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Ergonomics in Latin America: Background, trends and challenges
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Applied Ergonomics 37 (2006) 555–561 www.elsevier.com/locate/apergo
Ergonomics in Latin America: Background, trends and challenges Marcelo M. Soares ABERGO—Brazilian Association of Ergonomics, Federal University of Pernambuco, Department of Design, Centro de Artes e Comunicac- a˜o, Cidade Universita´ria, 50.670-420 Recife – PE, Brazil
Abstract This paper offers an introduction to ergonomics in Latin America through a brief overview of ergonomics practice in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Mexico ,and Peru. It provides a short description of the history of ergonomics in each country, ergonomics teaching, its organisation through the ergonomics associations, and some highlights of the areas of interest, and examples of ergonomics practice. r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: History of ergonomics; Ergonomics education; Ergonomics development
1. Introduction In Latin America, ergonomics took its first steps in Brazil in the 1960s. Since then, there has been progressive development in the region. At present, there are various companies and research institutions that operate in several Latin American countries. The number of Latin American ergonomists at international conferences promoted by IEA has been growing considerably, and the number of studies reflects the current status of ergonomics in each country. This paper offers a brief overview of ergonomics in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru. It includes a short description of the history of ergonomics in each country, the training of ergonomists, ergonomics teaching, areas of interest of ergonomists, and the professional practice of ergonomics. Thus, this paper aims to contribute to record keeping of the evolution of ergonomics in Latin America, and to assist with the development of policies towards cooperation, ergonomics development, and mutual support among the several associations of ergonomics.
to a group of people and companies since its beginning. The theme of improvement of the quality of life in the workplace has been neglected due to issues such as industrial reconversion processes, privatisation, and inflation control (Hiba, 1991). As observed by Poy et al. (2006), there is a renewed interest in ergonomics and, in particular, the analysis of work activities. The author also highlights that, although there is a strong interest in ergonomics within the educational institutions, ergonomics has not yet been institutionalised in this country. The development of ergonomics in Argentina can be described in four periods: 2.1. The first period (1950–1960) In this period, the Argentine Ergonomics Society was created to carry out investigations and teaching related to human work. This society organised congresses and published a newsletter about ergonomics, but became dormant in 1975. The interest in this period was focused on the health of workers and the physiological aspects of human work.
2. Ergonomics in Argentina 2.2. The second period (1970s) According to Poy et al. (2006), the development of ergonomics in Argentina has been problematic and limited E-mail address: [email protected]. 0003-6870/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2006.04.014
In this period, interest was focused initially on anthropometrics and human–machine interactions. Manufacturing companies such as Philips and companies in the
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automotive sector took an interest in the theme of ergonomics, but the ergonomic changes, based on ‘common sense’, were initiatives by their engineers and were kept within the companies, did not reach a wider audience. Another aspect of the 1970s was the setting up of various laboratories at universities such as those at the Universities of Rosario, La Plata, Cuyo, and Cordoba. 2.3. The third period (1980s and 1990s) Two aspects indicated the state of ergonomics in Argentina in the 1980s: the National Meetings of Ergonomics Laboratories (RELAERGO), which were held every four years until 1995; and the agreements for scientific cooperation between Argentina and Germany, and between Argentina and France. Such agreements allowed Argentine engineers and doctors to graduate in Germany and in France, and French ergonomists, e.g. Wisner, Laville, Queinnec, Dessors, and Jaillet, to come to Argentina, invited by CEIL-CONICET. Thus, with the assistance of these researchers, the factors related to the organisation of work, and the assignment of activities was introduced into Argentina for the first time. In 1990s, at the request of the telephone company workers’ union, an ergonomics study was carried out to analyse the impact of information technology processes on the health of operators. On this occasion, some ergonomists who had graduated in France joined the research group. According to Poy et al. (2006), this was the first time that the ergonomics analysis of work activity was carried out systematically in Argentina. 2.4. The fourth period (the present time) On 30 July 2002, the Argentine Ergonomics Association (ADEA)—www.adeargentina.org.ar—was re-established. In the year following its foundation, ADEA was recognised as affiliated to IEA. Since its foundation, ADEA has offered two conferences, Latin American Ergonomics Seminars, and hosted a meeting of ULAERGO (The Latin America Ergonomics Union). ADEA also has links with the Ministry of Health of the Nation and the Superintendence of Workplace Risks. At present, the work of ergonomists in Argentina is found mainly in the universities, companies of various industrial sectors such as Peugeot, Fenix, Volkswaguen, Ford, Arcor, Kraft, Petrobras, Food, and workplace risk insurance companies. In Argentina, ergonomics teaching is currently offered on two postgraduate courses, of 500 h each, at the Siglo XXI National University, in Cordoba,and at IRAM, in Buenos Aires. Furthermore, the subject of ergonomics is taught (i) on the graduate courses in industrial design, industrial engineering, kinesiology, physiology, and psychology and (ii) on the postgraduate courses (masters and doctorate levels) in Occupational Medicine, Hygiene
and Workplace Safety, Social Science of Work, and Kinesiology. An example of developments in the ergonomics science in Argentina is the study carried out by Neffa et al. (2005) on the impact of corporate teletraining on workers’ health. Finally, the growing number of agreements for cooperation and exchange with scientific-academic institutions, at both the regional and international levels, result in exchange of experience, translation of publications, participation at congresses and seminars. Such activities contribute to the development of ergonomics in this country. 3. Ergonomics in Brazil The dissemination of ergonomics in Brazil has been established, according to Moraes and Soares (1989), through six main episodes. The first episode took place in the 1960s, in the Polytechnic School at the University of Sa˜o Paulo, with the introduction of studies related to ergonomics on the Manufacturing Engineering course. The experience was replicated at other manufacturing engineering schools across the country. During this period, the company GAPP (Associate Group for Research and Planning) was founded and started to offer consultancy services in ergonomics to various Brazilian companies, such as Companhia Siderurgica Nacional and the METRO in Sao Paulo. The second episode took place at the beginning of the 1970s, at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, with the introduction of ergonomics teaching into the postgraduate course of Manufacturing Engineering. Thus, this institution became a centre for dissemination of ergonomics knowledge, producing several dissertations and theses on the theme. In 1978, the first book on ergonomics written by a Brazilian author was published, Ergonomia: notas de classe (Ergonomics: class notes), by Professor Itiro Iida. In 1971, the first doctorate thesis in ergonomics was defended in Brazil, at the University of Sa˜o Paulo. The thesis, by Professor Itiro Iida, was entitled A ergonomia do manejo (‘The ergonomics of handling’). The third episode was located at the College of Industrial Design, at the State University of Rio de Janeiro, with the introduction of ergonomics teaching, in 1976, into the industrial design course, according to the model of the U¨lm School in Germany. Following this experience, ergonomics became a compulsory subject into industrial design courses across the country. The role of ergonomics in the development of projects in industrial design and its inclusion in the curriculum of industrial design courses explains the great number of designers who are members of ABERGO (Brazilian Association of Ergonomics). Interestingly, this joining of ergonomics and design (?) takes place only in Brazil. It is important to mention that this distinctive feature marked the emphasis of Brazilian ergonomics on ergonomic design. It was only in the last
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decades that the international literature recognised the relationship designated ‘ergonomics and design’. The fourth episode was identified through studies related to ergonomic psychology, with emphasis on visual perception concepts applied to the study of traffic, training of drivers, and studies on motorway accidents at the University of Sao Paulo, campus of Ribeira˜o Preto. The fifth episode took place at the Higher Institute of Studies and Psychosocial Research of Getu´lio Vargas Foundation, in Rio de Janeiro. In 1974, this Institute organised the 1st Brazilian Ergonomics Seminar, a hallmark in the history of Brazilian ergonomics, and in 1975 implemented the first Specialisation Course in Ergonomics in Brazil. This course was taken by several ergonomists, who are currently teaching in various courses and working on the establishment of ergonomics groups within companies and academia. The sixth episode was marked, still in the 1970s, by the visit of Professor Alain Wisner from the Conservatoire National des Arts et Me´tiers in France. Professor Wisner became a great supporter of Brazilian ergonomics and was responsible for the education, at postgraduate level, of various Brazilian researchers who are currently responsible for the development of several research studies and postgraduate programmes at Brazilian universities. The academic cooperation between Brazil and France resulted in a strong role of French ergonomics in the practice of a great number of Brazilian ergonomists. Moraes (2002) states that English ergonomics lost its opportunity to influence Brazilian ergonomics due to the lack of linkages between British and American universities and Brazilian universities in this field of knowledge. In Brazil, ergonomics is currently a taught module in hundreds of graduate courses in the fields of industrial design, architecture, manufacturing engineering, occupational therapy, odontology, psychology, etc. Several of these courses also offer master and doctorate degrees in which ergonomics is one of the main fields of study of the postgraduation programme. These courses are taught at the federal and state Universities in the states of Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraı´ ba, Pernambuco, Estadual de Sao Paulo, and at the Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro. Hundreds of doctorate theses and master dissertations in ergonomics have been produced in these teaching and research institutions. Although ergonomics has already been consolidated, academically speaking, in Brazil in the master and doctorate courses, the professional training of the ergonomists, who will do the fieldwork, takes place through specialisation courses of at least 360 contact hours. At present, there are several ergonomics companies in Brazil and a great number of ergonomists working for private and governmental companies in various areas, such as metallurgy, steel industry, civil engineering, aviation, informatics, energy. The Brazilian Association of Ergonomics (ABERGO)— www.abergo.org.br—was founded on 31st August 1983
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and currently has about 350 members from all regions across the country, from diverse educational backgrounds: e.g. business administration, architecture, social service, biology, industrial design, nursing studies, various engineering domains, physiotherapy, medicine, psychology, occupational therapy, etc. ABERGO has eight Technical Groups in the various domains of ergonomics: Teaching and Graduation in Ergonomics; Product Normalisation and Certification; Musculoskeletal Lesion Prevention/Rehabilitation; Ergonomists’ Certification; Accessibility and Universal Design; Ergodesign and Product Usability; Information and Human–Computer Interaction; Occupational Biomechanics and Workplace Physiology, and Ergonomics of Built Environment. ABERGO has Scientific Council, comprising 20 renowned senior researchers, which is the assistant agency to the Executive Committee on the formulation and implementation of policies for education, accreditation and certification in ergonomics. Thirteen congresses in ergonomics have taken place in Brazil, attended by around 500 participants and an impressive number of international guests. The congresses are currently held every two years. Soares (2005a), on the basis of an inventory of the proceedings of Brazilian Congresses in Ergonomics (1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, and 2004), states that the bestresearched fields in ergonomics in Brazil are: hospital ergonomics, product ergonomics, industry ergonomics, ergonomics and services, ergonomics and built environment, ergonomics analysis of workplace, biomechanics, ergonomics and accessibility, ergonomics design, informational ergonomics and HCI (?), and ergonomics and work safety (Fig. 1). Some innovative developments in science in Brazil can be found in the following examples: The developments in human factors of information and communication technologies include studies on the prediction of information, interface, telework, and environmental design carried out by Fonseca et al. (2002) and Moraes (2003); studies on web interface by Moraes and Teixeira (2003) and Padovani and Lansdale (2003), and studies on communication technologies by Fialho et al. (2005) and Vidal and Bonfatti (2003). Studies on psychosocial factors of sociotechnical systems were produced by (i) Carvalho et al. (2005) about a nuclear power plant; (ii) Santos et al. (1998) on anthropotechnology of the ergonomics production systems; and (iii) Diniz et al. (2005) and Roberto et al. (2005) on knowledge management support for collaborative emergency response and control systems. Transport is an area that some Brazilian researchers have focused on lately. Studies on traffic control and control operation were carried out by Moraes et al. (2002a, 2003). Ribeiro and Mont’Alva˜o (2005) have studied an ergonomics approach to efficiency in boarding, arrival and the connection procedures.
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70
32
27
25
25
25
Info Ergonomics and HCI Ergonomics and Work Safety
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Ergonomics Design
40
Biomecanichs
Ergonomics and Services
Industry Ergonomics
Product Ergonomics
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Ergonomics and Acessibility
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Ergonomics and Built Environment Ergonomics Analisys of Workplace
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Hospital Ergonomics
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Fig. 1. Best-researched themes in ergonomics in Brazil, according to the proceedings of congresses of ABERGO (Soares, 2005a, b, c).
Other authors have produced studies on usability, safety of product, and methodology based on ergonomics. Some examples of such studies are those carried out by Moraes et al. (2002b), Guimara˜es and Fogliatto (2001), and Soares (2000). Anthropometry and biomechanics are areas that have received much attention from Brazilian researchers over the years. Some examples are: (i) anthropometric recommendations for the design of products and workstation by Moraes and Quaresma (2000); (ii) studies on posture by Souza and Coury (2005), Ma´sculo et al. (2003), and Ma´sculo and Ca´rdia (2001); and (iii) studies on musculoskeletal disorders and body movements by Coury (2005), Padula and Coury (2003), Coury et al. (2002), Coury and Padula (2002), and Sande et al. (2001). Studies related to hospital ergonomics were carried by Gomes et al. (2004), Galdino and Soares (2001) and Gonc- alves et al. (2001). Barnes-Farrell et al. (2004) have carried out a comparative study on work ability for health care in five countries, including Brazil. Some innovative developments in the industry ergonomics sector were studied by Saurin and Guimara˜es (2006), Ma´sculo and Aversari (2003), and Soares et al. (2002). The area of organisational design and management (ODAM) has been investigated in a number of studies in Brazil. Some examples of such studies are: Tamayo et al. (2005) on competence and strategies for organisational intelligence; and Fischer et al. (2004), Sznelwar (2003), and Fischer et al. (2001) on the analysis of the work process and organisation. Finally, it is worth considering the recent studies involving methodological and theoretical aspects of ergonomics by Soares (2005b, c), Fogliatto and Guimara˜es (2004), Gomes et al. (2003) and Guimara˜es and Fogliatto (2000). In 2002, ABERGO created the Certification System of Brazilian Ergonomist, which was the first experiment in certification of ergonomists in Latin America. In September 2004, the first Brazilian ergonomists were awarded the certificate. There are currently 83 certified ergonomists in Brazil. The certification of groups and companies and the
accreditation of specialisation courses in ergonomics are scheduled to take place shortly. Brazil currently occupies a hegemonic position in Latin American ergonomics and a renowned place compared to other Portuguese and Spanish speaking countries. ABERGO has been affiliated with IEA (International Ergonomics Association) since 1991. In Brazil, the National Council of Ergonomics is the assistant agency to the Ministry of Labour and Employment on issues related to this field of knowledge. The Regulating Act No. 17 of the Ministry of Labour and Employment regulates ergonomics practice in Brazil.
4. Ergonomics in Chile Chilean ergonomics has been carried out by various laboratories of ergonomics that have developed relevant work across the country. The first of them, later called Ergonomics Unit, was set up in 1972 at the University of Concepcio´n (Figueroa, 2002). This Ergonomics Unit developed pioneering work together with the fishing, mining, and manufacturing sectors, with special attention to the work in forests, which had international recognition. Besa (quoted by Figueroa, 2002) reports the analysis of the first cases of tendonitis and tenossivitis in the Chilean Safety Association Company in 1985, which was carried out by a multidisciplinary team. In 1987, the same team set up the Ergonomics Laboratory at the Catholic University of Chile, which carried out work together with CEPAL, the United Nations agency in Chile, and carried out ergonomics analysis of the underground in Santiago. In 1992, the Ergonomics Laboratory finished its activities. Since 1988, the Ergonomic Centre and Workplace Studies (CEYET) started carrying out specific investigation into work in copper mines. Since its inception, this centre has become a meeting point for exchange among Chilean ergonomists. At present, some companies, e.g. the Chilean Safety Association, Institute of Workplace Safety and Mutual de Seguridad, hire their own ergonomists. There are several ergonomics consultancy companies in the country.
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Pe´rez (quoted by Figueroa, 2002) carried out a study to identify the rate of dissemination of ergonomics in the educational institutions in Chile, and concluded that ergonomics was taught on several graduation courses: design, forest engineering, industrial project engineering, odontology, psychology, and occupational therapy. Postgraduation diplomas, consisting of 300 h courses, are offered at the University of Concepcio´n and the University Gabriela Mistral. The National Ergonomics Commission, an agency of the Ministry of Labour, and Welfare, is involved with the study and regulation of heavy work. There are various rules for ergonomics in Chile, including visual warning information, thermo commodity, evaluation of posture for static work, school furniture, and information technology work. The Chilean Ergonomics Society (SOCHERGO)— http://sochergo.ergonomia.cl/—was founded on 30 September 1988 and has 35 members to date. The Board Meeting of IEA took place on 31 August and 1 September 2002, and on 3 September the ULAERGO, the Unia˜o Latino Americana de Ergonomia (Latin America Ergonomics Union), was founded in Santiago. 5. Ergonomics in Colombia Ergonomics is in its early stages in Colombia in the field of risk prevention in the workplace through consultancy services contracted by Professional Risks Business Companies. In the past couple of years, these companies, on their own initiative, have carried out ergonomics diagnostic tests to bring about changes in work activities. The Colombian Ergonomics Society (SCE)—www. scergonomia.com—was set up on 24 May 1996 at the 1st Colombian Congress of Ergonomics, which was attended by 240 participants. Although still young, the SCE has already made important contributions to Colombian ergonomics: e.g. its representation as a scientific society on the National Committee for Occupational Health; acknowledgement as the assistant agency to the Ministry of Social Protection; its participation, along with the Ministry of Social Protection, in policy making for the development of ergonomics in the country; the formulation of juridical norms of technical character for ergonomics in the country; the hiring, on the part of the Colombian Petroleum Company (ECOPETROL), for the creation and validation of directives on the company’s ergonomics nationwide. In addition to the 1st Colombian Congress of Ergonomics, there have been four other congresses of ergonomics. The last one took place at Medellin in 2004 on the theme of Ergonomics and the transfer of technology. At present, the educational provision for ergonomists in Colombia is concentrated in two specialisation courses in ergonomics at the University El Bosque in Bogota´ and at the University of Antioquia in Medellı´ n. The scientific research work in ergonomics is concentrated in the
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academic setting, both at the graduate and postgraduate levels, in the following fields: ergonomics, occupational health and prevention of workplace risks. The majority of the studies are related to physical ergonomics. 6. Ergonomics in Mexico The development of ergonomics in Mexico has sprung from two sources. The visit by Professor Nils Lundgren in 1970, sponsored by the Centro Nacional de Productividad, which encouraged interest in the field and the publication of various materials on the theme, and the setting up of the Association of Ergonomics, which worked precariously for a few years and died out shortly after that, but was restarted in 1997. Thus, The Ergonomists Society in Mexico (SEMAC)— www.semac.org.mx/—was re-founded in May 1997. On 20 November 1999, to mark the anniversary of the Mexican Revolution, the 1st International Congress of Ergonomics was held at Monterrey. Since then, SEMAC has offered seven annual congresses of ergonomics; the last one was held 3–5 November 2005 at Monterrey, Nuevo Leon. In 2001, SEMAC was recognised as a federated member of IEA. At present, SEMAC has 105 members, including engineers, doctors, designers, psychologists and business administrators. At present, there are very few ergonomists in the vast majority of companies in Mexico. Ergonomics work is performed by engineers, doctors and designers. Since 1974, the establishment of graduation courses in industrial design generated a great interest in the field of ergonomics. Ergonomics teaching is offered through a few modules on the courses of industrial design, industrial engineering, and psychology, mainly in the universities at Guadalajara, Cidade do Me´xico and Monterrey. In the past year, SEMAC has cooperated with the Secretariat for Labour and Social Prevention to review ergonomic norms. 7. Ergonomics in Peru The Peruvian Society of Ergonomics (SOPERGO)— www.sopergo.com—was created on 14 April 2004 by a group of professionals who belonged to the Centre of Risk Prevention of social security of Peru. A few meetings have been organised with the support of the International Labour Organisation, the Institute for Health Labour and local universities. To date, SOPERGO has hosted three annual meetings and a few basic courses in ergonomics. In professional terms, there is no legislation on ergonomics in Peru. A few multinational companies carry out intervention related to the evaluation of workstations. Although there is no educational provision for ergonomists in Peru, the subject is offered in the Master programme in Occupational Health at the National University Mayor de San Marcos and short courses are to be found at the
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University Ricardo Palma de Lima and at National Society of Industries. 8. Conclusion Ergonomics has faced many challenges in Latin America. With the exception of Brazilian ergonomics, which has shown consistent development since its inception, Latin American ergonomics is a field of knowledge that has not yet been fully consolidated. One of the main reasons was the lack of postgraduation programmes at the level of master and doctorate degrees, which may have hindered research in the majority of these countries. The implementation of postgraduation courses, in particular the specialisation courses, which qualify ergonomists for the market represents a challenge to several countries in Latin America. The professional practice of adequately qualified ergonomists may lead to a Certification System appropriate to each country. The successful experiment in certification such as that developed by Brazilian ergonomists may provide a model for those countries. The Latin America Ergonomics Union (ULAERGO)— http://ulaergo.ergonomia.cl/—established as a network of IEA, has become a leader in scientific development, cooperation, dissemination, and implementation of ergonomics on the continent. In the future, ULAERGO may become a catalyst for change in Latin American ergonomics, assisting in the formulation of common policies among the country members, which in turn can trigger development and cater to diversity among people. Through ULAERGO and the cooperative work of the various ergonomics associations, the successful experiences may be replicated and good practice disseminated across the continent. Acknowledgements The author thanks the President of the following Associations for providing the data used in this paper: Alfredo Garcia (SEMAC Me´xico); Anibal Hermoza (SOPERGO Peru); Gabriela Cuenca and Mario Poy (ADEA Argentina); Miguel Acevedo (SOCHERGO Chile), Nelcy Arevalo (SCE Colombia). References Barnes-Farrell, J., Bobko, N., Fischer, F.M., Iskra-Golec, I., Kaliterna, L., Tepas, D., 2004. Comparisons of work ability for health care in five countries. People and Work. Research Reports, Helsinki. vol. 65(1), pp. 76–82. Carvalho, P.V.R., Santos, I.J.A.L., Vidal, M.C.R., 2005. Nuclear power plant shift supervisor’s decision making during microincidents. Int. J. Ind. Ergonom. 35, 619–644. Coury, H.J.C.G., 2005. Time trends in ergonomic intervention research for improved musculoskeletal health and comfort in Latin America. Appl. Ergon. 36 (2), 249–252. Coury, H.J.C.G., Padula, R.S., 2002. Trunk movements and load support strategy in simulated handling tasks carried out by workers with and without musculoskeletal symptoms. Clin. Biomech. 17, 309–311.
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ARTICLE IN PRESS M.M. Soares / Applied Ergonomics 37 (2006) 555–561 Organizational Design and Management, second ed. Santa Monica., vol. 1, pp. 449–454. Moraes, A., Quaresma, M.M.R., 2000. Some causes of errors using anthropometric data when designing products and workstation. In: Proceedings of the IEA 2000/HFES 2000 Congress, San Diego, vol. 1, pp. 323–326. Moraes, A., Soares, M.M., 1989. Ergonomia no Brasil e no mundo: um quadro, uma fotografia (Ergonomics in Brazil and the world: a painting, a photography). ABERGO-Univerta, Rio de Janeiro. Moraes, A., Teixeira. E.A.S., 2003. Ergonomic study on web interface products focusing on broadband transmission and the use of plugins. In: Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Human– Computer Interaction, jointly with Symposium on Human Interface (Japan), 5th International Conference on Engineering Psychology and Cognitive Ergonomics, 2nd International Conference on Universal Access, Creta. Human–Computer Interact. 1, pp. 33–34. Moraes, A., Mont’Alva˜o, C.R., Quaresmoa, M.M., Dresch, A., Schonblum, R., 2002a. Designing a dynamic system traffic control of a freight railway. Behav. Inf. Technol. 21, 337–339. Moraes, A., Frisoni, B., Maca´rio, M., Noronha, C., 2002b. Usability, comfort and security: indispensable requirements in the design to guarantee a pleasurable interaction of the users with the smart products. In: Proceedengs of WWDU 2002, Sixth International Conference, Berchtesgaden, cd-Rom. Moraes, A., Russo, B., Oliveira, G.A., 2003. Analyse du travail des operateurs du centre de controle operationnel de la gare routiere de Rio de Janeiro. In: Actes du Congre´s de la SELF 2003, Paris, vol. 1, pp. 593–599. Neffa, J.C., Giraudo, P., Mendizabal, N., Poy, M., 2005. Telegestio´n: su impacto sobre la salud de los trabajadores. Ediciones Trabajo y Sociedad, Buenos Aires. Padovani, S., Lansdale, M.W., 2003. Balancing search and retrieval in hypertext: context-specific trade-offs in navigational tool use. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Stud. 58, 125–149. Padula, R.S., Coury, H.J.C.G., 2003. Saggital trunk movements during load carrying activities: a pilot study. Int. J. Ind. Ergonom. 32, 181–188. Poy, M., Gomes, J.O., Soares, M.M., 2006. L’analyse de l’activite´: expe´riences sud-ame´ricaines. Les cas de l0 Argentine et du Bre´sil. In: Valle´ry, G., Amalberti, R. (Eds.), L’analyse du travail en perspectivesInfluences et e´volutions. Octares Editions (Chapter 5). Ribeiro, L.G., Mont’Alva˜o, C.R., 2005. Passenger terminal and the efficiency in boarding, arrival and connection process: an ergonomic approach. In: ATRSW 2005–9th Air Transport Research Society World Conference, Rio de Janeiro, ATRS/UFRJ, Vancouver, CA, cdrom. Roberto, L., Gomes Netto, W., Edward, N., Isaac, S., Heitz, M., Gomes, J.O., Patterson, E., Woods, D., 2005. Out of well control.
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Applied Ergonomics 37 (2006) 555–561 www.elsevier.com/locate/apergo
Ergonomics in Latin America: Background, trends and challenges Marcelo M. Soares ABERGO—Brazilian Association of Ergonomics, Federal University of Pernambuco, Department of Design, Centro de Artes e Comunicac- a˜o, Cidade Universita´ria, 50.670-420 Recife – PE, Brazil
Abstract This paper offers an introduction to ergonomics in Latin America through a brief overview of ergonomics practice in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Mexico ,and Peru. It provides a short description of the history of ergonomics in each country, ergonomics teaching, its organisation through the ergonomics associations, and some highlights of the areas of interest, and examples of ergonomics practice. r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: History of ergonomics; Ergonomics education; Ergonomics development
1. Introduction In Latin America, ergonomics took its first steps in Brazil in the 1960s. Since then, there has been progressive development in the region. At present, there are various companies and research institutions that operate in several Latin American countries. The number of Latin American ergonomists at international conferences promoted by IEA has been growing considerably, and the number of studies reflects the current status of ergonomics in each country. This paper offers a brief overview of ergonomics in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru. It includes a short description of the history of ergonomics in each country, the training of ergonomists, ergonomics teaching, areas of interest of ergonomists, and the professional practice of ergonomics. Thus, this paper aims to contribute to record keeping of the evolution of ergonomics in Latin America, and to assist with the development of policies towards cooperation, ergonomics development, and mutual support among the several associations of ergonomics.
to a group of people and companies since its beginning. The theme of improvement of the quality of life in the workplace has been neglected due to issues such as industrial reconversion processes, privatisation, and inflation control (Hiba, 1991). As observed by Poy et al. (2006), there is a renewed interest in ergonomics and, in particular, the analysis of work activities. The author also highlights that, although there is a strong interest in ergonomics within the educational institutions, ergonomics has not yet been institutionalised in this country. The development of ergonomics in Argentina can be described in four periods: 2.1. The first period (1950–1960) In this period, the Argentine Ergonomics Society was created to carry out investigations and teaching related to human work. This society organised congresses and published a newsletter about ergonomics, but became dormant in 1975. The interest in this period was focused on the health of workers and the physiological aspects of human work.
2. Ergonomics in Argentina 2.2. The second period (1970s) According to Poy et al. (2006), the development of ergonomics in Argentina has been problematic and limited E-mail address: [email protected]. 0003-6870/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2006.04.014
In this period, interest was focused initially on anthropometrics and human–machine interactions. Manufacturing companies such as Philips and companies in the
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automotive sector took an interest in the theme of ergonomics, but the ergonomic changes, based on ‘common sense’, were initiatives by their engineers and were kept within the companies, did not reach a wider audience. Another aspect of the 1970s was the setting up of various laboratories at universities such as those at the Universities of Rosario, La Plata, Cuyo, and Cordoba. 2.3. The third period (1980s and 1990s) Two aspects indicated the state of ergonomics in Argentina in the 1980s: the National Meetings of Ergonomics Laboratories (RELAERGO), which were held every four years until 1995; and the agreements for scientific cooperation between Argentina and Germany, and between Argentina and France. Such agreements allowed Argentine engineers and doctors to graduate in Germany and in France, and French ergonomists, e.g. Wisner, Laville, Queinnec, Dessors, and Jaillet, to come to Argentina, invited by CEIL-CONICET. Thus, with the assistance of these researchers, the factors related to the organisation of work, and the assignment of activities was introduced into Argentina for the first time. In 1990s, at the request of the telephone company workers’ union, an ergonomics study was carried out to analyse the impact of information technology processes on the health of operators. On this occasion, some ergonomists who had graduated in France joined the research group. According to Poy et al. (2006), this was the first time that the ergonomics analysis of work activity was carried out systematically in Argentina. 2.4. The fourth period (the present time) On 30 July 2002, the Argentine Ergonomics Association (ADEA)—www.adeargentina.org.ar—was re-established. In the year following its foundation, ADEA was recognised as affiliated to IEA. Since its foundation, ADEA has offered two conferences, Latin American Ergonomics Seminars, and hosted a meeting of ULAERGO (The Latin America Ergonomics Union). ADEA also has links with the Ministry of Health of the Nation and the Superintendence of Workplace Risks. At present, the work of ergonomists in Argentina is found mainly in the universities, companies of various industrial sectors such as Peugeot, Fenix, Volkswaguen, Ford, Arcor, Kraft, Petrobras, Food, and workplace risk insurance companies. In Argentina, ergonomics teaching is currently offered on two postgraduate courses, of 500 h each, at the Siglo XXI National University, in Cordoba,and at IRAM, in Buenos Aires. Furthermore, the subject of ergonomics is taught (i) on the graduate courses in industrial design, industrial engineering, kinesiology, physiology, and psychology and (ii) on the postgraduate courses (masters and doctorate levels) in Occupational Medicine, Hygiene
and Workplace Safety, Social Science of Work, and Kinesiology. An example of developments in the ergonomics science in Argentina is the study carried out by Neffa et al. (2005) on the impact of corporate teletraining on workers’ health. Finally, the growing number of agreements for cooperation and exchange with scientific-academic institutions, at both the regional and international levels, result in exchange of experience, translation of publications, participation at congresses and seminars. Such activities contribute to the development of ergonomics in this country. 3. Ergonomics in Brazil The dissemination of ergonomics in Brazil has been established, according to Moraes and Soares (1989), through six main episodes. The first episode took place in the 1960s, in the Polytechnic School at the University of Sa˜o Paulo, with the introduction of studies related to ergonomics on the Manufacturing Engineering course. The experience was replicated at other manufacturing engineering schools across the country. During this period, the company GAPP (Associate Group for Research and Planning) was founded and started to offer consultancy services in ergonomics to various Brazilian companies, such as Companhia Siderurgica Nacional and the METRO in Sao Paulo. The second episode took place at the beginning of the 1970s, at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, with the introduction of ergonomics teaching into the postgraduate course of Manufacturing Engineering. Thus, this institution became a centre for dissemination of ergonomics knowledge, producing several dissertations and theses on the theme. In 1978, the first book on ergonomics written by a Brazilian author was published, Ergonomia: notas de classe (Ergonomics: class notes), by Professor Itiro Iida. In 1971, the first doctorate thesis in ergonomics was defended in Brazil, at the University of Sa˜o Paulo. The thesis, by Professor Itiro Iida, was entitled A ergonomia do manejo (‘The ergonomics of handling’). The third episode was located at the College of Industrial Design, at the State University of Rio de Janeiro, with the introduction of ergonomics teaching, in 1976, into the industrial design course, according to the model of the U¨lm School in Germany. Following this experience, ergonomics became a compulsory subject into industrial design courses across the country. The role of ergonomics in the development of projects in industrial design and its inclusion in the curriculum of industrial design courses explains the great number of designers who are members of ABERGO (Brazilian Association of Ergonomics). Interestingly, this joining of ergonomics and design (?) takes place only in Brazil. It is important to mention that this distinctive feature marked the emphasis of Brazilian ergonomics on ergonomic design. It was only in the last
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decades that the international literature recognised the relationship designated ‘ergonomics and design’. The fourth episode was identified through studies related to ergonomic psychology, with emphasis on visual perception concepts applied to the study of traffic, training of drivers, and studies on motorway accidents at the University of Sao Paulo, campus of Ribeira˜o Preto. The fifth episode took place at the Higher Institute of Studies and Psychosocial Research of Getu´lio Vargas Foundation, in Rio de Janeiro. In 1974, this Institute organised the 1st Brazilian Ergonomics Seminar, a hallmark in the history of Brazilian ergonomics, and in 1975 implemented the first Specialisation Course in Ergonomics in Brazil. This course was taken by several ergonomists, who are currently teaching in various courses and working on the establishment of ergonomics groups within companies and academia. The sixth episode was marked, still in the 1970s, by the visit of Professor Alain Wisner from the Conservatoire National des Arts et Me´tiers in France. Professor Wisner became a great supporter of Brazilian ergonomics and was responsible for the education, at postgraduate level, of various Brazilian researchers who are currently responsible for the development of several research studies and postgraduate programmes at Brazilian universities. The academic cooperation between Brazil and France resulted in a strong role of French ergonomics in the practice of a great number of Brazilian ergonomists. Moraes (2002) states that English ergonomics lost its opportunity to influence Brazilian ergonomics due to the lack of linkages between British and American universities and Brazilian universities in this field of knowledge. In Brazil, ergonomics is currently a taught module in hundreds of graduate courses in the fields of industrial design, architecture, manufacturing engineering, occupational therapy, odontology, psychology, etc. Several of these courses also offer master and doctorate degrees in which ergonomics is one of the main fields of study of the postgraduation programme. These courses are taught at the federal and state Universities in the states of Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraı´ ba, Pernambuco, Estadual de Sao Paulo, and at the Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro. Hundreds of doctorate theses and master dissertations in ergonomics have been produced in these teaching and research institutions. Although ergonomics has already been consolidated, academically speaking, in Brazil in the master and doctorate courses, the professional training of the ergonomists, who will do the fieldwork, takes place through specialisation courses of at least 360 contact hours. At present, there are several ergonomics companies in Brazil and a great number of ergonomists working for private and governmental companies in various areas, such as metallurgy, steel industry, civil engineering, aviation, informatics, energy. The Brazilian Association of Ergonomics (ABERGO)— www.abergo.org.br—was founded on 31st August 1983
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and currently has about 350 members from all regions across the country, from diverse educational backgrounds: e.g. business administration, architecture, social service, biology, industrial design, nursing studies, various engineering domains, physiotherapy, medicine, psychology, occupational therapy, etc. ABERGO has eight Technical Groups in the various domains of ergonomics: Teaching and Graduation in Ergonomics; Product Normalisation and Certification; Musculoskeletal Lesion Prevention/Rehabilitation; Ergonomists’ Certification; Accessibility and Universal Design; Ergodesign and Product Usability; Information and Human–Computer Interaction; Occupational Biomechanics and Workplace Physiology, and Ergonomics of Built Environment. ABERGO has Scientific Council, comprising 20 renowned senior researchers, which is the assistant agency to the Executive Committee on the formulation and implementation of policies for education, accreditation and certification in ergonomics. Thirteen congresses in ergonomics have taken place in Brazil, attended by around 500 participants and an impressive number of international guests. The congresses are currently held every two years. Soares (2005a), on the basis of an inventory of the proceedings of Brazilian Congresses in Ergonomics (1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, and 2004), states that the bestresearched fields in ergonomics in Brazil are: hospital ergonomics, product ergonomics, industry ergonomics, ergonomics and services, ergonomics and built environment, ergonomics analysis of workplace, biomechanics, ergonomics and accessibility, ergonomics design, informational ergonomics and HCI (?), and ergonomics and work safety (Fig. 1). Some innovative developments in science in Brazil can be found in the following examples: The developments in human factors of information and communication technologies include studies on the prediction of information, interface, telework, and environmental design carried out by Fonseca et al. (2002) and Moraes (2003); studies on web interface by Moraes and Teixeira (2003) and Padovani and Lansdale (2003), and studies on communication technologies by Fialho et al. (2005) and Vidal and Bonfatti (2003). Studies on psychosocial factors of sociotechnical systems were produced by (i) Carvalho et al. (2005) about a nuclear power plant; (ii) Santos et al. (1998) on anthropotechnology of the ergonomics production systems; and (iii) Diniz et al. (2005) and Roberto et al. (2005) on knowledge management support for collaborative emergency response and control systems. Transport is an area that some Brazilian researchers have focused on lately. Studies on traffic control and control operation were carried out by Moraes et al. (2002a, 2003). Ribeiro and Mont’Alva˜o (2005) have studied an ergonomics approach to efficiency in boarding, arrival and the connection procedures.
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70
32
27
25
25
25
Info Ergonomics and HCI Ergonomics and Work Safety
37
Ergonomics Design
40
Biomecanichs
Ergonomics and Services
Industry Ergonomics
Product Ergonomics
42
Ergonomics and Acessibility
56
Ergonomics and Built Environment Ergonomics Analisys of Workplace
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Hospital Ergonomics
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Fig. 1. Best-researched themes in ergonomics in Brazil, according to the proceedings of congresses of ABERGO (Soares, 2005a, b, c).
Other authors have produced studies on usability, safety of product, and methodology based on ergonomics. Some examples of such studies are those carried out by Moraes et al. (2002b), Guimara˜es and Fogliatto (2001), and Soares (2000). Anthropometry and biomechanics are areas that have received much attention from Brazilian researchers over the years. Some examples are: (i) anthropometric recommendations for the design of products and workstation by Moraes and Quaresma (2000); (ii) studies on posture by Souza and Coury (2005), Ma´sculo et al. (2003), and Ma´sculo and Ca´rdia (2001); and (iii) studies on musculoskeletal disorders and body movements by Coury (2005), Padula and Coury (2003), Coury et al. (2002), Coury and Padula (2002), and Sande et al. (2001). Studies related to hospital ergonomics were carried by Gomes et al. (2004), Galdino and Soares (2001) and Gonc- alves et al. (2001). Barnes-Farrell et al. (2004) have carried out a comparative study on work ability for health care in five countries, including Brazil. Some innovative developments in the industry ergonomics sector were studied by Saurin and Guimara˜es (2006), Ma´sculo and Aversari (2003), and Soares et al. (2002). The area of organisational design and management (ODAM) has been investigated in a number of studies in Brazil. Some examples of such studies are: Tamayo et al. (2005) on competence and strategies for organisational intelligence; and Fischer et al. (2004), Sznelwar (2003), and Fischer et al. (2001) on the analysis of the work process and organisation. Finally, it is worth considering the recent studies involving methodological and theoretical aspects of ergonomics by Soares (2005b, c), Fogliatto and Guimara˜es (2004), Gomes et al. (2003) and Guimara˜es and Fogliatto (2000). In 2002, ABERGO created the Certification System of Brazilian Ergonomist, which was the first experiment in certification of ergonomists in Latin America. In September 2004, the first Brazilian ergonomists were awarded the certificate. There are currently 83 certified ergonomists in Brazil. The certification of groups and companies and the
accreditation of specialisation courses in ergonomics are scheduled to take place shortly. Brazil currently occupies a hegemonic position in Latin American ergonomics and a renowned place compared to other Portuguese and Spanish speaking countries. ABERGO has been affiliated with IEA (International Ergonomics Association) since 1991. In Brazil, the National Council of Ergonomics is the assistant agency to the Ministry of Labour and Employment on issues related to this field of knowledge. The Regulating Act No. 17 of the Ministry of Labour and Employment regulates ergonomics practice in Brazil.
4. Ergonomics in Chile Chilean ergonomics has been carried out by various laboratories of ergonomics that have developed relevant work across the country. The first of them, later called Ergonomics Unit, was set up in 1972 at the University of Concepcio´n (Figueroa, 2002). This Ergonomics Unit developed pioneering work together with the fishing, mining, and manufacturing sectors, with special attention to the work in forests, which had international recognition. Besa (quoted by Figueroa, 2002) reports the analysis of the first cases of tendonitis and tenossivitis in the Chilean Safety Association Company in 1985, which was carried out by a multidisciplinary team. In 1987, the same team set up the Ergonomics Laboratory at the Catholic University of Chile, which carried out work together with CEPAL, the United Nations agency in Chile, and carried out ergonomics analysis of the underground in Santiago. In 1992, the Ergonomics Laboratory finished its activities. Since 1988, the Ergonomic Centre and Workplace Studies (CEYET) started carrying out specific investigation into work in copper mines. Since its inception, this centre has become a meeting point for exchange among Chilean ergonomists. At present, some companies, e.g. the Chilean Safety Association, Institute of Workplace Safety and Mutual de Seguridad, hire their own ergonomists. There are several ergonomics consultancy companies in the country.
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Pe´rez (quoted by Figueroa, 2002) carried out a study to identify the rate of dissemination of ergonomics in the educational institutions in Chile, and concluded that ergonomics was taught on several graduation courses: design, forest engineering, industrial project engineering, odontology, psychology, and occupational therapy. Postgraduation diplomas, consisting of 300 h courses, are offered at the University of Concepcio´n and the University Gabriela Mistral. The National Ergonomics Commission, an agency of the Ministry of Labour, and Welfare, is involved with the study and regulation of heavy work. There are various rules for ergonomics in Chile, including visual warning information, thermo commodity, evaluation of posture for static work, school furniture, and information technology work. The Chilean Ergonomics Society (SOCHERGO)— http://sochergo.ergonomia.cl/—was founded on 30 September 1988 and has 35 members to date. The Board Meeting of IEA took place on 31 August and 1 September 2002, and on 3 September the ULAERGO, the Unia˜o Latino Americana de Ergonomia (Latin America Ergonomics Union), was founded in Santiago. 5. Ergonomics in Colombia Ergonomics is in its early stages in Colombia in the field of risk prevention in the workplace through consultancy services contracted by Professional Risks Business Companies. In the past couple of years, these companies, on their own initiative, have carried out ergonomics diagnostic tests to bring about changes in work activities. The Colombian Ergonomics Society (SCE)—www. scergonomia.com—was set up on 24 May 1996 at the 1st Colombian Congress of Ergonomics, which was attended by 240 participants. Although still young, the SCE has already made important contributions to Colombian ergonomics: e.g. its representation as a scientific society on the National Committee for Occupational Health; acknowledgement as the assistant agency to the Ministry of Social Protection; its participation, along with the Ministry of Social Protection, in policy making for the development of ergonomics in the country; the formulation of juridical norms of technical character for ergonomics in the country; the hiring, on the part of the Colombian Petroleum Company (ECOPETROL), for the creation and validation of directives on the company’s ergonomics nationwide. In addition to the 1st Colombian Congress of Ergonomics, there have been four other congresses of ergonomics. The last one took place at Medellin in 2004 on the theme of Ergonomics and the transfer of technology. At present, the educational provision for ergonomists in Colombia is concentrated in two specialisation courses in ergonomics at the University El Bosque in Bogota´ and at the University of Antioquia in Medellı´ n. The scientific research work in ergonomics is concentrated in the
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academic setting, both at the graduate and postgraduate levels, in the following fields: ergonomics, occupational health and prevention of workplace risks. The majority of the studies are related to physical ergonomics. 6. Ergonomics in Mexico The development of ergonomics in Mexico has sprung from two sources. The visit by Professor Nils Lundgren in 1970, sponsored by the Centro Nacional de Productividad, which encouraged interest in the field and the publication of various materials on the theme, and the setting up of the Association of Ergonomics, which worked precariously for a few years and died out shortly after that, but was restarted in 1997. Thus, The Ergonomists Society in Mexico (SEMAC)— www.semac.org.mx/—was re-founded in May 1997. On 20 November 1999, to mark the anniversary of the Mexican Revolution, the 1st International Congress of Ergonomics was held at Monterrey. Since then, SEMAC has offered seven annual congresses of ergonomics; the last one was held 3–5 November 2005 at Monterrey, Nuevo Leon. In 2001, SEMAC was recognised as a federated member of IEA. At present, SEMAC has 105 members, including engineers, doctors, designers, psychologists and business administrators. At present, there are very few ergonomists in the vast majority of companies in Mexico. Ergonomics work is performed by engineers, doctors and designers. Since 1974, the establishment of graduation courses in industrial design generated a great interest in the field of ergonomics. Ergonomics teaching is offered through a few modules on the courses of industrial design, industrial engineering, and psychology, mainly in the universities at Guadalajara, Cidade do Me´xico and Monterrey. In the past year, SEMAC has cooperated with the Secretariat for Labour and Social Prevention to review ergonomic norms. 7. Ergonomics in Peru The Peruvian Society of Ergonomics (SOPERGO)— www.sopergo.com—was created on 14 April 2004 by a group of professionals who belonged to the Centre of Risk Prevention of social security of Peru. A few meetings have been organised with the support of the International Labour Organisation, the Institute for Health Labour and local universities. To date, SOPERGO has hosted three annual meetings and a few basic courses in ergonomics. In professional terms, there is no legislation on ergonomics in Peru. A few multinational companies carry out intervention related to the evaluation of workstations. Although there is no educational provision for ergonomists in Peru, the subject is offered in the Master programme in Occupational Health at the National University Mayor de San Marcos and short courses are to be found at the
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University Ricardo Palma de Lima and at National Society of Industries. 8. Conclusion Ergonomics has faced many challenges in Latin America. With the exception of Brazilian ergonomics, which has shown consistent development since its inception, Latin American ergonomics is a field of knowledge that has not yet been fully consolidated. One of the main reasons was the lack of postgraduation programmes at the level of master and doctorate degrees, which may have hindered research in the majority of these countries. The implementation of postgraduation courses, in particular the specialisation courses, which qualify ergonomists for the market represents a challenge to several countries in Latin America. The professional practice of adequately qualified ergonomists may lead to a Certification System appropriate to each country. The successful experiment in certification such as that developed by Brazilian ergonomists may provide a model for those countries. The Latin America Ergonomics Union (ULAERGO)— http://ulaergo.ergonomia.cl/—established as a network of IEA, has become a leader in scientific development, cooperation, dissemination, and implementation of ergonomics on the continent. In the future, ULAERGO may become a catalyst for change in Latin American ergonomics, assisting in the formulation of common policies among the country members, which in turn can trigger development and cater to diversity among people. Through ULAERGO and the cooperative work of the various ergonomics associations, the successful experiences may be replicated and good practice disseminated across the continent. Acknowledgements The author thanks the President of the following Associations for providing the data used in this paper: Alfredo Garcia (SEMAC Me´xico); Anibal Hermoza (SOPERGO Peru); Gabriela Cuenca and Mario Poy (ADEA Argentina); Miguel Acevedo (SOCHERGO Chile), Nelcy Arevalo (SCE Colombia). References Barnes-Farrell, J., Bobko, N., Fischer, F.M., Iskra-Golec, I., Kaliterna, L., Tepas, D., 2004. Comparisons of work ability for health care in five countries. People and Work. Research Reports, Helsinki. vol. 65(1), pp. 76–82. Carvalho, P.V.R., Santos, I.J.A.L., Vidal, M.C.R., 2005. Nuclear power plant shift supervisor’s decision making during microincidents. Int. J. Ind. Ergonom. 35, 619–644. Coury, H.J.C.G., 2005. Time trends in ergonomic intervention research for improved musculoskeletal health and comfort in Latin America. Appl. Ergon. 36 (2), 249–252. Coury, H.J.C.G., Padula, R.S., 2002. Trunk movements and load support strategy in simulated handling tasks carried out by workers with and without musculoskeletal symptoms. Clin. Biomech. 17, 309–311.
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