maritime Academy). The correction factor compensates for the loss of efficiency at reduced load: for 2-stroke engines this is considered at 8% (0.92), for 4-stroke engines this is 12% (0.88). While the relationship between load and efficiency is not exactly linear, to facilitate the model these factors are applied in a linear way upon expert advice (Cappoen, 2006). The emission factors are taken from the ENTEC study (Whall et al., 2002), as these are the most recent and detailed figures available. 1.3.1. Fishery For emissions by fishery vessels the same approach was applied (Goerlandt, 2006). 1.4. Group 2 top-down approach For dredgers and tugboats in operational condition (dredging or towing) the fuel consumption data from operators and contractors is used. Fuel consumption multiplied with a specific emission factor results in a figure for emissions of that specific
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gas (see Table 2). When dredgers or tugboats are sailing in non-operational condition, they are registered by IVS-SRK and are considered as Group 1. This implies that for non-operational conditions, again, the bottom-up approach is applied. 1.5. Emissions at sea 1.5.1. Sailing Activity times (At) for sailing at sea are calculated by adding the distance of the separate route segments together and by multiplying this figure with an average speed value per vessel type. The average speed values are taken from the ENTEC study (Table 3). See Fig. 1 for the different route segments that make up the shipping lanes that vessels follow to navigate safely in the BPNS. These lanes are fixed lanes and allow to accurately determine the distance from entering the BPNS to one of the four sea ports. This data also allows plotting the dispersion of emissions for NOX, SO2 and CO2 in the BPNS, resulting in a geographical distribution of the different emissions (see Figs. 2–4). Per vessel type, the number of individual vessel passages is extracted from the IVS-SRK database for each route segment and multiplied with the average speed value. 1.5.2. Anchorage For the anchorage zone (Westhinder) in the BPNS, the anchorage times are taken from IVSSRK and the emission estimates are calculated using the same emission and load factors as for activities at berth. The results are added to the sea emissions (Table 5). 1.6. Port emissions For port emissions different load factors (LF) are applied depending on the relevant activity. In port, there are three different activities of which the former two are comparable: hauling, manoeuvring and being at berth. Because of the limited quality and availability of port data from the port authorities only average hauling, manoeuvring and berthing time per vessel type is determined. Average activity times are more functional for the model as they can be considered to be relevant for some time; this way, these average times can be used for consecutive years. It seems appropriate to do this
every 5 years. Average times also compensate for possible errors in the database registration, by compensating for extreme high or low values. This is done for each individual port because of their different designs. The data is retrieved from the port databases and for Antwerp and Ghent complemented with data from IVS-SRK. Times are calculated, based on three sample months (November, January and April) and afterwards extrapolated for a whole year. 1.6.1. Manoeuvring– hauling Manoeuvring is considered as entering or leaving the port, while hauling is considered as moving the vessel inside the port from one berth to another. Despite the similarity between manoeuvring and hauling times, they have initially been considered separately because not every ship that manoeuvres into port will also haul to a different quay. Further, both activities have the same characteristics: they use variable engine loads and for both activities emissions factors for manoeuvring activities are applied as taken from the ENTEC study (Whall et al., 2002). This will be important and allows determining an average hauling time per vessel type, even if not all vessels haul. In total, hauling only corresponds with 7.4% of total manoeuvring time. For the final calculations, manoeuvring and hauling times are summed up. 1.6.2. At berth At berth, most vessels switch off the ME except for oil tankers and RoPax vessels. This is because oil tankers use MEs to power discharge and loading pumps; RoPax vessels use extra power to ventilate and keep general electrical services running while passengers and cargo are embarking/disembarking. In the end, time values are put into the formula together with the installed power, emission, load and correction factors to result in estimated port emissions for each activity and brought together to result in total port emissions. 2. Results Adding Group 1 sea and port emissions together with Group 2 emissions results in total estimated atmospheric emissions in the BPNS and the Belgian seaports. The sea emissions have also been plotted over the BPNS (Figs. 2–4, Tables 2, 5–7). Ro/Ro cargo, container and Ro/Ro vessels are the main contributors: together they represent more
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Fig. 2. NOX emission dispersion in the Belgian part of the North Sea.
than 60% of the atmospheric emissions (62% for CO2; 62% for SO2 and 66% for NOX). The high share of emissions by container vessels is remarkable despite only representing 14% of all entries in the IVS-SRK system as opposed to Ro/Ro cargo vessels at 26%; this is due to the high installed power levels of container vessels. On the other hand general cargo vessels represent about 26% of all entries but produce only about 8% of all emissions; this ship type largely consists of smaller and less powerful vessels (see Tables 1 and 7). Clearly, installed engine power is a primordial factor influencing the emissions of vessel types.
When comparing sea and port emissions, the share of port emissions seems to be relatively high (38% for NOX, 47% for SO2 and 46% for CO2 of total emissions) (Table 5). The fact that only vessels calling on Belgian ports are included in the estimations and that they only have to cross a small part of the BPNS to arrive in port, explains the high contribution of port emissions. 3. Conclusions/discussion/recommendations This research has faced the challenge of estimating atmospheric emissions for a precise geographical
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Fig. 3. SO2 emissions dispersion in the Belgian part of the North Sea.
area: the BPNS. By using a bottom-up activitybased model, the results are more realistic and justifiable than the rough estimates that are based upon sold bunker fuels. This was an interesting exercise as this has never been done before for Belgium. During the research some difficulties were encountered in relation to obtaining reliable data and determining precise emission factors. Some of these problems (e.g. geographical coverage, ship’s registration) will be solved automatically in the future by using AIS data, others need to be tackled as soon as possible (e.g. emission factors, speed
values). This will allow fine tuning the current methodology and coming up with even more precise estimations. With total CO2 emissions for Belgium in 2003 of 126 331 kton (Anon., 2006) the estimate of shipping emissions (1 880 kton) accounts for about 1.5% of total Belgian CO2 emissions. If this figure is compared to the official 2003 estimate, based on sold bunker fuels in Belgium (22 754 kton CO2— 18%) (UNFCCC, 2006) the significance of a more detailed and precise estimation method becomes clear. SO2 estimates from shipping account for 30% of total emissions (101 kton) in 2003, while NOX
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Fig. 4. CO2 emissions dispersion in the Belgian part of the North Sea.
emissions represent 22% compared to total emissions (174 kton, expressed in NO2) in 2003 (Anon., 2004). As a result of the current limitation of the radar VTS (IVS-SRK) the research was limited to the BPNS. From July 2006 onwards, an automatic identification system (AIS)5 is installed to additionally track vessels in transit in the Noordhinder traffic separation scheme.
5
As required by the SOLAS Convention.
Further fine tuning of the emission factors could also allow for more reliable estimations to be reached. In this study, the ENTEC (Whall et al., 2002/Stavrakaki et al., 2005) emission factors were applied. The problem is that these do not allow differentiating for main and AEs. More exact emission factors should be taken into account for future estimations. The same is valid for exact speed values per vessel instead of average speed values. It is also interesting to put the Belgium emission estimates into an international perspective. First,
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Table 1 Calls on the Belgian sea ports and travelled sea distance per vessel types Vessel type
# of calls
% of total
Travelled sea distance (M)
% of total
Oil tankers Chemical tankers Gas carriers Ro/Ro cargo Dry bulk carriers General cargo Containers Passenger RoPax Reefers Other dry cargo LNG Fishery Tugboats Dredgers Total
1045 2398 1019 7660 1094 7683 3810 64 3228 825 49 99 n.a. n.a. n.a. 28 974
3.61 8.28 3.52 26.44 3.78 26.52 13.15 0.22 11.14 2.85 0.17 0.34 – – – 100
48 394.51 131 968.80 78 942.04 653 018.70 94 623.81 359 372.70 263 223.20 3944.81 173 824.60 67 820.10 20 852.16 6379.56 n.a. n.a. n.a. 1 902 365.02
2.54 6.94 4.15 34.33 4.97 18.89 13.84 0.21 9.14 3.57 1.10 0.34 – – – 100
n.a.: not available.
Table 2 Group 2 total estimated atmospheric emissions in the BPNS, including the seaports (kton year1) Vessel type
NOX
SO2
CO2
Tugboats Dredgers Total
0.655 0.961 1.646
0.696 1.059 1.755
43.392 62.392 105.784
the Dutch estimated emissions (Hulskotte et al., 2003a–c) result in 4801 kton CO2, 68 kton SO2 and 118 kton NOX for the year 2000–2001; these are the total emissions of international shipping at sea, manoeuvring and at berth in port. When considering that the Belgian emissions only represent emissions in the BPNS and taking the much larger sea area of the Dutch part of the North Sea into account, the comparison is reasonable. When comparing with ENTEC figures (Stavrakaki et al., 2005) it is important to only look at sea emissions, as ENTEC does not take port emissions into account (Table 5). Our estimates for Belgium emissions at sea account for 1009 kton CO2, 16 kton SO2 and 24 kton NOX (for 2003–2004) and the ENTEC figures for 2000 are: 990 kton (CO2), 13 kton (SO2) and 20 kton (NOX). This is all within expectable limits even when taking the different reference periods into account.
Table 3 Speed values and installed engine power (ME-AE) per vessel type Average installed ME power (kW)b
Average installed AE power (kW)b
Vessel type
Average speed @ sea (Kn)a
Oil tankers Chemical tankers Gas carriers Ro/Ro cargo Dry bulk carriers General cargo Containers Passenger RoPax Reefers Other dry cargo LNG
14.0 13.7
7390 3959
1810 1502
16.8 15.4 14.3
4534 10140 8830
1880 2257 1964
12.3
3097
1024
19.3 20.8 15.3 16.9 13.5
23376 18628 15056 10150 3824
4768 3320 4760 3888 1003
16.8
4534
1880
a
Source: Whall et al., 2002. Source: Llyod’s Register of Ships.
b
Finally, a comparison with international figures by Eyring et al. (2005), who estimates global international sea emissions for CO2 in 2001 at about 812 630 kton allows for an appreciation of the Belgian emissions in an international context. In this comparison, again, only sea emissions are taken into account. Taking the total European CO2
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Table 4 Load factors per vessel type (ME ¼ main engine/AE ¼ auxiliary engine) and activity Vessel type
Oil tankers Chemical tankers Gas carriers Ro/Ro cargo Dry bulk carriers General cargo Containers Passenger RoPax Reefers Other dry cargo LNG
@ Sea
@ Anchor
Manoeuvring
@ Berth
ME (%)
AE (%)
ME (%)
AE (%)
ME (%)
AE (%)
ME (%)
AE (%)
80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80
30 30 60 30 30 30 50 70 70 60 30 60
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
30 30 60 30 30 30 50 70 70 60 30 60
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
40 40 70 40 40 40 60 75 75 70 40 70
20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0
60 60 70 70 10 10 20 60 70 10 10 70
Table 5 Group 1 estimated atmospheric emissions in the Belgian part of the North Sea (kton year1)
Table 6 Group 1 estimated atmospheric emissions in the Belgian seaports (kton year1)
Vessel type
NOX
SO2
CO2
Vessel type
NOX
SO2
CO2
Oil tankers Chemical tankers Gas carriers Ro/Ro cargo Dry bulk carriers General cargo Containers Passenger RoPax Reefers Other dry cargo LNG Fishery Tugboats Dredgers Total
0.447 0.805 0.298 7.390 1.276 1.708 8.008 0.078 2.449 1.013 0.076 0 0.191 0.018 0.274 24.030
0.351 0.537 0.434 5.305 0.756 1.142 4.896 0.069 1.804 0.623 0.089 0 0.013 0.014 0.222 16.255
20.660 31.655 28.773 312.172 44.495 67.466 288.745 4.115 126.307 36.752 5.214 17.854 10.500 0.868 13.097 1008.672
Oil tankers Chemical tankers Gas carriers Ro/Ro cargo Dry bulk carriers General cargo Containers Passenger RoPax Reefers Other dry cargo LNG Fishery Total
1.247 1.465 0.411 3.362 0.562 1.274 2.815 0.025 1.512 0.564 0.007 0 0 13.244
1.320 1.333 0.738 3.205 0.475 1.163 2.425 0.028 1.503 0.488 0.009 0 0 12.687
77.771 78.233 48.662 188.444 27.945 68.741 142.665 1.652 100.629 28.808 0.528 1.580 0 765.658
emissions at sea from ENTEC (Stavrakaki et al., 2005) of 120 640 kton and the relative share of Belgian sea emissions in European emissions (0.83%), the Belgian sea emissions account for about 0.12% of the global figure, which would results in 975 kton CO2. This figure is in line with the assumptions made here (1009 kton CO2). For SO2 the Belgian share of worldwide SO2 shipping emissions should be 0.20%, resulting in 24 kton SO2 and for NOX the Belgian share should account for 0.17%, leading to 36 kton NOX. Both
figures give an overestimation of about 50%, compared to presented results (16 kton SO2 and 24 kton NOX). While the results seem to indicate an underestimation compared to worldwide figures, the results are within acceptable limits and confirm the trend. When using this model for other geographical locations some factors will need to be adapted to the specific circumstances. This means that load factors need to be adjusted and when taking port activities into account, separate calculations will be necessary for determining specific average port activity times.
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Table 7 Total estimated atmospheric emissions in the Belgian part of the North Sea and the Belgian seaports (kton year1) (Groups 1 and 2) Vessel type
NOX
SO2
CO2
Oil tankers Chemical tankers Gas carriers Ro/Ro cargo Dry bulk carriers General cargo Containers Passenger RoPax Reefers Other dry cargo LNG Fishery Tugboats Dredgers Total
1.693 2.270 0.709 10.752 1.838 2.981 10.823 0.103 3.961 1.577 0.083 0 0.191 0.673 1.236 38.890
1.671 1.870 1.172 8.511 1.231 2.304 7.321 0.097 3.307 1.111 0.098 0 0.013 0.710 1.281 30.697
98.431 109.888 77.436 500.615 72.441 136.206 431.410 5.767 226.936 65.560 5.742 19.434 10.500 44.260 75.489 1880.115
Acknowledgments This work has been supported by the Belgian Science Policy (BELSPO) and has been executed together with Jesse Coene (Maritime Institute), Dr. Bart De Wachter and Ir. Dirk Leroy (ECOLAS N.V.) and Prof. Dr. Jean-Pascal Van Ypersele de Strihou (UCL-ASTR). Further, the authors wish to thank the valuable contributions that have been received from a user-committee that was set up in the framework of the BELSPO project and from the advice from seafarers, pilots and the Antwerp Maritime Academy. Special thanks go out to ir. Leo Cappoen. References Anon., 2004. Lozingen in de lucht 1990–2004. Vlaamse Milieumaatschappij (VMM), Aalst. 196pp+annexes. Anon., 2006. Belgium’s Fourth National Communication under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Federal Public Service Health, Food Chain Safety and Environment. Brussels, 138pp. Cappoen, L., 2006. Senior advisor, Exmar N.V., Expert advice. Cofala, J., Amann, M., Heyes, Ch., Klimont, Z., Posch, M., Scho¨pp, W., Tarasson, L., Jonson, J.E., Whall, Ch.,
Stavrakaki, A., 2006. Analysis of policy measures to reduce ship emissions in the context of the revision of the National Emissions Ceiling Directive. Interim report for the European Commission (DG Environment). Corbett, J.J., Koehler, H.W., 2003. Updated emissions from ocean shipping. Journal of Geophysical Research 108 (D20), 4650. Endresen, O., Sorgard, E., Sundet, J.K., Dalsoren, S.B., Isaksen, I.S.A., Berglen, T.F., Gravir, G., 2003. Emission from sea transportation and environmental impact. Journal of Geophysical Research 108, 4650. Eyring, V., Ko¨hler, H.W., Van Aardenne, J., Lauer, A., 2005. Emissions from international shipping: 1. The last 50 years. Journal of Geophysical Research 110, D17305. Goerlandt, J., 2006. The Belgian fishing fleet’s emissions of CO2, SOx, NOx and other substances. University of Antwerp, Ghent University—Master in Maritime Science Programme. Hulskotte, J., Bolt, E., Broekhuizen, D., 2003a. EMS-protocol Verbrandingsemissies door stilliggende zeeschepen in havens. RWS, Rotterdam, 21pp. Hulskotte, J., Bolt, E., Broekhuizen, D., 2003b. EMS-protocol Emissies door verbrandingsmotoren van zeeschepen op het Nederlands continentaal plat. RWS, Rotterdam, 23pp. Hulskotte, J., Bolt, E., Broekhuizen, D., 2003c. EMS-protocol Emmissies door verbrandingsmotoren van varende en manoeuvrerende zeeschepen op het Nederlands grondgebied. RWS, Rotterdam, 42pp. IMO, 2003. Policies and practices related to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from ships (resolution A.963(23)). IMO, 2005a. Interim guidelines for voluntary ship CO2 emission indexing for use in trials (MEPC/Circ.471). IMO, 2005b. Report of the one-day technical workshop on GHG indexing scheme held at IMO headquarters (MEPC 53/WP.3). Maes, F., Coene, J., Goerlandt, F., De Meyer, P., Volckaert, A., Le Roy, D., Van Ypersele, J.P., Marbaix, Ph., 2007. ‘Emissions from CO2, SO2 and NOx from ships—ECOSONOS’. Research in the framework of the BELSPO Global Change, Ecosystems and Biodiversity—SPSD II, Brussels. Stavrakaki, A., De Jong, E., Hugi, C., Whall, C., Will, M., Ritchie, A., McIntyre, A., 2005. Ship emissions: assignement, abatement and market-based instruments. Final Report for the European Commission, DG Environment. UNFCCC, 1996. Allocation and control of international bunker fuels (SBSTA/1996/9/Add.1, Add.2). UNFCCC, 2005. Information on greenhouse gas emissions from international aviation and maritime transport, SBSTA/2005/ INF.2. UNFCCC, 2006. Common Reporting Format for Belgium—data for 2003. (Available on: /http://unfccc.int/national_reports/ annex_i_ghg_inventories/national_inventories_submissions/ items/3734.phpS). Whall, C., Cooper, D., Archer, K., Twigger, L., Thurston, N., Ockwell, D., McIntyre, A., Ritchie, A., 2002. Quantification of emissions from ships associated with ship movements between ports in the European Community. Final Report for the European Commission, DG Environment.
Atmospheric Environment 42 (2008) 196–206 www.elsevier.com/locate/atmosenv
Emissions from international shipping in the Belgian part of the North Sea and the Belgian seaports Pieter De Meyera,, Frank Maesa, Annemie Volckaertb a
Maritime Institute, Ghent University, Universiteitstraat 6, 9000 Ghent, Belgium b ECOLAS N.V., Ghent, Belgium
Received 29 January 2007; received in revised form 21 June 2007; accepted 27 June 2007
Abstract The objective of this study is to estimate the atmospheric emissions by international merchant shipping of carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) during 1 year in the Belgian part of the North Sea, including the four Belgian seaports: Antwerp, Ghent, Ostend and Zeebrugge. The estimated emissions are based on a bottom-up, activity-based methodology (Group 1), covering more than 90% of shipping activity, complemented with a top-down fuel consumption methodology for the remaining activities. In total, an estimate of 1880 kton CO2, 31 kton SO2 and 39 kton NOX is emitted over the period April 2003 until March 2004. Compared to national inventories (2003 data) this accounts to 1.5% for CO2, 30% for SO2 and 22% for NOX of total emissions of these gases in Belgium. When the CO2 figure is compared with the current estimate of CO2 emissions from international shipping, based on sold bunker fuels (22 754 kton CO2), the relevance of a detailed and precise emission inventory becomes clear. In the end, the Belgian estimates are validated by comparing them with Dutch, EU and international emission estimates. r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: International shipping; Atmospheric emissions; Belgium; Carbon dioxide; Sulphur dioxide; Nitrogen oxides
1. Introduction This article describes the methodology and results for estimating the atmospheric emissions of international shipping for carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) in the Belgian part of the North Sea (BPNS)1 and the four Corresponding author. Tel.: +32 9 264 84 41; fax: +32 9 264 69 89. E-mail address: [email protected] (P. De Meyer). 1 The Belgian part of the North Sea consists of the territorial sea and the exclusive economic zone, excluding the Noordhinder traffic separation scheme for vessels in transit in the exclusive economic zone without calling at a Belgian port.
1352-2310/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.06.059
sea ports: Antwerp, Ghent, Ostend and Zeebrugge. This exercise has resulted in a model that can be used to produce annual inventories of international shipping emissions for Belgium (Maes et al., 2007). The research was done to give a better insight in emission inventories on a national scale, as opposed to most work being done at global or regional level (Endresen et al., 2003; Corbett and Koehler, 2003; Whall et al., 2002; Stavrakaki et al., 2005; Cofala et al., 2006). CO2 emissions of international shipping are not officially reported in national inventories for reporting to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC); they are
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just mentioned as information. For the moment, these estimates are based on sold bunker fuels (in Belgium: 22 754 kton CO2—UNFCCC, 2006). While it is reasonable to say that this is not the amount of CO2 being emitted in the BPNS and Belgian ports, no exact figures have been available until now. The figures presented in this article indicate that the current practice leads to an overestimation of CO2 shipping emissions. For SO2 and NOX emissions from marine fuels, the same situation occurs: no specific data for Belgium was available. On an EU level, methods are being developed to incorporate SO2 and NOX emissions into national reporting and inventories (Cofala et al., 2006). Parallel matters are also developed in the framework of MARPOL Annex VI and in the field of the NEC (National Emissions Ceilings) Directive (2001/81/EC). Having precise emission data will contribute to the discussion in this field and will allow for a science-based discussion on the allocation of emission rights for these substances. For CO2, the results can contribute as a possible baseline to future discussions and decisions in case emissions of marine bunker fuels will be attributed to national parties under the UNFCCC framework. For the moment, IMO is charged by the UNFCCC to develop a system to include emissions from ship’s bunker fuels in national inventories (UNFCCC, 1996, 2005; IMO, 2003). For SO2 and NOX the results contribute to ongoing discussions in the framework of MARPOL Annex VI, the Convention on Long Rang Transboundary Air Pollutants and the EU directive on sulphur content of marine fuels (2003/33/EC) and the NEC directive, regulating nitrogen emissions in the EU. Often, this kind of research is being done on a wider geographical scale. Although, with the forecasted inclusion of international shipping emissions in national inventories and the possible impact of shipping emissions on long range and local air pollution it is a challenge to estimate atmospheric shipping emissions in a precise way. Because of the limited geographical scope it is possible to take into account the specific situation of Belgium and produce more accurate figures. Taking a smaller geographical area allows for further detail, while at the same time some limitations are identified that should be easy to deal with. This research paper presents estimated emissions of international shipping for Belgium and identifies some elements for improvement that will allow
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producing a clearer picture in the future. By finetuning this model to local circumstances, it can also be used for similar exercises in other countries or broader geographical areas. 1.1. Study area: the Belgian part of the North Sea, the four sea ports and international shipping The study area is categorised into areas according to primordial criteria for emission calculation. Three areas are specified: (1) the BPNS; (2) port areas, represented by the four largest Belgian seaports and traffic to the ports on Belgian land territory; and (3) anchorage areas. These areas are shown in Fig. 1. The second phase identifies per area several types of activities, like: (1) cruising; (2) anchoring; (3) manoeuvring; (4) hauling; and (5) mooring. The total sea area of the BPNS is estimated at 3600 square kilometres. The port areas include Ghent and Antwerp (situated inland) and Ostend and Zeebrugge (marked on Fig. 1). Within the route system, one anchorage zone is established south of the Westhinder Bank, named Westhinder anchorage. It is situated near Wandelaar pilot station and receives vessels waiting to enter the final lap to their destination. The target group is merchant shipping and the emissions are estimated for a 1 year period (April 2003–March 2004). The vessels considered are commercial vessels on international routes2 that pass the BPNS on their way to visit one of the four sea ports and on their way back into the North Sea,3 complemented with emissions from Belgian fishery vessels in Belgian territorial sea and exclusive economic zone, and the domestic emissions of dredgers and tug-boats, as these are active on a national level. Due to the small fleet size of Belgian governmental vessels (except tug boats) and the negligible amount of coasters and the related problem of getting reliable data, these emissions are exempted. The group is split into 15 different vessel types (see Table 1). Emissions of liquid natural gas (LNG) tankers are estimated differently because of the specific engine characteristics. For some ferries, a 2 An international voyage means a voyage between a port in one country and a port in another country (SOLAS Convention). 3 Part of the voyage from the North Sea to the port of Antwerp passes through the river Scheldt and over Dutch territory. This part is not taken into account when estimating the emissions.
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Fig. 1. Belgian part of the North Sea.
different identification system is used. While most emissions are calculated according to an activity-based bottom-up approach (Group 1), emissions of dredgers and tugboats (Group 2) are calculated according to a top-down approach. The reason is that dredgers and tugboats are only active within the BPNS, so all exhaust gases of the consumed fuel are emitted in that area; while for the other vessels it is more complicated to determine the precise fuel consumption in the BPNS. That is the reason why an activity-based model to estimate fuel consumption and related emission figures was designed for Group 1. 1.2. Registered vessels Vessels are registered by radar (IVS-SRK4). Due to the limitations of the radar chain, the covered area 4
IVS-SRK stands for the Information Processing System for the Scheldt Radar Chain. This is a bilateral organisation
for the reference period is limited to the territorial sea, meaning that only vessels visiting one of the four sea ports could be taken into account. This means that vessels (and their relative emissions) transiting the Belgian exclusive economic zone through the Noordhinder TSS, situated North in the Belgian North Sea area, could not be included (see Fig. 1). 1.2.1. LNG vessels In the BPNS two LNG vessels are frequently sailing to Zeebrugge. During the study period, those two vessels performed 99 voyages. These LNG vessels use their cargo boil off (natural gas) instead of traditional marine fuel types for propulsion purposes. This implies that LNG (footnote continued) responsible for the operation and maintenance of the radar installation covering the Scheldt estuary. This also covers the Belgian part of the North Sea under consideration.
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vessels consume a ‘clean’ fuel with regards to emissions of NOX and SO2. During the 53rd Maritime Environment Protection Committee meeting (IMO, 2005b) of IMO, Admiral Robert C. North (Marshall Islands) presented emission calculations of one LNG tanker and 30 oil tankers based on the actual fuel they consumed and on actual voyage data. Among other results, the data shows that the use of boil off on LNG tankers gives a very high CO2 index: three to four times higher than oil tankers with combustion engines for propulsion (IMO, 2005a).Taking this into account, emissions of LNG tankers are estimated with the standard activity-based model for gas carriers, as presented in this paper, with the end results for CO2 emissions multiplied by a factor 3.5 and setting the NOX and SO2 emissions to zero. 1.2.2. Ferries Because the ferry lines sailing to and from Ostend are not registered in IVS-SRK, the number of voyages and sailing time are calculated according to the time tables from the ferry operators. As these are regular voyages, the data are considered to be accurate and relevant for use. Ferries are, depending on their use, classified under RoRo or RoRo cargo. 1.3. The activity-based model (Group 1) The estimated emissions are calculated according to the following formula: E ¼ At IP LF/ CF EF. This is an expansion and a more specific interpretation of the basic formula: energy use (At IP LF/CF) emission factor. Emissions [E (g)] are estimated by multiplying the activity time [At (h)] by the installed engine power [IP (kW)] and the load factor [LF (%)], divided by a correction factor [CF] and finally multiplied by a specific emission factor [EF (g kWh1)] for each of the exhaust gasses and different activities. The emission factors are taken from ENTEC (Whall et al., 2002). Assumptions on engine and fuel type are this way the same as ENTEC has applied in its 2002 study (Whall et al., 2002). Considering the specificity of the vessel types and activity, emissions are estimated separately for activities at sea (sailing/at anchor) and in port (at berth/manoeuvring/hauling) per vessel type. At the end, the figures are presented in kton. The only parameter that stays constant, for both sea and port operations is the installed engine power. For the model, average installed engine
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power per vessel type is determined via a randomised sample of one hundred vessels per vessel type, both for main as for auxiliary engines (AEs). The randomised method and the number of one hundred vessels is considered to represent a realistic average engine power figure. Where for main engines (MEs) Lloyd’s Register of Ships covers 98% of the vessels, for AEs this was only 19% on average. Therefore, the installed auxiliary power was extrapolated from the data for auxiliary generators (48% coverage in the Register of Ships). The power of the auxiliary generators is estimated on an average of 83% of the AE power and this way the average installed auxiliary power per vessel type is determined. The load factor and correction factor are used to adjust the ENTEC emission factors to the specific situation in the BPNS and the ports. The load factor compensates for the specific activity of the vessel. This implies that the main or AEs are not always running on optimal capacity (80% maximum continuous rate (MCR)). For the ME the load factor will depend on the specific activity. For the AE, load factors vary per vessel type: container vessels use AEs for powering refrigerated containers, while RoRo vessels use more auxiliary power for venting the cargo bay. The load factors are mentioned in Table 4. These figures have been compared to the ones used by ENTEC (Whall et al., 2002) and adjusted according to expert’s advice (pilots, harbour masters, Antwerp Maritime Academy). The correction factor compensates for the loss of efficiency at reduced load: for 2-stroke engines this is considered at 8% (0.92), for 4-stroke engines this is 12% (0.88). While the relationship between load and efficiency is not exactly linear, to facilitate the model these factors are applied in a linear way upon expert advice (Cappoen, 2006). The emission factors are taken from the ENTEC study (Whall et al., 2002), as these are the most recent and detailed figures available. 1.3.1. Fishery For emissions by fishery vessels the same approach was applied (Goerlandt, 2006). 1.4. Group 2 top-down approach For dredgers and tugboats in operational condition (dredging or towing) the fuel consumption data from operators and contractors is used. Fuel consumption multiplied with a specific emission factor results in a figure for emissions of that specific
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gas (see Table 2). When dredgers or tugboats are sailing in non-operational condition, they are registered by IVS-SRK and are considered as Group 1. This implies that for non-operational conditions, again, the bottom-up approach is applied. 1.5. Emissions at sea 1.5.1. Sailing Activity times (At) for sailing at sea are calculated by adding the distance of the separate route segments together and by multiplying this figure with an average speed value per vessel type. The average speed values are taken from the ENTEC study (Table 3). See Fig. 1 for the different route segments that make up the shipping lanes that vessels follow to navigate safely in the BPNS. These lanes are fixed lanes and allow to accurately determine the distance from entering the BPNS to one of the four sea ports. This data also allows plotting the dispersion of emissions for NOX, SO2 and CO2 in the BPNS, resulting in a geographical distribution of the different emissions (see Figs. 2–4). Per vessel type, the number of individual vessel passages is extracted from the IVS-SRK database for each route segment and multiplied with the average speed value. 1.5.2. Anchorage For the anchorage zone (Westhinder) in the BPNS, the anchorage times are taken from IVSSRK and the emission estimates are calculated using the same emission and load factors as for activities at berth. The results are added to the sea emissions (Table 5). 1.6. Port emissions For port emissions different load factors (LF) are applied depending on the relevant activity. In port, there are three different activities of which the former two are comparable: hauling, manoeuvring and being at berth. Because of the limited quality and availability of port data from the port authorities only average hauling, manoeuvring and berthing time per vessel type is determined. Average activity times are more functional for the model as they can be considered to be relevant for some time; this way, these average times can be used for consecutive years. It seems appropriate to do this
every 5 years. Average times also compensate for possible errors in the database registration, by compensating for extreme high or low values. This is done for each individual port because of their different designs. The data is retrieved from the port databases and for Antwerp and Ghent complemented with data from IVS-SRK. Times are calculated, based on three sample months (November, January and April) and afterwards extrapolated for a whole year. 1.6.1. Manoeuvring– hauling Manoeuvring is considered as entering or leaving the port, while hauling is considered as moving the vessel inside the port from one berth to another. Despite the similarity between manoeuvring and hauling times, they have initially been considered separately because not every ship that manoeuvres into port will also haul to a different quay. Further, both activities have the same characteristics: they use variable engine loads and for both activities emissions factors for manoeuvring activities are applied as taken from the ENTEC study (Whall et al., 2002). This will be important and allows determining an average hauling time per vessel type, even if not all vessels haul. In total, hauling only corresponds with 7.4% of total manoeuvring time. For the final calculations, manoeuvring and hauling times are summed up. 1.6.2. At berth At berth, most vessels switch off the ME except for oil tankers and RoPax vessels. This is because oil tankers use MEs to power discharge and loading pumps; RoPax vessels use extra power to ventilate and keep general electrical services running while passengers and cargo are embarking/disembarking. In the end, time values are put into the formula together with the installed power, emission, load and correction factors to result in estimated port emissions for each activity and brought together to result in total port emissions. 2. Results Adding Group 1 sea and port emissions together with Group 2 emissions results in total estimated atmospheric emissions in the BPNS and the Belgian seaports. The sea emissions have also been plotted over the BPNS (Figs. 2–4, Tables 2, 5–7). Ro/Ro cargo, container and Ro/Ro vessels are the main contributors: together they represent more
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Fig. 2. NOX emission dispersion in the Belgian part of the North Sea.
than 60% of the atmospheric emissions (62% for CO2; 62% for SO2 and 66% for NOX). The high share of emissions by container vessels is remarkable despite only representing 14% of all entries in the IVS-SRK system as opposed to Ro/Ro cargo vessels at 26%; this is due to the high installed power levels of container vessels. On the other hand general cargo vessels represent about 26% of all entries but produce only about 8% of all emissions; this ship type largely consists of smaller and less powerful vessels (see Tables 1 and 7). Clearly, installed engine power is a primordial factor influencing the emissions of vessel types.
When comparing sea and port emissions, the share of port emissions seems to be relatively high (38% for NOX, 47% for SO2 and 46% for CO2 of total emissions) (Table 5). The fact that only vessels calling on Belgian ports are included in the estimations and that they only have to cross a small part of the BPNS to arrive in port, explains the high contribution of port emissions. 3. Conclusions/discussion/recommendations This research has faced the challenge of estimating atmospheric emissions for a precise geographical
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Fig. 3. SO2 emissions dispersion in the Belgian part of the North Sea.
area: the BPNS. By using a bottom-up activitybased model, the results are more realistic and justifiable than the rough estimates that are based upon sold bunker fuels. This was an interesting exercise as this has never been done before for Belgium. During the research some difficulties were encountered in relation to obtaining reliable data and determining precise emission factors. Some of these problems (e.g. geographical coverage, ship’s registration) will be solved automatically in the future by using AIS data, others need to be tackled as soon as possible (e.g. emission factors, speed
values). This will allow fine tuning the current methodology and coming up with even more precise estimations. With total CO2 emissions for Belgium in 2003 of 126 331 kton (Anon., 2006) the estimate of shipping emissions (1 880 kton) accounts for about 1.5% of total Belgian CO2 emissions. If this figure is compared to the official 2003 estimate, based on sold bunker fuels in Belgium (22 754 kton CO2— 18%) (UNFCCC, 2006) the significance of a more detailed and precise estimation method becomes clear. SO2 estimates from shipping account for 30% of total emissions (101 kton) in 2003, while NOX
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Fig. 4. CO2 emissions dispersion in the Belgian part of the North Sea.
emissions represent 22% compared to total emissions (174 kton, expressed in NO2) in 2003 (Anon., 2004). As a result of the current limitation of the radar VTS (IVS-SRK) the research was limited to the BPNS. From July 2006 onwards, an automatic identification system (AIS)5 is installed to additionally track vessels in transit in the Noordhinder traffic separation scheme.
5
As required by the SOLAS Convention.
Further fine tuning of the emission factors could also allow for more reliable estimations to be reached. In this study, the ENTEC (Whall et al., 2002/Stavrakaki et al., 2005) emission factors were applied. The problem is that these do not allow differentiating for main and AEs. More exact emission factors should be taken into account for future estimations. The same is valid for exact speed values per vessel instead of average speed values. It is also interesting to put the Belgium emission estimates into an international perspective. First,
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Table 1 Calls on the Belgian sea ports and travelled sea distance per vessel types Vessel type
# of calls
% of total
Travelled sea distance (M)
% of total
Oil tankers Chemical tankers Gas carriers Ro/Ro cargo Dry bulk carriers General cargo Containers Passenger RoPax Reefers Other dry cargo LNG Fishery Tugboats Dredgers Total
1045 2398 1019 7660 1094 7683 3810 64 3228 825 49 99 n.a. n.a. n.a. 28 974
3.61 8.28 3.52 26.44 3.78 26.52 13.15 0.22 11.14 2.85 0.17 0.34 – – – 100
48 394.51 131 968.80 78 942.04 653 018.70 94 623.81 359 372.70 263 223.20 3944.81 173 824.60 67 820.10 20 852.16 6379.56 n.a. n.a. n.a. 1 902 365.02
2.54 6.94 4.15 34.33 4.97 18.89 13.84 0.21 9.14 3.57 1.10 0.34 – – – 100
n.a.: not available.
Table 2 Group 2 total estimated atmospheric emissions in the BPNS, including the seaports (kton year1) Vessel type
NOX
SO2
CO2
Tugboats Dredgers Total
0.655 0.961 1.646
0.696 1.059 1.755
43.392 62.392 105.784
the Dutch estimated emissions (Hulskotte et al., 2003a–c) result in 4801 kton CO2, 68 kton SO2 and 118 kton NOX for the year 2000–2001; these are the total emissions of international shipping at sea, manoeuvring and at berth in port. When considering that the Belgian emissions only represent emissions in the BPNS and taking the much larger sea area of the Dutch part of the North Sea into account, the comparison is reasonable. When comparing with ENTEC figures (Stavrakaki et al., 2005) it is important to only look at sea emissions, as ENTEC does not take port emissions into account (Table 5). Our estimates for Belgium emissions at sea account for 1009 kton CO2, 16 kton SO2 and 24 kton NOX (for 2003–2004) and the ENTEC figures for 2000 are: 990 kton (CO2), 13 kton (SO2) and 20 kton (NOX). This is all within expectable limits even when taking the different reference periods into account.
Table 3 Speed values and installed engine power (ME-AE) per vessel type Average installed ME power (kW)b
Average installed AE power (kW)b
Vessel type
Average speed @ sea (Kn)a
Oil tankers Chemical tankers Gas carriers Ro/Ro cargo Dry bulk carriers General cargo Containers Passenger RoPax Reefers Other dry cargo LNG
14.0 13.7
7390 3959
1810 1502
16.8 15.4 14.3
4534 10140 8830
1880 2257 1964
12.3
3097
1024
19.3 20.8 15.3 16.9 13.5
23376 18628 15056 10150 3824
4768 3320 4760 3888 1003
16.8
4534
1880
a
Source: Whall et al., 2002. Source: Llyod’s Register of Ships.
b
Finally, a comparison with international figures by Eyring et al. (2005), who estimates global international sea emissions for CO2 in 2001 at about 812 630 kton allows for an appreciation of the Belgian emissions in an international context. In this comparison, again, only sea emissions are taken into account. Taking the total European CO2
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Table 4 Load factors per vessel type (ME ¼ main engine/AE ¼ auxiliary engine) and activity Vessel type
Oil tankers Chemical tankers Gas carriers Ro/Ro cargo Dry bulk carriers General cargo Containers Passenger RoPax Reefers Other dry cargo LNG
@ Sea
@ Anchor
Manoeuvring
@ Berth
ME (%)
AE (%)
ME (%)
AE (%)
ME (%)
AE (%)
ME (%)
AE (%)
80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80
30 30 60 30 30 30 50 70 70 60 30 60
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
30 30 60 30 30 30 50 70 70 60 30 60
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
40 40 70 40 40 40 60 75 75 70 40 70
20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0
60 60 70 70 10 10 20 60 70 10 10 70
Table 5 Group 1 estimated atmospheric emissions in the Belgian part of the North Sea (kton year1)
Table 6 Group 1 estimated atmospheric emissions in the Belgian seaports (kton year1)
Vessel type
NOX
SO2
CO2
Vessel type
NOX
SO2
CO2
Oil tankers Chemical tankers Gas carriers Ro/Ro cargo Dry bulk carriers General cargo Containers Passenger RoPax Reefers Other dry cargo LNG Fishery Tugboats Dredgers Total
0.447 0.805 0.298 7.390 1.276 1.708 8.008 0.078 2.449 1.013 0.076 0 0.191 0.018 0.274 24.030
0.351 0.537 0.434 5.305 0.756 1.142 4.896 0.069 1.804 0.623 0.089 0 0.013 0.014 0.222 16.255
20.660 31.655 28.773 312.172 44.495 67.466 288.745 4.115 126.307 36.752 5.214 17.854 10.500 0.868 13.097 1008.672
Oil tankers Chemical tankers Gas carriers Ro/Ro cargo Dry bulk carriers General cargo Containers Passenger RoPax Reefers Other dry cargo LNG Fishery Total
1.247 1.465 0.411 3.362 0.562 1.274 2.815 0.025 1.512 0.564 0.007 0 0 13.244
1.320 1.333 0.738 3.205 0.475 1.163 2.425 0.028 1.503 0.488 0.009 0 0 12.687
77.771 78.233 48.662 188.444 27.945 68.741 142.665 1.652 100.629 28.808 0.528 1.580 0 765.658
emissions at sea from ENTEC (Stavrakaki et al., 2005) of 120 640 kton and the relative share of Belgian sea emissions in European emissions (0.83%), the Belgian sea emissions account for about 0.12% of the global figure, which would results in 975 kton CO2. This figure is in line with the assumptions made here (1009 kton CO2). For SO2 the Belgian share of worldwide SO2 shipping emissions should be 0.20%, resulting in 24 kton SO2 and for NOX the Belgian share should account for 0.17%, leading to 36 kton NOX. Both
figures give an overestimation of about 50%, compared to presented results (16 kton SO2 and 24 kton NOX). While the results seem to indicate an underestimation compared to worldwide figures, the results are within acceptable limits and confirm the trend. When using this model for other geographical locations some factors will need to be adapted to the specific circumstances. This means that load factors need to be adjusted and when taking port activities into account, separate calculations will be necessary for determining specific average port activity times.
ARTICLE IN PRESS P. De Meyer et al. / Atmospheric Environment 42 (2008) 196–206
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Table 7 Total estimated atmospheric emissions in the Belgian part of the North Sea and the Belgian seaports (kton year1) (Groups 1 and 2) Vessel type
NOX
SO2
CO2
Oil tankers Chemical tankers Gas carriers Ro/Ro cargo Dry bulk carriers General cargo Containers Passenger RoPax Reefers Other dry cargo LNG Fishery Tugboats Dredgers Total
1.693 2.270 0.709 10.752 1.838 2.981 10.823 0.103 3.961 1.577 0.083 0 0.191 0.673 1.236 38.890
1.671 1.870 1.172 8.511 1.231 2.304 7.321 0.097 3.307 1.111 0.098 0 0.013 0.710 1.281 30.697
98.431 109.888 77.436 500.615 72.441 136.206 431.410 5.767 226.936 65.560 5.742 19.434 10.500 44.260 75.489 1880.115
Acknowledgments This work has been supported by the Belgian Science Policy (BELSPO) and has been executed together with Jesse Coene (Maritime Institute), Dr. Bart De Wachter and Ir. Dirk Leroy (ECOLAS N.V.) and Prof. Dr. Jean-Pascal Van Ypersele de Strihou (UCL-ASTR). Further, the authors wish to thank the valuable contributions that have been received from a user-committee that was set up in the framework of the BELSPO project and from the advice from seafarers, pilots and the Antwerp Maritime Academy. Special thanks go out to ir. Leo Cappoen. References Anon., 2004. Lozingen in de lucht 1990–2004. Vlaamse Milieumaatschappij (VMM), Aalst. 196pp+annexes. Anon., 2006. Belgium’s Fourth National Communication under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Federal Public Service Health, Food Chain Safety and Environment. Brussels, 138pp. Cappoen, L., 2006. Senior advisor, Exmar N.V., Expert advice. Cofala, J., Amann, M., Heyes, Ch., Klimont, Z., Posch, M., Scho¨pp, W., Tarasson, L., Jonson, J.E., Whall, Ch.,
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