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Epistemological beliefs and the Self-efficacy Scale in nursing students
Nurse Education Today 34 (2014) e37–e40
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Nurse Education Today journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/nedt
Epistemological beliefs and the Self-efficacy Scale in nursing students Fatma Orgun a, Banu Karaoz b,⁎ a b
Department of Education Nursing, Ege University Faculty of Nursing, Izmir, Turkey Department of Nursing, Trakya University Faculty of Health Sciences, Edirne, Turkey
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Accepted 18 November 2013 Keywords: Epistemological beliefs Self-efficacy Scale Nursing students Nurses
s u m m a r y Background: Epistemological beliefs in their most general form define an individual's subjective beliefs about what knowledge is and how knowing and learning occur. Objectives: To investigate epistemological beliefs and the Self-efficacy Scale in nursing students. Design: Prospective survey study. Settings: University School of Nursing. Participants: Nursing students. Methods: Outcome parameters included Nurses' Descriptive Characteristics Data Form, Epistemological Beliefs Questionnaire and Self-efficacy Scale. Results: As for the subscales of epistemological beliefs, Effort Subscale was 38.89 ± 11.62, Ability Subscale was 24.02 ± 6.19 and Unchanging Truth Subscale was 30.65 ± 5.74. Total score of the self-efficacy subscales was 74.39 ± 13.59. It has been determined that the majority (60.8%) of nursing students have chosen the nursing profession willingly, 82.8% of them like the nursing profession and 59.8% of students have a good perception of their own academic achievements. Conclusions: Understanding student's epistemological beliefs, trying to improve them and creating suitable learning environments for the development of self-efficacy should be the aim of an education that values individual differences. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction All health care professionals, such as nurses who work in a psychiatric setting, care for patients through observation by meeting the patients' and their families' and evaluating individuals' problems, needs, abilities, level of adaptation with their surroundings and selfconcepts (Phillippi et al., 2013). To be a part of the therapy in the patients' surroundings, nurses need to know about people's behaviors, needs, feelings and ways to define these behaviors (Aebersold et al., 2013). However, to obtain information on people, nurses particularly need to be aware of themselves and understand the effects that they have on their surroundings (Phillippi et al., 2013; Aebersold et al., 2013; Piscotty et al., 2013). Background Epistemological beliefs, in their most general form, define an individual's subjective beliefs about what knowledge is and how
⁎ Corresponding author at: Department of Nursing, Trakya University Faculty of Health Sciences, 22000, Edirne, Turkey. Tel.: +90 5344898756; fax: +90 2842126107. E-mail address: [email protected] (B. Karaoz). 0260-6917/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2013.11.007
knowing and learning occur (Larsen and Reif, 2011). These beliefs have a determining influence on variables like an individual's way of processing and rendition of newly encountered information, level of comprehension, learning strategy, high-level thinking and problem solving skills and time and effort spent for learning. Research studies indicate that epistemological beliefs taken as a field of individual differences have important effects on learning and teaching processes (Deryakulu and Buyukozturk, 2002). Another belief contributing to the motivation of an individual toward planning and realizing their goals is self-efficacy. It has been shown that individuals with a strong self-efficacy have a higher tendency toward efficient planning and displaying higher performance, more open to new ideas and more willing to try new approaches to meet other people's needs (Peterson-Graziose et al., 2013). Individuals with high self-efficacy and sufficiency prefer harder tasks and can motivate themselves to reach these goals (Babenko-Mould et al., 2012). In the case of an obstruction, individuals with high self-efficacy and sufficiency can keep their motivation and carry on the struggle to reach their goals. As a result, self-efficacy and sufficiency is a measure of an individual's capability to manage stress. Additionally self-efficacy perceptions are defined as a personal judgment of an individual's skills for planning and application of activities related to education performance improvement (Leh, 2011).
e38
F. Orgun, B. Karaoz / Nurse Education Today 34 (2014) e37–e40
The aim of the present study was to investigate epistemological beliefs and the Self-efficacy Scale in nursing students. Materials and Methods
normal distribution and non-parametric tests were applied to data of questionably normal distribution. Independent-sample t-test, Mann– Whiney U-test and correlation coefficient Pearson's r tests were used to compare groups. Data are expressed as mean ± SD and statistical significance was assumed for p b 0.05.
Study Design Results This study was approved by the local Institutional Review Board and has been carried out in accordance with The Code of Ethics of the World Medical Association (Declaration of Helsinki) for experiments involving humans. Written informed consent was obtained from all subjects. Our study population included 166 nursing students from the University School of Nursing. Of the 166 students, 122 agreed to participate in the research. Outcome Parameters Nurses' Descriptive Characteristics Data Form A 16-item form developed by the investigators was used to collect data about the nurses' sociodemographic characteristics and professional characteristics and information that could be reflected in their perceptions. Epistemological Beliefs Questionnaire Data were collected using the Turkish version of Shommer's Epistemological Beliefs Questionnaire (Larsen and Reif, 2011). Its translation into Turkish and reliability/validity studies were done by Deryakulu and Buyukozturk (2002, 2005). The Turkish version of the scale has three factors and 34 items in total. The first two dimensions measure beliefs about learning and the third dimension measures beliefs about the nature of knowledge. The first dimension, ‘The Belief that Learning Depends on Effort (Effort Subscale)’, includes 17 items; the second dimension, ‘The Belief that Learning Depends on Ability (Ability Subscale)’, consist of eight items; and the third dimension, ‘The Belief That There is Only One Unchanging Truth (Unchanging Truth Subscale)’, is composed of nine items. To determine the students' opinions for each item, a Likert-type scale with five possible responses ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree was used. In the first application, Cronbach alpha coefficients of the scale were found as 0.83, 0.62 and 0.59, respectively, starting from the first factor and as 0.71 for the whole scale (Deryakulu and Buyukozturk, 2005). In the present study, Cronbach alpha coefficients of the scale were found as 0.91, 0.82 and 0.75, respectively. Self-efficacy Scale This tool was developed by Sherer et al. (1982). The reliability and validity study for the Turkish form was conducted by Gozum and Aksayan, who found a Cronbach's alpha internal consistency value of 0.81 and test–retest reliability of 0.92 for the same tool (Gözüm and Aksayan, 1999). Self-efficacy Scale is broken into subscales which measure the broader construct of general self-efficacy, as well as social self-efficacy. Bringle et al. identified the scale as a useful tool in service-learning research while cautioning that it correlates significantly with social desirability (Bringle et al., 2004). The tool has 23 items in a 5-point Likert-type scale, with scores that can be as low as 23 and as high as 115. A higher score indicates greater perception of selfefficacy. Test items focus on one's willingness to initiate behavior, willingness to maintain behavior, willingness to expend effort to complete a task and persistence when confronted with adversity. Statistical Analyses Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software version 16.0 for Windows (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL). A normal distribution of the quantitative data was checked using Kolmogorov–Smirnov test. Parametric tests were applied to data of
A total of 122 volunteers (all females) met the eligibility criteria for the study. The demographic variables of the study group were as follows: 63.1% of nursing students covered by the study (n = 77) are within 22–23 years age group, 36.9% (n = 45) have graduated from a high school, 33.6% (n = 41) lived in a metropolis for most of their lives and 33.4% are currently living with their families. Mothers of 52.5% (n = 64) and fathers of 35.2% (n = 43) of nursing students have graduated from a primary school, mothers of 75.4% (n = 92) are housewives, fathers of 42.6% are currently retired, 45.9% have a single sibling and 78.7% have an income equal to their expenditures. 50% of nursing students have declared nursing as one of their top five career selections, 68% (n = 83) chose the nursing profession willingly, 82.8% (n = 101) like the nursing profession, 21.6% (n = 26) would choose the teaching profession if they could not become a nurse and 59.8% (n = 73) have declared that they perceive themselves at a good level academically. Arithmetic mean and standard deviation of nursing students' epistemological beliefs' subscales are shown in Table 1. As for the subscales of epistemological beliefs, ‘The Belief that Learning Depends on Effort (Effort Subscale)’ was 38.89 ± 11.62, ‘The Belief that Learning Depends on Ability (Ability Subscale)’ was 24.02 ± 6.19 and ‘The Belief That There is Only One Unchanging Truth (Unchanging Truth Subscale)’ was 30.65 ± 5.74. Arithmetic mean and standard deviation of nursing students' selfefficacy subscales are shown in Table 2. Total score of the self-efficacy subscales was 74.39 ± 13.59, “Willingness to initiate behavior” was 24.91 ± 6.71, “Willingness to maintain behavior” was 21.89 ± 5.59, “Willingness to expend effort to complete a task” was 17.77 ± 3.79 and “Persistence when confronted with adversity” was 9.82 ± 2.51. Comparison of epistemological beliefs' subscales and nursing students' thoughts on nursing as a profession were shown in Table 3. It has been determined that the majority (60.8%) of nursing students covered by the research have chosen the nursing profession willingly, 82.8% of them like the nursing profession and 59.8% of students have a good perception of their own academic achievements. A Pearson correlation analysis between the views of nursing students on Epistemological Beliefs Questionnaire and the evaluation of Self-efficacy Scale levels is conducted and results are shown in Table 4. Upon examination of Table 4, it has been determined that only the Unchanging Truth Subscale of the Epistemological Beliefs Questionnaire correlates with other subscales (p b 0.05). All subscales of Self-efficacy Scale and all subscales of Epistemological Beliefs Questionnaire are positively correlated except for the Unchanging Truth subscale (p b 0.05). Discussion In this study, nursing students' epistemological belief scores and self-efficacy scores were examined in terms of the maximum and minimum scores that could be obtained.
Table 1 Arithmetic mean and standard deviation of nursing students' epistemological beliefs' subscales.
Effort Subscale Ability Subscale Unchanging Truth Subscale
mean ± SD
Range (min–max)
38.89 ± 11.62 24.02 ± 6.19 30.65 ± 5.74
20–70 9–36 16–43
F. Orgun, B. Karaoz / Nurse Education Today 34 (2014) e37–e40 Table 2 Arithmetic mean and standard deviation of nursing students' self-efficacy subscales. mean ± SD Willingness to initiate behavior Willingness to maintain behavior Willingness to expend effort to complete a task Persistence when confronted with adversity Total
24.91 21.89 17.77 9.82 74.39
± ± ± ± ±
Range (min–max)
6.71 10–40 5.59 10–35 3.79 7–25 2.51 3–15 13.59 44–106
Many recent studies conducted in the field of education have examined the structure of epistemological beliefs of students at various educational levels and described that these beliefs have a significant effective learning. It has been emphasized that students who have developed these beliefs are more successful at learning (Deryakulu and Buyukozturk, 2002, 2005). In the present study, the nursing students' mean score for the Effort Subscale named “The belief that learning depends on effort” was found to be low and it was measured as 38.89 ± 11.62 (possible score range, 17 to 85). High scores on this factor represent the belief that learning occurs quickly or not at all, while low scores represent the belief that learning is a gradual process requiring both time and effort. The mean score of the Ability Subscale titled “The belief that learning depends on ability” was measured as 24.02 ± 6.19 (possible score range, 8 to 40), so it might be said that they had developed a moderate level of beliefs regarding this dimension. High scores on this factor reflect the idea that ability to learn is fixed and given at birth, while low scores represent the idea that ability to learn is malleable and related to hard work. When the mean score of Unchanging Truth Subscale called “Belief that there is only one unchanging truth” were examined, it was found that the mean score was 30.65 ± 5.74 (possible score range, 9 to 45). High scores on this factor represent the view that unambiguous, objective truth can be found by scientists and experts, while low scores represent a rejection of the notion that there is an unambiguous, objective truth that can be known. The findings of the present study revealed that the students' beliefs were less developed (showing low scores) regarding the Effort Subscale compared to the Ability Subscale and Unchanging Truth Subscale. Conversely, in a similar study population, Effort Subscale was found to be more developed when compared to the Ability Subscale (Ongen, 2003; Eroglu, 2004). Furthermore, the results of the present study was not consistent with the findings of Ongen's study which revealed that the Unchanging Truth Subscale was not developed when compared to the other two dimensions (Ongen, 2003). Results of studies conducted by
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Eroglu et al. and Deryakulu et al. have shown that Effort Subscale and Ability Subscale mean scores of students are at a low level and that the Unchanging Truth Subscale is at a moderate level (Deryakulu and Buyukozturk, 2005; Eroglu, 2004). If constructivist approaches are used in nursing education programs, epistemological changes in line with the constructivist approaches can take place (Oguz, 2008). Furthermore, students might have been influenced by their teachers' epistemological beliefs. It has been claimed that teachers with relativistic beliefs could help foster more developed beliefs in students (Oguz, 2008). A high score at any subscale of a scale indicates that the individual has not developed epistemological beliefs, a low score indicates developed epistemological beliefs (Deryakulu and Buyukozturk, 2002, 2005). In light of this information it can be seen that the nursing students' belief that learning is dependent on effort actually provides a higher epistemological belief. As shown among one of the cognitive factors affecting human behaviors, self-efficacy is defined as the judgment and belief of an individual concerning his or her capability of executing a behavior successfully (Bandura et al., 1999). People who have high levels of self-efficacy exhibit more energy at the beginning of an action and they continue this longer than do those with low self-efficacy. When faced with an obstacle, those with high self-efficacy regroup more quickly and continue to work to reach their goals. It has been emphasized that, in general, optimistic self-efficacy is in the same direction as self-respect, internal locus of control and motivation for success and that pessimism is related to anxiety, depression and neuroses (Schwarzer, 1999; Schwarzer and Renner, 2000). Sherer et al. challenged the self-efficacy theory assertion that mastery expectations comprise the primary determinants of behavioral change and that an individual's past experiences and success-locus of control attribution result in different levels of selfefficacy expectations (Sherer et al., 1982). Using a twin-factored Selfefficacy Scale to measure generalized expectancies, their results confirmed several predicted conceptual relationships between the self-efficacy subscales and other personality measures. These measures evidenced construct validity and involved locus of control, personal control, social desirability, ego strength, interpersonal competence and self-esteem, none of which is synonymous with self-efficacy by definition (Gözüm and Aksayan, 1999). They demonstrated positive relationships between their Self-efficacy Scale and their participants' demographics of vocational, educational and military success. In the present study Self-efficacy Scale mean scores in total and in all subscales is determined to be at medium level. An individual with a high perceived self-sufficiency is less hesitant to try new approaches compared to one with a low self-sufficiency. People with high perceived self-sufficiency can have more of a control on their
Table 3 Comparison of epistemological beliefs' subscales and nursing students' thoughts on nursing as a profession. Epistemological Beliefs Questionnaire subscales How did you choose the nursing profession?
p value Have you selected the profession of nursing consciously? p value Do you like nursing profession? p value Academic success
p value ⁎ = p b 0.05.
Voluntarily (57) Incidentally (31) Upon advice (24) Others (10) Yes (83) No (39) Yes (101) No (21) Good (17) Moderate (73) Bad (32)
Effort Subscale mean ± SD 36.96 ± 10.75 41.00 ± 11.91 42.42 ± 13.11 34.90 ± 9.87 p = 0.112 37.42 ± 9.93 42.03 ± 14.25 p = 0.041⁎ 37.99 ± 10.46 43.24 ± 15.73 p = 0.060 38.82 ± 9.28 38.23 ± 11.82 40.44 ± 12.46 p = 0.674
Ability Subscale mean ± SD 23.14 ± 5.84 24.65 ± 5.94 23.08 ± 6.04 29.40 ± 7.09 p = 0.021⁎ 23.92 ± 6.11 24.26 ± 6.41 p = 0.778 23.53 ± 6.13 26.38 ± 6.02 p = 0.055 28.47 ± 4.71 24.26 ± 6.31 21.13 ± 5.08 p = 0.000⁎
Unchanging Truth Subscale mean ± SD 29.86 ± 5.14 30.23 ± 6.46 30.67 ± 4.89 36.40 ± 6.02 p = 0.009⁎ 30.67 ± 5.10 30.59 ± 6.98 p = 0.940 30.46 ± 5.46 31.57 ± 7.05 p = 0.420 32.35 ± 3.71 31.32 ± 5.95 28.22 ± 5.51 p = 0.015⁎
– – .00 .57
.00 – –
.57
.00 .28
.15
.00 .33 .84 .00 .11 .45 .10 .02 .57 .15
p r p r
.12 .07 .05 .36 .09
Persistence when confronted with adversity Willingness to expend effort to complete a task
.10
F. Orgun, B. Karaoz / Nurse Education Today 34 (2014) e37–e40 .20 .46. .62 .00 .35
e40
environment and can overcome obstacles, deal with problems and so do not hesitate to try new things. Limitations in this study were identified. First, only a small number of subjects (122 volunteers) were selected. Therefore, results must be interpreted carefully. Second, several characteristics of the subjects may limit the generalizability of the study findings: only female individuals participated in the study and all of them were Muslims. Third, this study involved one school of nursing education only and the results cannot be generalized to all other nursing schools or may not be representative of the wider nursing student population.
.28
.15
.11
.35
.10
– – .00
.00
.21 .00 .11 .00 .00 .12 .31 .15 .89 .75 .53 .00 .29 .00 –
p r p
Understanding student's epistemological beliefs, trying to improve them and creating suitable learning environments for the development of self-efficacy should be the aim of an education that values individual differences. This researcher suggests that studies with larger samples should be carried out to determine the factors influencing the nursing students' epistemological beliefs and self-efficacy.
.09
.15
.75
.06 .33 .10 .83 –
r
Role of the Funding Source None.
.00 .36
.00 .57
.00 .89
.01 .00 .30 – .00 .22 .30 .09 – .83
r
p
Conflict of Interest
Total
Self-efficacy Scale
Willingness to initiate behavior
Willingness to maintain behavior
Conclusion
None. Acknowledgement
.62 .05 .07 .20 .12
.46
.84 .02 .09 .00 .45
.33
.11 .15 .31 .21 .12
.00
.00 .00 – .30 .29
p r
.27 .55 – .09 .10 .43 – .00 .00 .00 – .43 .00 .01 .53 – .73 .27 .22 .06
p r p r
Epistemological Beliefs Questionnaire Self-efficacy Scale
Effort Subscale Ability Subscale Unchanging Truth Subscale Total Willingness to initiate behavior Willingness to maintain behavior Willingness to expend effort to complete a task Persistence when confronted with adversity
.07 – .55 .30 .33
Ability Subscale Effort Subscale
Epistemological Beliefs Questionnaire
Table 4 Correlation of Epistemological Beliefs Questionnaire and Self-efficacy Scale in nursing students.
Unchanging Truth Subscale
None. References Aebersold, M., Tschannen, D., Sculli, G., 2013. Improving nursing students' communication skills using crew resource management strategies. J. Nurs. Educ. 52 (3), 125–130. Babenko-Mould, Y., Iwasiw, C.L., Andrusyszyn, M.A., Laschinger, H.K., Weston, W., 2012. Effects of clinical practice environments on clinical teacher and nursing student outcomes. J. Nurs. Educ. 51 (4), 217–225. Bandura, A., Pastorelli, C., Barbaranelli, C., Caprara, G.V., 1999. Self-efficacy pathways to childhood depression. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 76 (2), 258–269. Bringle, R.G., Phillips, M.A., Hudson, M., 2004. The Measure of Service Learning: Research Scales to Assess Student Experiences. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. Deryakulu, D., Buyukozturk, S., 2002. Validity and reliability study of the Epistemologic Beliefs Questionnaire. EJER 2 (8), 111–125. Deryakulu, D., Buyukozturk, S., 2005. Re-examination of Epistemologic Beliefs Questionnaire's factor structure: comparison of epistemologic beliefs according to gender and program of study. EJER 1 (18), 57–70. Eroglu, S.E., 2004. Examination of some epistemologic beliefs' factors of university students (A. Selcuk University Education Faculty Sample). Unpublished Master's Thesis. Selçuk University Institute of Educational Sciences, Konya, Turkey. Gözüm, S., Aksayan, S., 1999. Reliability and validity of the Turkish version of the self efficacy scale. J. Atatürk Univ. Sch. Nurs. 2 (1), 21–34. Larsen, R., Reif, L., 2011. Effectiveness of cultural immersion and culture classes for enhancing nursing students' transcultural self-efficacy. J. Nurs. Educ. 50 (6), 350–354. Leh, S.K., 2011. Nursing students' preconceptions of the community health clinical experience: implications for nursing education. J. Nurs. Educ. 50 (11), 620–627. Oguz, A., 2008. Investigation of Turkish trainee teachers' epistemological beliefs. Soc. Behav. Pers. 36 (3), 709–720. Ongen, D., 2003. Relationship between epistemologic beliefs and problem solving strategies: a study with Education Faculty students. EJER 3 (13), 155–163. Peterson-Graziose, V., Bryer, J., Nikolaidou, M., 2013. Self-esteem and self-efficacy as predictors of attrition in associate degree nursing students. J. Nurs. Educ. 52 (6), 351–354. Phillippi, J.C., Bull, A., Holley, S.L., 2013. Expanding primary care opportunities: simulation for clinical reasoning. J. Nurs. Educ. 52 (5), 299–302. Piscotty, R., Grobbel, C., Abele, C., 2013. Initial psychometric evaluation of the nursing quality and safety self-inventory. J. Nurs. Educ. 52 (5), 269–274. Schwarzer, R., 1999. Self-regulatory processes in the adoption and maintenance of health behaviors. J. Health Psychol. 4 (2), 115–127. Schwarzer, R., Renner, B., 2000. Social-cognitive predictors of health behavior: action selfefficacy and coping self-efficacy. Health Psychol. 19 (5), 487–495. Sherer, M., Maddux, J.E., Mercandante, B., Prentice-Dunn, S., Jacobs, B., Rogers, R.W., 1982. The self-efficacy scale; construction and validation. Psychol. Rep. 51, 663–671.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Nurse Education Today journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/nedt
Epistemological beliefs and the Self-efficacy Scale in nursing students Fatma Orgun a, Banu Karaoz b,⁎ a b
Department of Education Nursing, Ege University Faculty of Nursing, Izmir, Turkey Department of Nursing, Trakya University Faculty of Health Sciences, Edirne, Turkey
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Accepted 18 November 2013 Keywords: Epistemological beliefs Self-efficacy Scale Nursing students Nurses
s u m m a r y Background: Epistemological beliefs in their most general form define an individual's subjective beliefs about what knowledge is and how knowing and learning occur. Objectives: To investigate epistemological beliefs and the Self-efficacy Scale in nursing students. Design: Prospective survey study. Settings: University School of Nursing. Participants: Nursing students. Methods: Outcome parameters included Nurses' Descriptive Characteristics Data Form, Epistemological Beliefs Questionnaire and Self-efficacy Scale. Results: As for the subscales of epistemological beliefs, Effort Subscale was 38.89 ± 11.62, Ability Subscale was 24.02 ± 6.19 and Unchanging Truth Subscale was 30.65 ± 5.74. Total score of the self-efficacy subscales was 74.39 ± 13.59. It has been determined that the majority (60.8%) of nursing students have chosen the nursing profession willingly, 82.8% of them like the nursing profession and 59.8% of students have a good perception of their own academic achievements. Conclusions: Understanding student's epistemological beliefs, trying to improve them and creating suitable learning environments for the development of self-efficacy should be the aim of an education that values individual differences. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction All health care professionals, such as nurses who work in a psychiatric setting, care for patients through observation by meeting the patients' and their families' and evaluating individuals' problems, needs, abilities, level of adaptation with their surroundings and selfconcepts (Phillippi et al., 2013). To be a part of the therapy in the patients' surroundings, nurses need to know about people's behaviors, needs, feelings and ways to define these behaviors (Aebersold et al., 2013). However, to obtain information on people, nurses particularly need to be aware of themselves and understand the effects that they have on their surroundings (Phillippi et al., 2013; Aebersold et al., 2013; Piscotty et al., 2013). Background Epistemological beliefs, in their most general form, define an individual's subjective beliefs about what knowledge is and how
⁎ Corresponding author at: Department of Nursing, Trakya University Faculty of Health Sciences, 22000, Edirne, Turkey. Tel.: +90 5344898756; fax: +90 2842126107. E-mail address: [email protected] (B. Karaoz). 0260-6917/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2013.11.007
knowing and learning occur (Larsen and Reif, 2011). These beliefs have a determining influence on variables like an individual's way of processing and rendition of newly encountered information, level of comprehension, learning strategy, high-level thinking and problem solving skills and time and effort spent for learning. Research studies indicate that epistemological beliefs taken as a field of individual differences have important effects on learning and teaching processes (Deryakulu and Buyukozturk, 2002). Another belief contributing to the motivation of an individual toward planning and realizing their goals is self-efficacy. It has been shown that individuals with a strong self-efficacy have a higher tendency toward efficient planning and displaying higher performance, more open to new ideas and more willing to try new approaches to meet other people's needs (Peterson-Graziose et al., 2013). Individuals with high self-efficacy and sufficiency prefer harder tasks and can motivate themselves to reach these goals (Babenko-Mould et al., 2012). In the case of an obstruction, individuals with high self-efficacy and sufficiency can keep their motivation and carry on the struggle to reach their goals. As a result, self-efficacy and sufficiency is a measure of an individual's capability to manage stress. Additionally self-efficacy perceptions are defined as a personal judgment of an individual's skills for planning and application of activities related to education performance improvement (Leh, 2011).
e38
F. Orgun, B. Karaoz / Nurse Education Today 34 (2014) e37–e40
The aim of the present study was to investigate epistemological beliefs and the Self-efficacy Scale in nursing students. Materials and Methods
normal distribution and non-parametric tests were applied to data of questionably normal distribution. Independent-sample t-test, Mann– Whiney U-test and correlation coefficient Pearson's r tests were used to compare groups. Data are expressed as mean ± SD and statistical significance was assumed for p b 0.05.
Study Design Results This study was approved by the local Institutional Review Board and has been carried out in accordance with The Code of Ethics of the World Medical Association (Declaration of Helsinki) for experiments involving humans. Written informed consent was obtained from all subjects. Our study population included 166 nursing students from the University School of Nursing. Of the 166 students, 122 agreed to participate in the research. Outcome Parameters Nurses' Descriptive Characteristics Data Form A 16-item form developed by the investigators was used to collect data about the nurses' sociodemographic characteristics and professional characteristics and information that could be reflected in their perceptions. Epistemological Beliefs Questionnaire Data were collected using the Turkish version of Shommer's Epistemological Beliefs Questionnaire (Larsen and Reif, 2011). Its translation into Turkish and reliability/validity studies were done by Deryakulu and Buyukozturk (2002, 2005). The Turkish version of the scale has three factors and 34 items in total. The first two dimensions measure beliefs about learning and the third dimension measures beliefs about the nature of knowledge. The first dimension, ‘The Belief that Learning Depends on Effort (Effort Subscale)’, includes 17 items; the second dimension, ‘The Belief that Learning Depends on Ability (Ability Subscale)’, consist of eight items; and the third dimension, ‘The Belief That There is Only One Unchanging Truth (Unchanging Truth Subscale)’, is composed of nine items. To determine the students' opinions for each item, a Likert-type scale with five possible responses ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree was used. In the first application, Cronbach alpha coefficients of the scale were found as 0.83, 0.62 and 0.59, respectively, starting from the first factor and as 0.71 for the whole scale (Deryakulu and Buyukozturk, 2005). In the present study, Cronbach alpha coefficients of the scale were found as 0.91, 0.82 and 0.75, respectively. Self-efficacy Scale This tool was developed by Sherer et al. (1982). The reliability and validity study for the Turkish form was conducted by Gozum and Aksayan, who found a Cronbach's alpha internal consistency value of 0.81 and test–retest reliability of 0.92 for the same tool (Gözüm and Aksayan, 1999). Self-efficacy Scale is broken into subscales which measure the broader construct of general self-efficacy, as well as social self-efficacy. Bringle et al. identified the scale as a useful tool in service-learning research while cautioning that it correlates significantly with social desirability (Bringle et al., 2004). The tool has 23 items in a 5-point Likert-type scale, with scores that can be as low as 23 and as high as 115. A higher score indicates greater perception of selfefficacy. Test items focus on one's willingness to initiate behavior, willingness to maintain behavior, willingness to expend effort to complete a task and persistence when confronted with adversity. Statistical Analyses Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software version 16.0 for Windows (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL). A normal distribution of the quantitative data was checked using Kolmogorov–Smirnov test. Parametric tests were applied to data of
A total of 122 volunteers (all females) met the eligibility criteria for the study. The demographic variables of the study group were as follows: 63.1% of nursing students covered by the study (n = 77) are within 22–23 years age group, 36.9% (n = 45) have graduated from a high school, 33.6% (n = 41) lived in a metropolis for most of their lives and 33.4% are currently living with their families. Mothers of 52.5% (n = 64) and fathers of 35.2% (n = 43) of nursing students have graduated from a primary school, mothers of 75.4% (n = 92) are housewives, fathers of 42.6% are currently retired, 45.9% have a single sibling and 78.7% have an income equal to their expenditures. 50% of nursing students have declared nursing as one of their top five career selections, 68% (n = 83) chose the nursing profession willingly, 82.8% (n = 101) like the nursing profession, 21.6% (n = 26) would choose the teaching profession if they could not become a nurse and 59.8% (n = 73) have declared that they perceive themselves at a good level academically. Arithmetic mean and standard deviation of nursing students' epistemological beliefs' subscales are shown in Table 1. As for the subscales of epistemological beliefs, ‘The Belief that Learning Depends on Effort (Effort Subscale)’ was 38.89 ± 11.62, ‘The Belief that Learning Depends on Ability (Ability Subscale)’ was 24.02 ± 6.19 and ‘The Belief That There is Only One Unchanging Truth (Unchanging Truth Subscale)’ was 30.65 ± 5.74. Arithmetic mean and standard deviation of nursing students' selfefficacy subscales are shown in Table 2. Total score of the self-efficacy subscales was 74.39 ± 13.59, “Willingness to initiate behavior” was 24.91 ± 6.71, “Willingness to maintain behavior” was 21.89 ± 5.59, “Willingness to expend effort to complete a task” was 17.77 ± 3.79 and “Persistence when confronted with adversity” was 9.82 ± 2.51. Comparison of epistemological beliefs' subscales and nursing students' thoughts on nursing as a profession were shown in Table 3. It has been determined that the majority (60.8%) of nursing students covered by the research have chosen the nursing profession willingly, 82.8% of them like the nursing profession and 59.8% of students have a good perception of their own academic achievements. A Pearson correlation analysis between the views of nursing students on Epistemological Beliefs Questionnaire and the evaluation of Self-efficacy Scale levels is conducted and results are shown in Table 4. Upon examination of Table 4, it has been determined that only the Unchanging Truth Subscale of the Epistemological Beliefs Questionnaire correlates with other subscales (p b 0.05). All subscales of Self-efficacy Scale and all subscales of Epistemological Beliefs Questionnaire are positively correlated except for the Unchanging Truth subscale (p b 0.05). Discussion In this study, nursing students' epistemological belief scores and self-efficacy scores were examined in terms of the maximum and minimum scores that could be obtained.
Table 1 Arithmetic mean and standard deviation of nursing students' epistemological beliefs' subscales.
Effort Subscale Ability Subscale Unchanging Truth Subscale
mean ± SD
Range (min–max)
38.89 ± 11.62 24.02 ± 6.19 30.65 ± 5.74
20–70 9–36 16–43
F. Orgun, B. Karaoz / Nurse Education Today 34 (2014) e37–e40 Table 2 Arithmetic mean and standard deviation of nursing students' self-efficacy subscales. mean ± SD Willingness to initiate behavior Willingness to maintain behavior Willingness to expend effort to complete a task Persistence when confronted with adversity Total
24.91 21.89 17.77 9.82 74.39
± ± ± ± ±
Range (min–max)
6.71 10–40 5.59 10–35 3.79 7–25 2.51 3–15 13.59 44–106
Many recent studies conducted in the field of education have examined the structure of epistemological beliefs of students at various educational levels and described that these beliefs have a significant effective learning. It has been emphasized that students who have developed these beliefs are more successful at learning (Deryakulu and Buyukozturk, 2002, 2005). In the present study, the nursing students' mean score for the Effort Subscale named “The belief that learning depends on effort” was found to be low and it was measured as 38.89 ± 11.62 (possible score range, 17 to 85). High scores on this factor represent the belief that learning occurs quickly or not at all, while low scores represent the belief that learning is a gradual process requiring both time and effort. The mean score of the Ability Subscale titled “The belief that learning depends on ability” was measured as 24.02 ± 6.19 (possible score range, 8 to 40), so it might be said that they had developed a moderate level of beliefs regarding this dimension. High scores on this factor reflect the idea that ability to learn is fixed and given at birth, while low scores represent the idea that ability to learn is malleable and related to hard work. When the mean score of Unchanging Truth Subscale called “Belief that there is only one unchanging truth” were examined, it was found that the mean score was 30.65 ± 5.74 (possible score range, 9 to 45). High scores on this factor represent the view that unambiguous, objective truth can be found by scientists and experts, while low scores represent a rejection of the notion that there is an unambiguous, objective truth that can be known. The findings of the present study revealed that the students' beliefs were less developed (showing low scores) regarding the Effort Subscale compared to the Ability Subscale and Unchanging Truth Subscale. Conversely, in a similar study population, Effort Subscale was found to be more developed when compared to the Ability Subscale (Ongen, 2003; Eroglu, 2004). Furthermore, the results of the present study was not consistent with the findings of Ongen's study which revealed that the Unchanging Truth Subscale was not developed when compared to the other two dimensions (Ongen, 2003). Results of studies conducted by
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Eroglu et al. and Deryakulu et al. have shown that Effort Subscale and Ability Subscale mean scores of students are at a low level and that the Unchanging Truth Subscale is at a moderate level (Deryakulu and Buyukozturk, 2005; Eroglu, 2004). If constructivist approaches are used in nursing education programs, epistemological changes in line with the constructivist approaches can take place (Oguz, 2008). Furthermore, students might have been influenced by their teachers' epistemological beliefs. It has been claimed that teachers with relativistic beliefs could help foster more developed beliefs in students (Oguz, 2008). A high score at any subscale of a scale indicates that the individual has not developed epistemological beliefs, a low score indicates developed epistemological beliefs (Deryakulu and Buyukozturk, 2002, 2005). In light of this information it can be seen that the nursing students' belief that learning is dependent on effort actually provides a higher epistemological belief. As shown among one of the cognitive factors affecting human behaviors, self-efficacy is defined as the judgment and belief of an individual concerning his or her capability of executing a behavior successfully (Bandura et al., 1999). People who have high levels of self-efficacy exhibit more energy at the beginning of an action and they continue this longer than do those with low self-efficacy. When faced with an obstacle, those with high self-efficacy regroup more quickly and continue to work to reach their goals. It has been emphasized that, in general, optimistic self-efficacy is in the same direction as self-respect, internal locus of control and motivation for success and that pessimism is related to anxiety, depression and neuroses (Schwarzer, 1999; Schwarzer and Renner, 2000). Sherer et al. challenged the self-efficacy theory assertion that mastery expectations comprise the primary determinants of behavioral change and that an individual's past experiences and success-locus of control attribution result in different levels of selfefficacy expectations (Sherer et al., 1982). Using a twin-factored Selfefficacy Scale to measure generalized expectancies, their results confirmed several predicted conceptual relationships between the self-efficacy subscales and other personality measures. These measures evidenced construct validity and involved locus of control, personal control, social desirability, ego strength, interpersonal competence and self-esteem, none of which is synonymous with self-efficacy by definition (Gözüm and Aksayan, 1999). They demonstrated positive relationships between their Self-efficacy Scale and their participants' demographics of vocational, educational and military success. In the present study Self-efficacy Scale mean scores in total and in all subscales is determined to be at medium level. An individual with a high perceived self-sufficiency is less hesitant to try new approaches compared to one with a low self-sufficiency. People with high perceived self-sufficiency can have more of a control on their
Table 3 Comparison of epistemological beliefs' subscales and nursing students' thoughts on nursing as a profession. Epistemological Beliefs Questionnaire subscales How did you choose the nursing profession?
p value Have you selected the profession of nursing consciously? p value Do you like nursing profession? p value Academic success
p value ⁎ = p b 0.05.
Voluntarily (57) Incidentally (31) Upon advice (24) Others (10) Yes (83) No (39) Yes (101) No (21) Good (17) Moderate (73) Bad (32)
Effort Subscale mean ± SD 36.96 ± 10.75 41.00 ± 11.91 42.42 ± 13.11 34.90 ± 9.87 p = 0.112 37.42 ± 9.93 42.03 ± 14.25 p = 0.041⁎ 37.99 ± 10.46 43.24 ± 15.73 p = 0.060 38.82 ± 9.28 38.23 ± 11.82 40.44 ± 12.46 p = 0.674
Ability Subscale mean ± SD 23.14 ± 5.84 24.65 ± 5.94 23.08 ± 6.04 29.40 ± 7.09 p = 0.021⁎ 23.92 ± 6.11 24.26 ± 6.41 p = 0.778 23.53 ± 6.13 26.38 ± 6.02 p = 0.055 28.47 ± 4.71 24.26 ± 6.31 21.13 ± 5.08 p = 0.000⁎
Unchanging Truth Subscale mean ± SD 29.86 ± 5.14 30.23 ± 6.46 30.67 ± 4.89 36.40 ± 6.02 p = 0.009⁎ 30.67 ± 5.10 30.59 ± 6.98 p = 0.940 30.46 ± 5.46 31.57 ± 7.05 p = 0.420 32.35 ± 3.71 31.32 ± 5.95 28.22 ± 5.51 p = 0.015⁎
– – .00 .57
.00 – –
.57
.00 .28
.15
.00 .33 .84 .00 .11 .45 .10 .02 .57 .15
p r p r
.12 .07 .05 .36 .09
Persistence when confronted with adversity Willingness to expend effort to complete a task
.10
F. Orgun, B. Karaoz / Nurse Education Today 34 (2014) e37–e40 .20 .46. .62 .00 .35
e40
environment and can overcome obstacles, deal with problems and so do not hesitate to try new things. Limitations in this study were identified. First, only a small number of subjects (122 volunteers) were selected. Therefore, results must be interpreted carefully. Second, several characteristics of the subjects may limit the generalizability of the study findings: only female individuals participated in the study and all of them were Muslims. Third, this study involved one school of nursing education only and the results cannot be generalized to all other nursing schools or may not be representative of the wider nursing student population.
.28
.15
.11
.35
.10
– – .00
.00
.21 .00 .11 .00 .00 .12 .31 .15 .89 .75 .53 .00 .29 .00 –
p r p
Understanding student's epistemological beliefs, trying to improve them and creating suitable learning environments for the development of self-efficacy should be the aim of an education that values individual differences. This researcher suggests that studies with larger samples should be carried out to determine the factors influencing the nursing students' epistemological beliefs and self-efficacy.
.09
.15
.75
.06 .33 .10 .83 –
r
Role of the Funding Source None.
.00 .36
.00 .57
.00 .89
.01 .00 .30 – .00 .22 .30 .09 – .83
r
p
Conflict of Interest
Total
Self-efficacy Scale
Willingness to initiate behavior
Willingness to maintain behavior
Conclusion
None. Acknowledgement
.62 .05 .07 .20 .12
.46
.84 .02 .09 .00 .45
.33
.11 .15 .31 .21 .12
.00
.00 .00 – .30 .29
p r
.27 .55 – .09 .10 .43 – .00 .00 .00 – .43 .00 .01 .53 – .73 .27 .22 .06
p r p r
Epistemological Beliefs Questionnaire Self-efficacy Scale
Effort Subscale Ability Subscale Unchanging Truth Subscale Total Willingness to initiate behavior Willingness to maintain behavior Willingness to expend effort to complete a task Persistence when confronted with adversity
.07 – .55 .30 .33
Ability Subscale Effort Subscale
Epistemological Beliefs Questionnaire
Table 4 Correlation of Epistemological Beliefs Questionnaire and Self-efficacy Scale in nursing students.
Unchanging Truth Subscale
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