Evolution of lithofacies and paleogeography and hydrocarbon distribution worldwide (II)

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT Volume 46, Issue 5, October 2019 Online English edition of the Chinese language journal Cite this article as: PETROL. EXPLOR. DEVELOP., 2019, 46(5): 896–918.

RESEARCH PAPER

Evolution of lithofacies and paleogeography and hydrocarbon distribution worldwide (Ⅱ) ZHANG Guangya1, TONG Xiaoguang2, XIN Renchen3,*, WEN Zhixin1, MA Feng1, HUANG Tongfei1, WANG Zhaoming1, YU Bingsong3, LI Yuejun4, CHEN Hanlin5, LIU Xiaobing1, LIU Zuodong1 1. Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration & Development, PetroChina, Beijing 100083, China; 2. China National Oil and Gas Exploration and Development Company Ltd., Beijing 100034, China; 3. China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China; 4. Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China; 5. Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China

Abstract: Based on the compilation and analysis of the lithofacies and paleogeography distribution maps at present and paleoplate locations during six key geological periods of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic, the lithofacies and paleogeography features and their development laws were expounded. Based on our previous research results on lithofacies and paleogeography from Precambrian to Paleozoic, we systematically studied the features and evolution laws of global lithofacies and paleogeography from the Precambrian and their effects on the formation of source rocks, reservoirs, cap rocks and the distribution of oil and gas worldwide. The results show that since Precambrian, the distribution areas of uplift erosion and terrestrial clastic deposition tended to increase gradually, and increased significantly during the period of continental growth. The scale of coastal and shallow marine facies area had three distinct cycles, namely, from Precambrian to Devonian, from Carboniferous to Triassic, and from Jurassic to Neogene. Correspondingly, the development of shallow carbonate platform also showed three cycles; the lacustrine facies onshore was relatively developed in Mesozoic and Cenozoic; the sabkha was mainly developed in the Devonian, Permian and Triassic. The Cretaceous is the most important source rock layers in the world, followed by the Jurassic and Paleogene source rocks; the clastic reservoirs have more oil and gas than the carbonate reservoirs; the basins with shale caprocks have the widest distribution, the most abundant reserves of oil and gas, and the evaporite caprocks have the strongest sealing capacity, which can seal some huge oil and gas fields. Key words: global; lithofacies and paleogeography; plate tectonics; tectonic evolution; source rocks; reservoir; caprock; oil and gas distribution

Introduction This paper presents a further discussion on the lithofacies and paleogeography in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic worldwide. Based on the previous research on the lithofacies and paleogeography in the Precambrian and Paleozoic[1], the evolution of lithofacies and paleogeography worldwide since the Precambrian and its relations with the formation of source rocks, reservoir rocks and caprocks and the hydrocarbon distribution were studied, in order to provide solid foundations for identifying favorable plays.

1. The lithofacies and paleogeography in Mesozoic worldwide 1.1.

Lithofacies and paleogeography in the Triassic

1.1.1. Distribution of lithofacies and paleogeography in the Triassic The Eurasia continent primarily comprised uplift erosion

zones. Inside the uplift erosion zones, there were: (1) alluvial facies dominated by conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone (e.g. Timan-Pechora Basin[2]), and alluvial facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (e.g. Mezen Basin[3], Syr Darya Basin[4], North Ustyurt Basin[5], Moore Basin, and southern part and local eastern part of Siberian Platform); (2) lacustrine facies dominated by coal-bearing rocks (e.g. Turgay Basin[6]), and lacustrine facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (e.g. Tarim Basin); and (3) littoral and sabkha facies dominated by evaporite and clastic rocks (e.g. southern American Block, Galician Basin, and NE Germany–Poland Basin), littoral and sabkha facies dominated by evaporite and carbonate (e.g. northern margin of the Arabia plate), and littoral and sabkha facies dominated by evaporite (e.g. northeastern Iberian Massif). At the Eurasia continent margins, there were: (1) littoral-neritic and delta facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (e.g. East Barents Sea Basin[7]); (2) neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (e.g. Franz Josef Plat-

Received date: 14 Mar. 2018; Revised date: 20 Jul. 2019. * Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected] Foundation item: Supported by the China National Science and Technology Major Project (2011ZX05028-003, 2016ZX05029-001). https://doi.org/10.1016/S1876-3804(19)60248-X Copyright © 2019, Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration & Development, PetroChina. Publishing Services provided by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co., Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

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form, Pre-Caspian Basin[8], North Caucasia Platform and others), and mixed neritic facies dominated by sandstone, mudstone and carbonate (e.g. Amu Darya Basin, Qiangtang Basin[9], Sichuan Basin[10] and others); and (3) neritic facies dominated by carbonate (e.g. northeastern margin of the Zagros Basin). The bathyal–abyssal facies developed in East Mediterranean–Himalaya, Okhotsk Sea and other areas. The North America and Greenland continents were composed predominantly of uplift erosion zones. Alluvial facies dominated by conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone developed at the southeastern margin of the continent, and neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone at the northern and southwestern margins of North America. The South America continent was dominated by uplift erosion zones, with alluvial facies of sandstone and mudstone between them (e.g. Chaco-Parana Basin, Parana Basin, and Parnaiba Basin). Mixed neritic facies of sandstone, mudstone and carbonate occurred at the northern and western margins of the continent. The Africa continent was represented by uplift erosion zones. Between the zones, there were: (1) alluvial facies dominated by conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone (e.g. Taoudenni Basin[11], and Zaire or Congo Basin[12]); and (2) alluvial facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (e.g. Murzuq Basin[13], and Kufrah Basin). Littoral-neritic and sabkha facies dominated by sandstone, mudstone and evaporite developed at the western margin of the Africa continent, while neritic facies dominated by sandstone, mudstone and carbonate at the northern margin. Neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone came up at the northern margin of the Madagascar Block and in the eastern part of the Africa continent. The Oceania continent had uplift erosion zones in intermittent distribution, which were larger in scale in the western part. Alluvial facies like sandstone and mudstone were dominant in the northern, eastern and northwestern parts. Neritic facies represented by sandstone and mudstone developed in the Browse Block at the northwestern margin. Littoral-neritic sabkha facies represented by clastic and evaporite rocks occurred in the Papua Basin at the northeastern margin. The Antarctica continent was dominated by uplift erosion zones. Alluvial facies of volcanic clastic occurred in the northern part of areas between the East Antarctic Shield and the South Pole Basin, while neritic facies represented by volcanic rocks and clastic were widespread in the western part of the East Antarctic Shield and the western and northern parts of the West Antarctic Shield (Fig. 1). 1.1.2. Distribution of lithofacies and paleogeography at 220 Ma The northeastern Eurasia, Tarim, Amur, North China and northern South China plates were situated at around 30°N under warm temperate climate. All these plates had uplift erosion zones surrounded by clastic of littoral-neritic facies. Clastic alluvial facies was dominant in northeastern Eurasia, clastic of lacustrine facies in Tarim and central North China,

and clastic and carbonate of littoral-neritic facies in central South China. The southern Eurasia, Cimmeria, southern South China and Indochina stayed between 45°N and the equator, under tropical climate. The southern Eurasia had mainly uplift erosion zones with clastic rock of alluvial facies inside. The Cimmeria, southern South China and Indochina plates were dominated by clastic rock of littoral-neritic facies, with uplift erosion zones locally. The Laurentia, Arabia, northern South America and northern Africa plates were near the equator, under arid climate, in which there were uplift erosion zones, with clastic of alluvial facies, carbonate and evaporite of littoral-neritic facies and clastic of littoral-neritic facies. The Laurentia plate contained clastic of lacustrine facies locally. The southern South America, southern Africa, Australia and Antarctica plates were south of 15°S, under warm temperate climate, and all had uplift erosion zones. Alluvial facies of clastic rock was dominant in the southern South America and Australia, while clastic rock and carbonate of littoral-neritic facies turned up at the margins (Fig. 2a). 1.2.

Lithofacies and paleogeography in the Jurassic

1.2.1. Distribution of lithofacies and paleogeography in the Jurassic In the Eurasia, the Kara Sea North Platform, western West Siberia Basin, Syr Darya Basin, and northeastern Siberian Platform were dominated by sandstone and mudstone of mixed alluvial facies. The eastern Kazakhstan Shield was dominated by sandstone and mudstone of lacustrine facies, while the northern North Ustyurt Basin, northern West Siberia Basin, and western Pre-Novaya Zemlya Foredeep Basin were dominated by sandstone and mudstone of delta facies. The northeastern Siberian Platform, Pre-Caspian Basin, southern Baltic Shield, and southern London–Brabant Platform were dominated by sandstone, mudstone and carbonate of neritic facies. The NE Germany–Poland Basin was dominated by metamorphic clastic of neritic facies, while the Black Sea region was bathyal–abyssal facies. The North America– Greenland region was mainly composed of uplift erosion zones. The northern margin of North America, Williston Basin and Denver Basin were dominated by sandstone and mudstone of neritic facies, while the southeastern part developed carbonate of neritic facies. Between North America and South America there were sandstone and evaporite of littoral-neritic and sabkha facies. The western and northern margins of South America had sandstone and mudstone of neritic facies. The Solimoins Basin and Parnaiba Basin had sandstone and mudstone of lacustrine facies. The southeastern margin, ChacoParana Basin, San Francisco Basin and Parana Basin developed sandstone and mudstone of alluvial facies. In Africa, uplift erosion zones and sandstone and mudstone of alluvial facies were dominant generally, with alluvial facies widespread in the southern and northern parts and uplift erosion zones in the central and eastern parts. The Oceania was dominated by uplift erosion zones, and sandstone and mud-

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Fig. 1.

Lithofacies and paleogeography in the Upper Triassic worldwide.

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Fig. 2.

Restored lithofacies and paleogeography in the Triassic–Early Cretaceous worldwide.

stone of alluvial facies. The Antarctica was composed predominantly of uplift erosion zones, with a small range of volcanic clastic rock of neritic facies in the eastern part (Figs. 3 and 4). 1.2.2. Distribution of lithofacies and paleogeography at 165 Ma The northern Eurasia and Amur plates sat north of 60°N under cold temperate climate, and had largely uplift erosion zones inside, and continental clastic of alluvial facies locally and clastic of littoral-neritic flacies at the margins. The Laurentia, Eurasia, Tarim, North China, South China and other plates were distributed between 15°N and 60°N, under warm temperate climate, and had mainly uplift erosion zones, and continental clastic rock of alluvial facies locally and clas-

tic of littoral-neritic facies at the margins. The South America, central and northern Africa and Arabia plates were near the equator under arid climate, and had dominantly uplift erosion zones, and clastic of littoral-neritic and sabkha facies at the margins. The Africa plate had largely continental clastic of alluvial facies. The Southern South America, southern Africa, India and Australia plates were distributed near 45°S under warm temperate climate. The Southern Africa and India plates were dominated by uplift erosion zones, with clastic and carbonate of littoral-neritic facies at the margins. The southern South America and Australia plates were dominated by continental clastic of alluvial facies, with uplift erosion zones locally and clastic and carbonate of littoral-neritic facies at the margins. The Antarctica plate, at south of 60°S under cold

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Fig. 3.

Restored lithofacies and paleogeography in the Late Cretaceous–Neogene worldwide.

temperate climate, had uplift erosion zones in the main part, and clastic rock of littoral-neritic facies at the margins (Fig. 2b). 1.3. Lithofacies and paleogeography in the Lower Cretaceous 1.3.1. Distribution of lithofacies and paleogeography in the Lower Cretaceous The Eurasia continent had separated uplift erosion zones, with clastic rock of lacustrine and alluvial facies in-between. At the margins of the Europe–Central-North Asia continent, there were: (1) delta facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (e.g. East Barents Sea Basin[14]); (2) littoral facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (e.g. Barents Sea, and

Pre-Caspian Basin[8]); (3) neritic facies dominated by sandstone, mudstone and carbonate (e.g. Qiangtang Basin[9]); (4) neritic facies dominated by carbonate (e.g. Zagros Basin[15]); (5) neritic facies dominated by volcanics and clastic rock (e.g. North Okhotsk Sea Basin); and (6) neritic facies dominated by metamorphic rocks (e.g. west of the North Okhotsk Sea). The bathyal–abyssal facies occurred predominantly in the northern side of the Arabia plate. The central North America, central Greenland and Dominica Belt–Selwyn Fold Belt were largely uplift erosion zones. The Gulf of Mexico Basin, northeastern margin of North America and southwestern margin of the Greenland Shield had alluvial facies dominated by conglomerate, sandstone and

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Fig. 4.

Lithofacies and paleogeography in the Middle Jurassic worldwide.

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mudstone. The Yucatan Platform had littoral-neritic + sabkha facies dominated by evaporite and carbonate. At the margins of the North America–Greenland plate, there were extensive neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone. The South America continent had uplift erosion zones alternating with alluvial facies and lacustrine facies. In general, alluvial facies involved 2 types of lithofacies: (1) conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone (e.g. southern part of the Guaporé Shield); and (2) sandstone and mudstone (e.g. Solimois Basin). At the northern, western and southern margins of South America, there were: (1) mixed neritic facies dominated by sandstone, mudstone and carbonate; and (2) neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone. In Africa, uplift erosion zones dominated the central part, but were small in scale in the southern and northern parts. Between these zones, there were: (1) alluvial facies dominated by conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone (e.g. Murzuq Basin[13] and Muglad Basin[16-18]); (2) alluvial facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (e.g. Okovango Basin); and (3) alluvial facies dominated by volcanic clastic (e.g. northern Karoo Basin). At the margins of the Africa continent, there were: (1) littoral-neritic and sabkha facies dominated by mudstone, sandstone and evaporite (e.g. Nuba Block); (2) littoral-neritic and sabkha facies dominated by carbonate and evaporite (e.g. Somali Basin); (3) neritic facies dominated by sandstone, mudstone and volcanic clastic (e.g. West Africa Coastal Basin[19]); (4) neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (e.g. Rovuma Basin spanning northwestern Africa and northeastern Africa[2021]); and (5) neritic facies dominated by sandstone, mudstone and carbonate (e.g. northern Africa). Lacustrine facies came up in both inland Africa and eastern margin of the Africa continent, mainly composed of sandstone and mudstone. In Oceania, the Yilgarnia Terrain, Aranda Block, Orpheus Basin and South Tasman Heights were uplift erosion zones. The southeastern part and the Canning Basin had alluvial facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone. The northern and eastern parts of Oceania had neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone. The western part and the Browse Block developed neritic facies of sandstone mudstone and carbonate. The main part of Antarctica was uplift erosion zone, and alluvial–neritic facies composed of clastic occurred at the margin close to the Indian Ocean and extensive neritic facies composed of volcanic clastic turned up at the margin close to the Pacific Ocean[22] (Fig. 5). 1.3.2. Distribution of lithofacies and paleogeography at 125 Ma The northern margin of Eurasia was north of 60°N, under cold temperate climate. The central part was dominated by uplift erosion zones and clastic rock of lacustrine facies, while the margins by clastic rock of littoral-neritic facies. Laurussia, Eurasia, Amur, North China, South China and Indochina plates were between 30°N and 60°N, under warm temperate

climate. All these plates had uplift erosion zones in the main parts, and clastic rock of littoral-neritic facies at the margins. In Eurasia, there were massive clastic rock zones of delta facies. In Amur, North China, South China and Indochina, there were widespread clastic rock zones of lacustrine facies. The southern tip of Eurasia, northern South America, northern Africa and Arabia were near the equator, under arid climate, with uplift erosion zones and clastic of alluvial facies inside and clastic and carbonate rocks of littoral-neritic facies at the margins. South America and central and marginal areas of Africa had clastic rock zones of lacustrine facies. Eurasia, parts of Australia and southern tip of the Eurasia plate, had carbonate and evaporite of littoral-neritic facies, indicating arid climate. The southern South America, southern Africa, India and Australia were around 45°S, under warm temperate climate. All these plates were largely uplift erosion zones, with clastic rock of alluvial facies inside and clastic and carbonate rocks of littoral-neritic facies at margins. Antarctica was south of 60°S, under cold temperate climate, with uplift erosion zones inside and clastic rock of neritic facies at the margins (Fig. 2c). 1.4. Lithofacies and paleogeography in the Upper Cretaceous 1.4.1. Distribution of lithofacies and paleogeography in the Upper Cretaceous In Eurasia, the West Siberia Basin had alluvial facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone in the southeastern part, and neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone in the western part. The Siberian Platform had mixed alluvial facies dominated by conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone in the eastern part, delta facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone, and neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone in the southern part[23]. The Black Sea Basin, North Chukchi Basin and Madeira Abyssal Plain were dominated by bathyal–abyssal facies of mudstone[24]. The North America–Greenland region was dominated by uplift erosion zones and neritic facies of sandstone and mudstone. South America had uplift erosion zones and alluvial facies of sandstone and mudstone in the main part, mixed neritic facies of sandstone, mudstone and carbonate in the western, northeastern and eastern parts, and neritic facies of sandstone and mudstone in the northern, southeastern and southwestern parts[25]. Africa had neritic facies of sandstone, mudstone and carbonate in the northern part, and uplift erosion zones and alluvial and lacustrine facies of sandstone and mudstone in local parts. Oceania had uplift erosion zones and alluvial facies of sandstone and mudstone in the main parts, and carbonate of neritic facies and volcanic clastic rock of neritic facies at the western and southern margins[22] (Fig. 6). 1.4.2. Distribution of lithofacies and paleogeography at 90 Ma

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North America and northern Eurasia were north of 75°N,

Fig. 5.

Lithofacies and paleogeography in the Lower Cretaceous worldwide.

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Fig. 6.

Lithofacies and paleogeography in the Upper Cretaceous worldwide.

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under cold temperate climate, and consisted of predominantly clastic rock of littoral-neritic facies, and uplift erosion zones locally. The most parts of North America and Eurasia were distributed between 30°N and 60°N, under warm temperate climate, with uplift erosion zones inside, continental clastic rock of alluvial facies locally, and clastic and carbonate of littoral-neritic facies at the margins. The Eurasia plate had continental clastic rock of delta facies and clastic of lacustrine facies inside. The southern tip of North America, northern Africa and southern tip of Eurasia stayed near 15°N, under arid climate, with clastic rock and carbonate of littoral-neritic facies. The northern South America and central Africa near the equator, under tropical climate, had continental clastic rock of alluvial facies in the northern part, uplift erosion zones locally, and clastic rock of littoral-neritic facies at the margins. Africa had uplift erosion zones in the central part, and clastic rock and carbonate of littoral-neritic facies at the margins. The central–southern South America, southern Africa, India and Australia were at around 30°S, under warm temperate climate, with massive continental clastic rock zones of alluvial facies, uplift erosion zones locally, and clastic rock of littoral-neritic facies at the margins. Antarctica, north of 60°S under cold temperate climate, had uplift erosion zones in the main part, small-scale continental clastic rock of alluvial facies locally, and clastic rock of littoral-neritic facies at the margins (Fig. 3a).

2. The lithofacies and paleogeography in Cenozoic worldwide 2.1.

Lithofacies and paleogeography in the Paleogene

2.1.1. Distribution of lithofacies and paleogeography in the Paleogene Eurasia had uplift erosion zones in the northern part, sandstone and mudstone of lacustrine facies and uplift erosion zones in the central–eastern part, and sandstone and mudstone of littoral-neritic facies at the northern margin. In the southwestern part, uplift erosion zones coexisted with littoral-neritic facies. In the southeastern part, littoral-neritic facies was dominant, followed by uplift erosion zones, alluvial facies and volcanic island arc. In the western and southeastern parts, bathyal–abyssal facies developed. North America and Greenland were dominated by uplift erosion zones. At the margins and inside, there were: (1) alluvial facies dominated by conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone (e.g. Alberta Basin, and Yucatan Platform); (2) lacustrine facies dominated by conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone (e.g. Williston Basin, and Forest City Basin); and (3) neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (e.g. Hudson Platform, and North Slope Basin[26]). Volcanic clastic rock of neritic facies developed locally at the southwestern margin of North America. Sandstone, mudstone and carbonate of mixed neritic facies existed in the Yucatan Platform. Oceanic deposits surrounded the North America and Greenland continents.

South America had alternate uplift erosion zones and continental deposit zones (with alluvial facies in dominance, followed by lacustrine facies). Sandstone, mudstone and carbonate of mixed neritic facies developed at the western margin, eastern margin and northeast corner, and sandstone and mudstone of neritic facies at the southeastern margin. Africa inland had uplift erosion zones, alluvial facies and lacustrine facies. The alluvial facies was dominated by conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone (e.g. Naama–Karabari Basin and Albert Basin [27]). Lacustrine facies is mainly composed of sandstone, mudstone and carbonate (e.g. Nuba Block). Sandstone, mudstone and carbonate of mixed neritic facies developed at the margins. At the southwestern margin, there emerged mainly neritic facies of sandstone and mudstone, and carbonate and evaporite of littoral-neritic + sabkha facies locally. At the southeastern end, sandstone, mudstone and volcanics of neritic facies developed. Oceania had uplift erosion zone in the main parts. In the northwestern and northeastern parts of the uplift zone, developed alluvial facies mainly composed of sandstone and mudstone. In the southeastern part of the Oceania plate, there were littoral-neritic–sabkha facies mainly of sandstone, mudstone and evaporite. At the northwestern and southern margins and the southeastern corner, mixed neritic facies of sandstone, mudstone and carbonate occurred. The Papua Basin at the northeastern margin had carbonate of neritic facies. Antarctica had uplift erosion zones in the main part, clastic rock of littoral-neritic facies at the margin close to the Indian Ocean, and volcanic clastic of neritic facies at the margin close to the Pacific Ocean[22]. The East Antarctic Shield had sparsely distributed clastic rock and volcanics of alluvial facies (Fig. 7). 2.1.2. Distribution of lithofacies and paleogeography at 40 Ma Local parts of North America and northern Eurasia were north of 75°N, under cold climate, with clastic rock of littoral-neritic facies. The northern margins of North America and Eurasia were north of 60°N, under cold temperate climate, with uplift erosion zones inside and clastic rock of littoral-neritic facies at margins. The main parts of North America and Eurasia were between 30°N and 60°N, under warm temperate climate, with uplift erosion zones inside, clastic rock of alluvial facies locally, and clastic rock of littoral-neritic facies at the margins. The Eurasia plate had clastic rock of lacustrine facies, whereas the North America plate contained clastic rock of delta facies. The central-eastern Africa and Arabia were distributed near the equator, under arid climate. The Africa had clastic rock of alluvial facies in the central eastern part, clastic rock of littoral-neritic facies and uplift erosion zones locally, and clastic rock and carbonate of littoral-neritic facies at the margins. The Arabia had uplift erosion zones inside, and clastic rock of littoral-neritic facies at the margins. The northern South America, central-northern Africa, India and southern Eurasia were near the equator, under tropical climate.

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Fig. 7.

Lithofacies and paleogeography in the Eocene worldwide.

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Specifically, the northern South America had clastic rock of alluvial facies and uplift erosion zones, and clastic rock of lacustrine facies inside and clastic rock and carbonate of littoral-neritic facies at the margins. The central-northern Africa and India were dominated by uplift erosion zones and clastic rock of alluvial facies, with clastic rock and carbonate of littoral-neritic facies at margins. The southern Eurasia was also dominated by clastic rock and carbonate of littoral-neritic facies, with uplift erosion zones and clastic rock of alluvial facies locally. The central-southern South America, southern Africa and Australia were at around 30°S, under warm temperate climate; the former two plates were dominated by clastic rock of alluvial facies and uplift erosion zones, with clastic rock and carbonate of littoral-neritic facies at margins, while the latter plate was dominated by uplift erosion zones, with clastic rock of alluvial facies locally and clastic rock and carbonate of littoral-neritic facies at the margins. Antarctica, north of 60°S under cold temperate climate, was dominated by uplift erosion zones, with clastic rock of littoral-neritic facies at the margins (Fig. 3b). 2.2.

Lithofacies and paleogeography in the Neogene

2.2.1. Distribution of lithofacies and paleogeography in the Neogene Eurasia had mainly uplift erosion zones inland, and alluvial facies characterized by sandstone and mudstone or by conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone in local parts. In central Asia, sandstone and mudstone of lacustrine facies were more developed. At the margins of the Eurasia continent, neritic facies of sandstone and mudstone was dominant. At the southern margin of the Europe plate, there were sandstone, mudstone and carbonate of littoral-neritic facies. At the northeastern margin of the Arabia plate, there were littoral-neritic + sabkha facies represented by carbonate and evaporite. At the eastern margin of East Asia and margins of Southeast Asia, were mainly volcanic island arc, neritic facies represented by volcanics, clastic rock and carbonate, as well as neritic facies represented by volcanics and clastic rock. North America and Greenland were dominated by uplift erosion zones. At margins and inside, there were: (1) alluvial facies dominated by conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone (e.g. Alberta Basin, and Gulf of Mexico); (2) alluvial facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (e.g. Denver Basin); (3) lacustrine facies dominated by conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone (e.g. Williston Basin, and Forest City Basin); and (4) neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone (e.g. Hudson Platform, and North Slope Basin). Volcanic clastic rock of neritic facies developed locally at the southwestern margin of North America. Carbonate of neritic facies existed in northwestern Yucatan Platform. Oceanic deposits surrounded the North America and Greenland continents. South America had alternate uplift erosion zones and continental deposit zones (alluvial facies in dominance, followed by lacustrine facies). At the northern and eastern margins were

sandstone, mudstone and carbonate of mixed neritic facies, at the southwestern and northeastern margins were sandstone and mudstone of neritic facies, and at the western margin were clastic rock and volcanics of neritic facies. Africa inland had uplift erosion zones, alluvial facies and lacustrine facies. To be more specific, the alluvial facies are dominated by: (1) conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone (e.g. Taoudenni Basin); and (2) sandstone and mudstone (e.g. Murzuq Basin[13], and Muglad Basin[1618]). The lacustrine facies were composed predominantly of sandstone, mudstone and carbonate (e.g. eastern part of the Nuba Block). At the margins of the Africa plate, there were sandstone, mudstone and carbonate of mixed neritic facies. Sandstone and mudstone of neritic facies were dominant at the southwestern margin, and sandstone, mudstone and volcanics of neritic facies at the southeastern margin. In Oceania, uplift erosion zones were dominant in majority parts. At the margins, there were: (1) mixed neritic facies dominated by sandstone, mudstone and carbonate; (2) neritic facies represented by carbonate; (3) littoral-neritic facies dominated by sandstone and mudstone; and (4) littoral-neritic facies dominated by clastic and volcanics. In Antarctica, uplift erosion zones dominated the main part, conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone of littoral-neritic facies developed at the margin close to the Indian Ocean, and volcanic clastic of neritic facies at the margin close to the Pacific Ocean. The East Antarctic Shield had sparsely distributed clastic rock and volcanics of alluvial facies[22] (Fig. 8). 2.2.2. Distribution of lithofacies and paleogeography at 15 Ma Local parts of North America and northern Eurasia were north of 75°N, under cold climate, with clastic rock of littoral-neritic facies. Northern parts of North America and Eurasia were between 60°N and 75°N, under cold temperate climate, with uplift erosion zones inside and clastic rock of littoral-neritic facies at the margins. Northern North America had clastic rock of alluvial facies locally. Most parts of central-southern North America and central Eurasia were between 30°N and 60°N, under warm temperate climate, with uplift erosion zones inside, clastic rock of alluvial facies locally, and clastic rock of littoral-neritic facies at the margins. Eurasia had clastic rock of lacustrine facies inland. Northern Africa and Arabia were near the equator, under arid climate. Northern Africa had mainly clastic rock of alluvial facies and uplift erosion zones, and clastic rock and carbonate littoral-neritic facies at the margins. Arabia had clastic rock of alluvial facies inland, and clastic rock, carbonate and evaporite of littoral-neritic facies at the margins. The northern South America, central-northern Africa, India and southern Eurasia were near the equator, under tropical climate. Specifically, the northern South America and central Africa were dominated by clastic rock of alluvial facies and uplift erosion zones, with clastic rock of lacustrine facies inside and clastic rock and carbonate of littoral-neritic facies at the margins. India was dominated

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Fig. 8.

Lithofacies and paleogeography in the Miocene worldwide.

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by uplift erosion zones, with clastic rock of alluvial facies in the northern part, and clastic rock and carbonate of littoral-neritic facies at margins. Southern Eurasia was dominated by clastic rock of littoral-neritic facies, with uplift erosion zones locally. Central-southern South America, southern Africa and Australia were near 30°S, under warm temperate climate. Specifically, the central-southern South America and southern Africa plates were dominated by clastic rock of alluvial facies and uplift erosion zones, with clastic rock and carbonate of littoral-neritic facies at the margins. The Australia plate had uplift erosion zones inland, clastic rock of alluvial facies and clastic rock of lacustrine facies locally, and clastic rock and carbonate of littoral-neritic facies at the margins. The southern tip of South America, located near 60°S under cold temperate climate, had uplift erosion zones, clastic rock of alluvial facies and clastic rock of littoral-neritic facies. Antarctica, south of 60°S, under cold temperate climate, was dominated by uplift erosion zones, with small-scale clastic rock of alluvial facies, and clastic rock of littoral-neritic facies at the margins (Fig. 3c).

3. Evolution of lithofacies and paleogeography worldwide The distribution and evolution patterns of lithofacies and paleogeography of 13 strata above Precambrian and 13 key geologic periods since Precambrian worldwide were revealed through restoration. Generally, the lithofacies and paleogeography have the following characteristics: (1) clastic rock of continental facies, and clastic rock, clastic rock–carbonate and carbonate of littoral-neritic facies (epicontinental sea) developed in shields and cratons. (2) clastic rock, clastic rock–carbonate and carbonate of littoral-neritic facies developed at margins of shields and cratons. (3) Evaporite occurs in and at the margins of cratons. (4) Tterrigenous clastic rock prevailed in heydays of plate convergence. (5) Carbonate prevailed in heydays of ocean expansion. By analyzing present positions of 13 strata in and above Precambrian and key time nodes, and distribution patterns of lithofacies and paleogeography of paleoplates[1], we found the patterns of the evolution of lithofacies and paleogeography worldwide. 3.1. Distribution and evolution of uplift erosion zone, clastic deposit zone, littoral-neritic zone and oceanic zone During the periods of supercontinent formation and sea level fall, the uplift erosion and continental zones took a larger proportion, while the littoral-neritic and oceanic zones took a smaller proportion; during the periods of supercontinent breakup and sea level rise, the uplift erosion and continental zones took a smaller proportion, while the littoral-neritic and oceanic zones took a larger proportion[2831]. Clearly, the scale of uplift erosion and continental zones went up or down in opposite to the scale of littoral-neritic and oceanic zones (Fig. 9). From old to new, the uplift erosion zones and clastic deposit zones show a tendency of increase – with the area increasing from approximately 20% in the Precambrian–Early

Paleozoic to over 30% at present. Specifically, the periods when the supercontinents, such as Gondwana, Laurussia, Pangaea and Eurasia, were formed were the key periods for growth of continents, with significant increase of uplift erosion zones and clastic deposit zones (Fig. 9). From the Late Precambrian (about 630 Ma) to the Cambrian (about 510 Ma), the Rodinia supercontinent disintegrated massively, leading to the decrease in area of uplift erosion zones and clastic deposit zones[1]. In the Devonian, the uplift erosion zones and clastic deposit zones started to grow along with the formation of the Laurussia supercontinent, and the eastern margin of North America–Greenland, the Moscow Basin at the northwestern margin of Baltic and Siberia[1] had obvious increase in the area of uplift and erosion zones and clastic deposit zones. In the Permian and Triassic, the uplift erosion zones and clastic deposit zones reached their peaks globally[1] (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2a). The littoral-neritic zones witnessed three cycles of expansion to shrinkage: Precambrian–Devonian, Carboniferous– Triassic, and Jurassic–Neogene. In the Late Precambrian (about 630 Ma), the Rodinia supercontinent disintegrated in force. At that time, all continental plates were distributed near the equator and the Southern Hemisphere, while the Tarim, Australia, and South China plates etc. were at near 30°N[1]. In this period, North America had the largest uplift erosion zone, followed by Greenland and Baltic; the other uplift erosion zones scattered around the world. Clastic deposit zones occurred inside or at the margins of South America, Africa, Australia and Baltic uplift erosion zones, and littoral-neritic zones developed extensively in marginal areas of uplift erosion zones[1]. In the early Cambrian, the formation of Gondwana due to the Pan-Africa movement (about 570 Ma) led to the extension of the continental region (i.e. uplift erosion zones + continental zones). With the separation of Avalon from the Gondwana and the formation of the Rick Ocean (about 510 Ma), the littoral-neritic zones in North America, Greenland and marginal areas of Baltic expanded, the uplift erosion zones and clastic deposit zones in South America and Africa grew significantly, and extensive littoral-neritic facies existed in western South America and northern Africa[1]. In the Ordovician, the littoral-neritic zones further expanded[1]. In the Silurian, the littoral-neritic zones reduced due to the convergence of Avalon and Baltic[1]. In the Devonian, Avalon–Baltic collided with Laurentia due to the Caledonian movement. The uplift erosion zones and clastic deposit zones increased dramatically and the littoral-neritic zones shrunk greatly at the eastern margin of North America–Greenland, northwestern margin of Baltic, and Siberia, laying the foundation for massive development of continental basins in Mesozoic and Cenozoic[1]. In the Carboniferous, the peak time for the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, littoral-neritic zones were distributed widely[1]. In the Permian (about 270 Ma), the Hercynian movement led to the formation of Pangea and the separation of Cimmeria from Gondwana, giving rise to the Tethys

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Fig. 9.

Extents of paleogeographic units in different geological periods.

Ocean[1]. In the Triassic, South China, North China, and Amur plates etc. converged, and the Tethys Ocean expanded rapidly (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2a). In the Permian and Triassic, global uplift erosion zones and clastic deposit zones reached their development peaks, while littoral-neritic zones were limited in scale. In the Jurassic, the mid-Atlantic Ocean was broken (about 165 Ma), creating new littoral-neritic zones between Africa and Europe (Fig. 2b and Fig. 4). In the Early Cretaceous, the pre-existing littoral-neritic zones expanded dramatically (Fig. 2c and Fig. 5). In the Late Cretaceous, the middle and southern Atlantic Ocean opened up, the Paleo-Tethys Ocean closed, and India fully separated from Africa (about 90 Ma), accompanied with slight reduction of littoral-neritic zones (Fig. 3a and Fig. 6). In the Eocene, the littoral-neritic zones further shrunk (Figs. 3b and 7). In the

Miocene, the Atlantic Ocean fully opened, the Tethys Ocean closed, and India and China continents collided, known as the Alpine Tectonic Movement, leading to further expansion of continental zones and shrinkage of littoral-neritic zones in South America, Eurasia and Africa (Figs. 3c and 8). 3.2.

Distribution and evolution of lacustrine facies

Globally, lacustrine facies are usually associated with medium to coarse clastic rock of alluvial facies. Lacustrine facies were more developed in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic, covering approximately 3% of the earth’s surface, in contrast to 1% in the Paleozoic (Fig. 9). In the Precambrian, clastic deposit zones, mostly alluvial facies, developed inside or at local margins of uplift erosion zones in South America, Africa, Australia and Baltic, while

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lacustrine facies only existed inside uplift erosion zones in Baltic[1]. In the Cambrian, clastic deposit zones primarily composed of alluvial facies developed inside or at local margins of uplift erosion zones in North America, South America, Africa, Arabia, India and Australia, while lacustrine facies existed in uplift erosion zones of South America and India[1]. In the Ordovician, clastic deposit zones dominated by alluvial facies developed inside or at local margins of uplift erosion zones in North America, South America, Africa and Australia, while lacustrine facies only existed in uplift erosion zones of South America[1]. In the Silurian, clastic deposit zones occurred inside or at local margins of uplift erosion zones in North America, South America, Baltic and Australia, while alluvial facies dominated in North America and Australia and lacustrine facies dominated in South America and Baltic[1]. In the Devonian, clastic deposit zones appeared inside or at local margins of uplift erosion zones in North America, South America, Africa, Baltic, Siberia and Australia, while alluvial facies dominated in North America, Africa, Siberia and Australia, lacustrine facies dominated in South America, and alluvial facies and lacustrine facies in Baltic[1]. In the Carboniferous, clastic deposit zones dominated by alluvial facies developed inside or at local margins of uplift erosion zones in North America, South America, Greenland, Baltic, southeastern tip of Siberia and Australia, while lacustrine facies existed predominantly in Siberia[1]. In the Permian and Triassic, global uplift erosion zones and clastic deposit zones reached the climax. At the same time, littoral-neritic zones were distributed in limited zones; clastic deposit zones were mostly alluvial facies; abundant lacustrine facies existed in southern Eurasia in the Triassic[1] (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2a). In the Jurassic, all continents had clastic deposit zones, and lacustrine facies mainly occurred in southern Eurasia and northern South America (Fig. 2b and Fig. 4). In the Early Cretaceous, lacustrine facies developed in South America, Africa, and central-southern Eurasia. In the Late Cretaceous, lacustrine facies existed predominantly in central-southern Eurasia (Figs. 2c, 3a, 5 and 6). In the Eocene, lacustrine facies existed in South America, Africa, and central Eurasia (Fig. 3b and Fig. 7). In the Miocene, lacustrine facies zones of variable scales developed in South America, Eurasia, Africa and Australia (Fig. 3c and Fig. 8). 3.3. Distribution and evolution of shallow-water carbonate platforms The littoral-neritic zones experienced three distinct cycles, namely, Precambrian–Devonian, Carboniferous–Triassic, and Jurassic–Neogene. Correspondingly, the shallow-water carbonate platforms also showed three cycles (Fig. 10). In the Precambrian, the neritic zones were dominated by shallow-water carbonate platforms, with shallow-water terrigenous clastic deposits developing predominantly in marginal areas of Australia and South America[1]. In the Cambrian and Ordovician, shallow-water terrigenous clastic deposits were

predominant, while shallow-water carbonate platforms developed predominantly in Siberia, Tarim, North China, Barents Sea and other regions[1]. In the Silurian, shallow-water carbonate platforms expanded significantly, covering a large area in North America[1]. In the Devonian, shallow-water carbonate platforms shrank considerably, and were distributed predominantly at the western margin of North America[1]. In the Carboniferous, shallow-water carbonate platforms expanded to certain extent, with extensive distribution at the western margin of North America and the eastern margin of Baltic[1]. In the Permian, shallow-water carbonate platforms were restricted to southwestern North America, central-eastern Baltic and southern China[1]. In the Triassic, shallow-water carbonate platforms were restricted to southern Eurasia (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2a). In the Jurassic, shallow-water carbonate platforms developed in southern Eurasia and southeastern North America (Fig. 2b and Fig. 4). In the Early Cretaceous, shallow-water carbonate platforms existed in northern Africa, southern Europe and the Qinghai-Tibet region of China (Fig. 2c and Fig. 5). In the Late Cretaceous, shallow-water carbonate platforms came up in Caribbean, southern Europe, northern and eastern Africa, and Arabia (Fig. 3a and Fig. 6). In the Eocene, the shallow-water carbonate platforms reduced significantly, and were mainly distributed around Mediterranean and at the margins of Africa and Arabia (Fig. 3b and Fig. 7). In the Miocene, shallow-water carbonate platforms further shrank, and they were restricted to low-latitude areas at the margins of Africa and Arabia (Fig. 3c and Fig. 8). 3.4.

Distribution and evolution of sabkha evaporites

The sabkha evaporites were relatively restricted, and greatly varied in different geologic periods. The evaporites took more than 5% in Devonian, Permian and Triassic, which is believed to be closely related to the larger areas of basins in arid zones. In the Devonian, Permian and Triassic, sedimentary areas in arid zones around the world accounted for 24%, 28% and 35% of the total sedimentary area, respectively (Fig. 10 and Fig. 11). It can be seen that the evaporite-containing plates were under arid tropical geologic settings. On present-day locations, sabkha evaporite facies only existed in the Siberian Platform in the Precambrian[1], extended to the Siberia and Tarim plates in the Cambrian[1], and developed in the Siberia and Kara plates with much smaller coverage in the Ordovician[1]. Sabkha evaporites developed in northern Australia only in narrow scope in the Silurian[1], extensively inside the North America continent in the Devonian[1], and covered a small scope in the Timan-Pechora Basin, northeastern Baltic, in the Carboniferous[1]. Sabkha evaporites developed in southern Europe and western Central Asia with significantly expanded coverage in the Permian[1]. Sabkha evaporites were widespread in southwestern Europe, northwestern Africa, northeastern Arabia and northeastern Australia

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Fig. 10.

Relative proportions of lithofacies in different geological periods.

in the Triassic (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2a). Sabkha evaporates existed predominantly in Caribbean and northern Africa with the coverage basically unchanged in the Jurassic (Fig. 2b and Fig. 4). Sabkha evaporites developed in Caribbean and low-latitude areas of Africa with the overall coverage reduced slightly in the Early Cretaceous (Fig. 2c and Fig. 5). Sabkha evaporites developed in eastern Arabia and low-latitude areas of Africa with no significant change in overall coverage in the Late Cretaceous (Fig. 3a and Fig. 6). Sabkha evaporites developed in northeastern Arabia and southeastern Australia with the total coverage reduced dramatically in the Eocene, and in northeastern Arabia during the Miocene (Fig. 3b, Fig. 3c, Fig. 7 and Fig. 8).

The paleogeography restoration results reveal the following regions were in tropical zones between 30°N and 30°S, the Siberian Platform in the Precambrian, the Siberia and Tarim plates in the Cambrian, the Siberia and Kara plates in the Ordovician, the northern Australia plate in the Silurian, the North America plate in the Devonian, the Timan-Pechora Basin in northeastern part of Baltic in the Carboniferous, the southern Europe and western Central Asia in the Permian, the southwestern Europe, northwestern Africa, northeastern Arabia and northeastern Australia in the Triassic, the Caribbean and northern Africa in the Jurassic, the Caribbean and low-latitude areas of Africa in the Early Cretaceous, the eastern Arabia and low-latitude areas of Africa in the Late

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Fig. 11.

Relative proportions of sedimentary areas in different climate zones in different geological periods.

Cretaceous, and the northeastern Arabia in the Cenozoic.

4. Evolution of lithofacies and paleogeography and hydrocarbon distribution worldwide 4.1.

Development of source rocks in key geologic periods

The distribution patterns of lithofacies and paleogeography in different geological periods controlled the development of source rocks, reservoir rocks and caprocks and the hydrocarbon accumulation. Statistical results show that global hydrocarbon resources differ greatly in distribution in time and space[3243]. These differences are presented in ages and lithologies of source rocks, types and forming environments of reservoir rocks, lithologies of caprocks, and other geologic conditions. According to the statistics related to development

features of source rocks in key geological periods globally[44], the proportions of hydrocarbons generated by source rocks in different strata are significantly different – 0.6% for Precambrian, 1.0% for Cambrian, 1.9% for Ordovician, 2.5% for Silurian, 2.0% for Devonian, 9.4% for Carboniferous, 2.5% for Permian, 5.0% for Triassic, 15.8% for Jurassic, 32.8% for Cretaceous, 15.8% for Paleogene and 10.7% for Neogene. It can be seen that the Cretaceous strata are the most important source rock formations worldwide, followed by Jurassic and Paleogene (Fig. 12). The research results of lithofacies and paleogeography show that, in the Late Jurassic, carbonate source rocks developed predominantly in Central Arabian Basin, Rubhari Basin, Surest and other rift basins or passive continental margin basins, mudstone source rocks developed

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Fig. 12.

Distribution of reserves related to the source-reservoir-caprock assemblages in different strata.

predominantly in West Siberian Basin, Central Arabian Basin and Gulf of Mexico deep-water passive continental margin basins, and coal-measure source rocks developed predominantly in Tanzania, Rovuma and other passive continental margin basins. In the Cretaceous, source rocks were distributed extensively. In the Early Cretaceous, mudstone source rocks developed predominantly in Zagros, West Siberia, Central Arabian and other passive continental margin basins or rift basins, carbonate source rocks developed predominantly in Zagros, Surest and Mesopotamia passive continental margin basins, and shale source rocks developed predominantly in Central Arabian Basin, Trinidad Basin, Viking Graben and other passive continental margin basins or rift basins. In the Late Cretaceous, shale source rocks developed predominantly in East Venezuela, Maracaibo, Janos-Barinas and other passive continental margin basins, mudstone source rocks developed predominantly in Maracaibo Basin, Sirte Basin, Congo fan and other passive continental margin basins and rift basins, and carbonate source rocks developed predominantly in East Venezuela Basin, Zagros Basin and West Arabian passive continental margin basins. In the Paleogene Eocene, mudstone source rocks developed predominantly in Niger Delta, Maracaibo, Bombay and other passive continental margin basins or rift basins, shale source rocks developed predominantly in Maracaibo, Tarara and East Venezuela rift basins, and carbon-

ate source rocks developed predominantly in Gulf Suez Basin, Pelagian Basin[45]. 4.2.

Development of reservoirs in key geologic periods

Since Precambrian, the proved reserves and total hydrocarbon resources, in existing 468 petroliferous basins around the world present a tendency of increase (Fig. 12). According to the statistics of discovered reservoirs worldwide[44], as far as reservoir types are concerned, clastic reservoirs contain approximately 60.2% of world’s total recoverable reserves, and carbonate reservoirs contain approximately 39.7% of world’s total recoverable reserves (33.4% for limestone, 3.7% for biogenic reefs, and 2.6% for dolomite) (Fig. 12). As far as the types of reservoir sedimentary facies are concerned, neritic facies contribute 59.9% of world’s total recoverable reserves, fluvial facies 13.4%, delta facies11.1%, and bathyal– abyssal facies 10.3%. Reservoir beds of neritic facies are distributed predominantly in Upper Permian, Upper Jurassic, Lower Cretaceous, Upper Cretaceous, Oligocene and Miocene. Reservoir beds of fluvial facies are predominantly in Lower Cretaceous and Miocene. Reservoir beds of delta facies are predominantly in Miocene and Oligocene. Reservoir beds of bathyal–abyssal facies are predominantly in Miocene, Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous. Horizontally, reservoir beds of fluvial facies are distributed predominantly in continental

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rift basins and back-arc basin, including continental basins in China, Central and Western Africa shear zones, Australia, Caspian Sea and other regions; reservoir beds of delta facies are distributed predominantly around key river mouths, such as the Niger Delta, of Mesozoic and Cenozoic; reservoir beds of bathyal–abyssal facies are predominantly in West Africa Continental Shelf, East Africa Continental Shelf, East Brazil Continental Shelf, Northwest Australia Continental Shelf, continental shelfs on both sides of India, South China Sea, and South Caspian Sea etc. Carbonate reservoir beds of neritic facies are predominantly in the Tethys tectonic domain. A distribution pattern with “two verticals and one horizontal” is presented, namely, the Tethys tectonic domain as the “one horizontal”, and the Timan–Pachaola, Volga–Ural, North Caspian and Xiga Basin, Williston Basin in North America, together with other Permian basins as the “two verticals”[45]. 4.3.

Development of caprocks in key geologic periods

Statistics on the number and strata of reservoirs by caprocks of different lithologies show[44] that the basins with shale are caprock, the highest number of reservoirs and the largest reserves. Most of Jurassic, Cretaceous, Paleogene and Neogene oil and gas reservoirs have shale as caprocks. The reservoirs with carbonate as caprock are the second largest in number, and mainly in Upper Devonian–Carboniferous, Cretaceous and Tertiary. Reservoirs with evaporite as caprock are rare, mainly in Upper Permian– Upper Jurassic and Miocene. Albeit limited strata in minor extents, evaporite especially salt rock, as caprock, has the highest capability in trapping hydrocarbons[45]. Among the 10 basins with the highest reserves in the world, the Arabian Basin, Zagros Basin, Amu Darya Basin and Pre-Caspian Basin all have well-developed evaporite caprocks[45]. The Ghawar Oilfield (the world’s largest oilfield), the Northfield (the largest gasfield), and a series of huge Upper Jurassic oil/gas fields in the Middle East are sealed by evaporite caprock.

5.

areas of basins in dry tropical climates at those geologic periods. Cyclic evolution of lithofacies and paleogeography is believed to be closely related to disintegration of plates, convergence, orogenic movements, and sea level changes. In the periods with disintegration of supercontinents and rise of sea level, uplift erosion zones and continental zones reduced in proportion, shallow-water carbonate platforms expanded, and neritic zones and abyssal zones dominated by muds were distributed extensively. In the periods with convergence of plates, formation of supercontinent and drop of seal level, the littoral-neritic zones dominated by coarse calstics, alluvial zones and uplift erosion zones expanded, sabkha evaporite zones well developed, and shallow-water carbonate platforms and neritic zones and abyssal zones dominated by mud shrank. Globally, source rocks are predominantly neritic shale. The Cretaceous is the most important source rock formation, followed by Jurassic and Paleogene. These formations have the most extensively distributed littoral-neritic zones, oceanic zones and lacustrine zones dominated by mudstone, which is believed to be related to continental disintegration, rise of sea level and extensive transgression. Reservoir beds are formed predominantly in neritic environments. Clastic reservoir beds, especially those in Permian, Jurassic, Cretaceous, Paleogene and Neogene, hold the majority of hydrocarbon reserves in the world. Among them, the Cretaceous formations have the largest reserves. Shale caprocks controlled the largest proportion of reserves, but many ultra-large oil and gas reservoirs have evaporites as caprocks. Key caprock formations are in the Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous and Neogene. During the formation of Pangaea and the early stages of disintegration, evaporite caprocks were more developed.

Nomenclature A––Aldan shield; Ad––Anderson Plain;

Conclusions

Af––Alafra Basin;

Since the Precambrian, the evolution of lithofacies and paleogeography worldwide has displayed a trend characterized by gradual increase in proportions of uplift erosion zones and clastic deposit zones – from approximately 20% in the Precambrian–Early Paleozoic to over 30% at present. The scale of littoral-neritic zones has experienced three distinct cycles of expansion to shrinkage, namely, Precambrian–Devonian, Carboniferous–Triassic, and Jurassic–Neogene. Correspondingly, the development of shallow carbonate platform also showed three cycles of expansion-shrinkage. Lacustrine facies were usually associated with medium to coarse clastic rocks of alluvial facies. The lacustrine facies was more developed in Mesozoic and Cenozoic, covering approximately 3% of the earth surface. The evaporite of sabkha facies was relatively limited, occupying more than 5% in Devonian, Permian and Triassic. These are believed to be related to the relatively large  915 

AF––Appalachia Foreland Basin; Ah––Amhara Terrain; Ak––Alaska Mountains; Al––Alberta Basin; Alk––AIKufrah Basin; Ara––Arabian Shield; Ard––Aranda Block; AS––Altay–Saryon Fold Belt; Ba––Baltic Shield; Bab––Baltic Basin; Be––Bengal Basin; BG––Bohai Bay Basin; Bi––Baite Basin; BP––Baikal–Patom Fold Belt; Br––Browse Basin; Bs––Black Sea Basin;

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BS––the Barents Sea Basin;

MdD––Madeleine de Dios Basin;

BSt––Bowen-Surat Basin;

Mdg––Madagascar Block;

C––Chihuahuan Basin;

Me––Mezen Basin;

Ca––Carpentaria Basin;

Mi––Michigan Basin;

Can––Canning Basin;

Ml––Maldives–Laksha Basin;

Cau––Cauvery Basin;

Mld––Muglad Basin;

CA––Central Africa Shield;

Mo––Moore Basin;

CB––Chukchi Marginal Basin;

Mrn––Maranion Basin;

CF––Lower Congo Basin;

Msc––Moscow Basin;

Ch––North Chukchi Basin;

Mu––Murzuq Basin;

Cha––Chaco-Parana Basin;

Mur––Murray Basin;

Chd––Chad;

Nak––Kalahari Basin;

Cl––Chalinger Plateau;

Nb––Nuba Block;

Co––Coastal crystalline basement;

NC––New Caledonia Basin;

CP––Churchill Province;

ND––Nile Delta Basin;

Da––Darfur-Ouaddai Block;

Ne––Neimaken Basin;

De––Decan Syncline;

NG––NE Germany–Poland Basin;

EA––East Antarctic Shield ;

NK––Kara Sea North Platform;

Er––Iromanca Basin;

No––Norfolk Basin;

ES––East China Sea Shelf Basin;

NS––North Slope Basin;

EV––East Venezuela Basin;

NU––North Ustyurt Basin;

F––Forest City Basin;

Nw––Norwegian Basin;

FdA––Foslin Amazon Basin;

Of––Orpheus Basin;

Fj––Franz Josef Platform;

Ok––Okhotsk Block;

Fl––Florida Platform;

Oka––Okovango Basin;

Fo––Fox Basin;

Omn––Ominica Belt;

FP––Falkland Plateau Basin;

Or––Ordos Basin;

G––Grampian Uplift;

P––Permian Basin;

Ga––Galician Basin;

Pa––Papua Basin;

GB––Dai Hung Basin;

Pac––Pacific Ocean Margin Tertiary Basin;

GC––Gulf of Mexico Basin;

Par––Parana Basin;

Gh––Ghadames Basin;

PA––Prince Alberta Monocline;

Gp––Guaporé Shield;

Pb––Parnaiba Basin;

Gr––Glenville Province;

Pe––Perotas Basin;

Grl––Greenland Shield;

PK––Zhongjinnan Basin;

Gu––Grero Basin;

PN––Pre-Novaya Zemlya Foredeep Basin;

Gy––Guyana Shield;

Pr––Pre-Caspian Basin;

Hd––Hudson Platform;

PR––Prince Richter Basin;

HO––Hangyaen-Huntingen and Onon-Argonne Fold Belt;

PRM––Pearl River Mouth Basin;

Ib––Iberian Massif;

Ptg––Potigua Basin;

In––Indian fan;

Qi––Qiangtang Basin;

K––Kazakhstan Shield;

R––Laplata Craton;

Ka––Kaapvaal Terrain;

Rub––Rub al Khali Basin;

Ko––Corema Block;

S––Siberian Platform;

Kr––Karoo Basin;

Sa––San Francisco Basin;

La––Lachlan Fold Belt;

SA––West Africa Coastal Basin;

Le––Leo Terrain;

Sc––Scotia Basin;

Lf––Lofton Abyssal Basin;

SD––Syr Darya Basin;

Li––llanos Basin;

Se––Selwyn Fold Belt;

LS––Labrador Shelf;

Sen––Senegal Basin;

Lu––London-Brabant Platform;

SG––South Georgia Basin;

Ma––Makarov Basin;

Si––Sichuan Basin;

Mar––Maracaibo Basin;

Sln––Salina Basin;

Mc––McLintock Basin;

Sm––Somkula Block;

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ZHANG Guangya et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2019, 46(5): 896–918

[7]

So––Solimois Basin;

WU Yiping, JI Zhifeng, ZHANG Yanmin, et al. Sedimentary

Son––Songliao Basin;

filling characteristics of the East Barents Sea Basin and its

Sou––Somali Basin;

hydrocarbon exploration potential. Earth Science Frontiers,

SO––South Meilanmei Basin;

2014, 21(3): 145–154. [8]

SP––South Pole Basin;

LIU Luofu, ZHU Yixiu, XIONG Zhengxiang, et al. Lithofa-

SS––Shaquangu Basin;

cies paleogeographic characteristics and evolution of the

St––Santos Basin;

Pre-Caspian Basin. Journal of Palaeogeography, 2003, 5(3):

Su––Superior;

279–290. [9]

Sum––Sumatra Basin;

HU Mingyi, GONG Wenping, WEN Zhigang, et al. Petroleum

Sv––Selwyn Paleo-uplift;

geological characteristics and oil-prospect evaluation of the

Ta––Taoudenni Basin;

Triassic and the Jurassic in the Qiangtang Basin, Tibet. Ex-

Tar––Tarim Basin;

perimental Petroleum Geology, 2000, 22(3): 245–249. [10] LIN Liangbiao, CHEN Hongde, HU Xiaoqiang, et al. Tectonic

Tg––Tanzania Shield; Ti––Tindov Basin;

sequence division and basin evolution of the Upper Triassic in

TP––Timan-Pechora Basin;

the Sichuan Basin. Journal of Stratigraphy, 2007, 31(4):

TS––Taishan terrain;

415–422. [11] GUIRAUD R, BOSWORTH W, THIERRY J, et al. Phanero-

Tu––Tukano Basin; U––Ukrainian Shield;

zoic geological evolution of Northern and Central Africa: An

UE––Upper Egypt Basin;

overview. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 2005, 43(1/2/3):

Ur––Ural Fold Belt;

83–143. [12] ZHANG Shulin, DENG Yunhua. Oil and gas exploration

VU––Volga–Ural Basin;

strategy in the Lower Congo Basin. Marine Geology Letters,

WA––West Antarctic Shield;

2009, 25(9): 24–29.

Wi––Williston Basin;

[13] SARKAWI I, ABEGER G, TORNERO J L, et al. The Murzuq

WS––West Siberia Basin; Ye––Yemak Basin;

Basin, Libya: A proven petroleum system. Tripoli: 3rd EAGE

Yi–– Yilgarnia Terrain;

North African/Mediterranean Petroleum and Geosciences Conference and Exhibition, 2007.

Yu––Yucatan Platform;

[14] BAI Guoping. Petroleum geological characteristics of Middle

Za––Zaire Basin;

East. Beijing: China Petrochemical Press, 2007.

Zag––Zagros Province;

[15] TONG Xiaoguang, DOU Lirong, TIAN Zuoji, et al. Geologi-

Zi––Zimbabwe Shield.

cal mode and hydrocarbon accumulation mode in Muglad

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