Phanerozoic paleogeography, paleoenvironment and lithofacies maps of the circum-Atlantic margins

Marine and Petroleum Geology 20 (2003) 249–285 www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo

Phanerozoic paleogeography, paleoenvironment and lithofacies maps of the circum-Atlantic margins David Forda,*, Jan Golonkab,1 a 709 Foxmoor Drive Highland Village, TX 75077, USA Institute of Geological Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Oleandry Str. 2a, 30-063 Krako´w, Poland.

b

Received 1 June 2001; received in revised form 1 July 2002; accepted 6 July 2002

Abstract A series of maps was constructed, depicting the plate tectonic configuration, paleogeography, paleoenvironment and lithofacies for Phanerozoic time intervals from Cambrian through the Neogene. These are world maps comprising 300 continental plates and terranes, but are reprojected here to illustrate the circum-Atlantic margins. The relative position of the continents through time was largely derived from PLATES and PALEOMAP software. These maps illustrate the Phanerozoic geodynamic evolution of the Earth. They show the relationship of the continental configuration, lithofacies, tectonics, and climate, from the time of the disassembly of Rodinia to the assembly and break-up of Pangea. From a regional perspective, the facies in basins along the circum-Atlantic margin reflect various stages of rifting and passive margin development. Inversion caused by ridge push played an important role in the basin evolution and has influenced the distribution of lithofacies at various times. The power of the maps is realized in their application as an aid to the visualization of the relationship of regional basin development, sedimentation and erosion to the deposition of potential source-rock, reservoir and seals. The individual maps illustrate the conditions present during the maximum marine transgressions of sea-level within the Sauk, Tippecanoe, Kaskaskia, Absaroka, Zuni, and Tejas megasequences of Sloss. Relative sea level cyclicity, chronostratigraphy, and regional unconformities provide the basis for partitioning these higher frequency depositional cycles into 32 subdivisions (supersequences) ranging in duration from 11 to 39 my. In this report 14 of these time slices are used to illustrate the environments and lithologies resulting from changes in the geographic position of the terranes which constitute the present Atlantic margins. The text attempts to fill in details of the progressive change between mapped intervals. Data for the maps were derived from geologic reports, maps and stratigraphic columns and other paleogeographic interpretations regarding tectonics, basin formation, and deposition. The lithofacies are depicted by 21 patterns. q 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Phanerozoic; Plate tectonics; Paleogeography; Atlantic; Sea-level; Paleoclimate; Lithofacies

1. Introduction This paper was prepared as a contribution to the 1998 AAPG International Conference and Exhibition, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Its objective is to review the paleogeography, paleoenvironments and lithofacies of the circum-Atlantic margins during Phanerozoic time. Data for the maps were derived from geologic reports, maps and stratigraphic columns and other paleogeographic interpretations of tectonics, basin formation, and deposition.

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 1-972-317-1489. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (D. Ford), golonka@ geos.ing.uj.edu.pl (J. Golonka). 1 Tel.: þ48-12-266-4294; fax: þ 48-12-633-2270. 0264-8172/03/$ - see front matter q 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/S0264-8172(03)00041-2

The maps presented have been derived from the authors’ contribution to a major project involving the creation of 32 Phanerozoic paleoenvironment and lithofacies maps of the Earth; these have been used to evaluate petroleum systems in time and space. Within the framework of this paper, it is impossible to present the whole database and full documentation. Some of the data, also, cannot be presented because of their proprietary and confidential nature. The detailed maps will be the subject of a future special publication in an atlas form. This work will include also contributions of the former (1994 –1996) Mobil Global Geology group: Natalia Bocharova, Mary Edrich, Tom Levy, Bob Pauken, Jim Wildharber, Jolanta Bednarczyk, the late Bill Werner and the authors. Therefore, we restrict the presentation and references to a simplified version, which provide a general outline of plate tectonics and

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sedimentation from Cambrian through Neogene. Fourteen time slices are used to illustrate the environments and lithologies resulting from changes in the geographic position of the terranes which constitute the present Atlantic margins. The text attempts to fill in details of the progressive change between mapped intervals. The lithofacies are depicted by 21 patterns. Most of the paleoenvironmental interpretation is limited to the text by necessity, since the environments are colored-coded and the maps are presented here in black and white. These maps in full colors are available on the Elsevier homepage.

2. Mapping methodology The maps were constructed using the following steps: 1. Construction of base maps using a plate tectonic model. These maps depict plate boundaries (sutures) and plate position at a specific time. The outlines of present day coastlines are plotted for land mass recognition. 2. Review of other global and regional paleogeographic maps. 3. Posting of generalized facies and paleoenvironment database information on base maps. 4. Interpretation and final assembly of computer map files. A plate tectonic model was used which describes the relative motions between approximately 300 plates and terranes. This model was constructed using PLATES (University of Texas at Austin group lead by L. A. Lawver, see e.g. Lawver & Gahagan, 1993; Lawver, Gahagan, & Coffin 1992; Lawver & Mu¨ller, 1994) and PALEOMAP (University of Texas at Arlington group lead by C.R. Scotese, see e.g. Golonka, Ross, & Scotese, 1994; Scotese, 1991; Scotese & Barrett, 1990; Scotese & Lanford, 1995; Scotese & McKerrow,1990) software, which integrates computer graphics and data management technology with a highly structured and quantitative description of tectonic relationships. The heart of these programs is the rotation file, which is constantly updated, as new paleomagnetic data become available. The authors modified the original rotation file (Golonka, 2000; Golonka & Bocharova, 2000; Golonka & Ford, 2000) using, among others, hot-spot volcanics (see Morgan, 1971) as reference points for the calculation of paleolongitudes for Mesozoic, especially for the postJurassic world. Magnetic data have been used to define paleolatitudinal position of continents and rotation of plates (Aifa, Feinberg, & Pozzi, 1990; Bachtadse, Torsvik, Tait, & Soffel, 1995; Irving, 1979; Kent & Van der Voo,1990; Lewandowski, 1998; Rapalini & Villas, 1991; Torsvik et al., 1996; Van der Voo, 1993). Ophiolites and deep-water sediments mark paleo-oceans, which were subducted and are now part of foldbelts. Information from several general and regional paleogeographic papers was utilized (Cope, Ingham,

& Rawson, 1992; Dalziel, 1997; Dercourt, Ricou, & Vrielynck, 1993; Dore´, 1991; Garcia & Walbert, 1994; Golonka, 2000; Golonka & Ford, 2000; Lawver & Gahagan, 1993; Kiessling, Flu¨gel, & Golonka, 1999; Mu¨ller, Roest, Royer, Gahagan, & Sclater, 1997; Ronov, Khain, & Balukhovski, 1984, 1989; Scotese & McKerrow, 1990; Williams, 1995; Ziegler, 1982, 1988, 1989, 1990). We have also utilized the unpublished maps and databases from the PALEOMAP group (University of Texas at Arlington), PLATE group (University of Texas at Austin), University of Chicago, Robertson Research in Llandudno, Wales, and CASP (Cambridge Arctic Shelf Programme). The plate and terrane separation was based on the PALEOMAP system (Scotese & Langford, 1995), with later modifications (Golonka, 2000). The data from the numerous regional papers were used to verify the authors’ geotectonic concepts, especially timing and mode of rifting, separation of plates and other terranes, collisions and terrane suturing. The authors’ unpublished observations have also been utilized. The calculated paleolatitudes and paleolongitudes were used to generate computer maps in the Microstation design format using the equal area Molweide projection. Fig. 1 illustrates the full 32 time slices and definition of time scale used. The stratigraphic chart was based on the work of Golonka and Ford (2000) and Golonka and Kiessling (2002). A recent compilation of the new data by Berggren, Kent, Swisher and Aubrey (1995), Gradstein et al. (1995) and Gradstein and Ogg (1996), as well as the International Stratigraphic Chart (Remane, 2000; Remane et al., 1996; Remane, Fauret, & Odin, 2000) presented at the 31st International Geologic Congress in Rio de Janeiro, August 2000 formed the basis of the time scale The detailed discussion and full relevant references are contained in the Golonka and Kiessling paper (2002).

3. Map discussion: paleogeography and geodynamic evolution 3.1. Early Cambrian-Middle Ordovician (Sauk, 544– 464 Ma): opening of proto-Atlantic: Iapetus and Rheic oceans 3.1.1. Geodynamic evolution The breakup of the Precambrian supercontinent Rodinia led to the formation of oceans, which widened significantly during the Sauk Supersequence. A reconstruction by Dalziel, Dalla Salda, and Gahagan (1994), postulates that Gondwana (Africa, South America, Antarctica, Australia, India) and Laurentia (N. America) were connected at 550 Ma forming the supercontinent of Pannotia. Sauk was the time of the disassembly of continents. The supercontinent Gondwana and three major continental plates: Baltica (NE Europe), Laurentia, and Siberia were distinguished at the beginning of the Phanerozoic (Fig. 2). Laurentia and Baltica, according to Torsvik et al. (1996), drifted apart from Gondwana during Late Vendian time.

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Fig. 1. Phanerozoic time table.

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Fig. 1 (continued )

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Fig. 1 (continued )

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254 D. Ford, J. Golonka / Marine and Petroleum Geology 20 (2003) 249–285 Fig. 2. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Atlantic area during Cambrian; Plate position at 514 Ma. (a) Legend to Figs. 1–16. Qualifiers: C-oals, E-evaporites, F-flysch, R-red beds, V-volcanics.

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The Iapetus Ocean originated at the triple junction somewhere between Baltica and Laurentia. The Tornquist Sea, initially opened between Baltica and Laurentia, was later situated between Baltica and Avalonia (part of Gondwana). The present reconstruction, therefore is in rough agreement with Dalziel (1997), McKerrow Dewey, and Scotese (1991) and Torsvik et al. (1996), with a latitudinal separation between the South American margin of Gondwana and the eastern (in present-day coordinates) margin of Laurentia. The Iapetus Ocean continued to widen with Baltica and Laurentia rapidly drifting northward to low latitudes during Cambrian and Early Ordovician. Early Ordovician was the time of maximum dispersion of continents of the Paleozoic. Rapid northward drift of Laurentia widened the Phoibic or western Iapetus Ocean (Dalziel, 1997). The distance between Gondwana and Laurentia reached 5000 km (Kent & Van der Voo, 1990). The Iapetus-Tornquist Sea oceanic system also widened significantly (Torsvik et al., 1995, 1996). The estimated width of the ocean between Baltica and Laurentia depends upon the latitudinal position of Laurentia. Rifting of arcs (Oliverian/Midland Valley terrane), off the eastern coast of Laurentia, occurred during the Late Cambrian to earliest Ordovician time (McKerrow et al., 1991). Arc-continent collisions occurred along the margins of Iapetus-TornquistPleionic oceanic system in Baltica and in Avalonia causing the Penobscottian, Grampian, Finnmarkian, and Athollian orogenies (Neuman & Max, 1989; Ziegler, 1990). The deformation events in Baltica might have been related to the transformation of a passive margin into a convergent one, due to the development of a subduction zone. Major plate reorganization occurred at the end of the Sauk, late Early to early Middle Ordovician (Fig. 3). The Iapetus Ocean and the Tornquist Sea had begun to narrow. According to Torsvik et al. (1996), Baltica rotated significantly during the Ordovician with the distance between Avalonia and Laurentia being reduced from 5000 to 3000 km by the Llanvirnian. Arcs were present east of Laurentia and in Avalonia. Avalonia drifted away from Gondwana toward Baltica. Between Gondwana, Baltica, Avalonia, and Laurentia, a large longitudinal oceanic unit known as the Rheic Ocean (McKerrow et al., 1991) was formed. The relationship between the different parts of the Rheic Ocean as well as connections with Paleoasian and Phoibic Ocean remain uncertain. Generally the Iapetus could be regarded as the first proto-Atlantic ocean, later replaced by Rheic. This applies only to the central part and to some extent northern part of future Atlantic. The areas around the present-day South Atlantic were landlocked within Gondwana during the entire Paleozoic. West Gondwana began to move northward during the Early Ordovician and began to cross the South Pole during the Caradocian. Concurrently, several island arcs were active off of the Iapetus oceanic margin of Laurentia. They

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can be readily recognized in the northern Appalachians, but are less certain in the British Isles. These arcs appear to have collided with Laurentia progressively, east to west (presentday north to south) during the Early Ordovician (Athollian Orogeny) and ending with the Caradocian Taconic Orogeny (McKerrow et al., 1991). 3.1.2. Sea level and climate Glaciation occurred on the Rodinia supercontinent (Young, 1995; Torsvik et al., 1995) first during the Varanger Ice Age (circa 650 Ma), and later, during the Ice Brook event (625 –580 Ma). The transition between the Late Precambrian glacial conditions and a warmer climate occurred while Baltica and Siberia drifted northward from the southern polar zone, reaching temperate and tropical zones. The opening of seaways also contributed to warming. The Sauk megasequence global sea level rise followed the initial break-up of the Rodinia-Pannotia supercontinents (Dalziel, 1997), and the beginning of subsidence in some areas, for example Siberia (Fig. 2). Continuous global sea level rise during deposition of the Sauk II and III supersequences (Middle Cambrian– Early Ordovician) was related to advanced drifting of the continents and significant subsidence and submergence of most continental margins. At the beginning of Sauk IV (late Early-early Middle Ordovician) sea level was probably at one of its highest points during the entire Phanerozoic. However, according to Algeo and Seslavinsky (1995), the sea level estimates could have been exaggerated. The northward drift of Laurentia placed this continent in low latitudes. Warm, humid climatic conditions, limited continental aridity, and no known continental glaciation exemplified the time of transition from icehouse to greenhouse conditions. The ocean anoxic event (OAE), during the Middle and Late Cambrian, is related to climatic and sea level conditions. The sea level dropped dramatically and remained quite low during Llanvirnian time. The transition from greenhouse to icehouse conditions was associated with the emergence of the Gondwana supercontinent, near the South Pole. A large ice cap was located in central Africa (Williams, 1995). 3.1.3. Lithofacies At the beginning of the Sauk supersequence, sedimentary basins in North America were located only in the marginal zones of the Iapetus Ocean. Subsidence as well as mafic volcanism was typical for the Peri-Appalachian zone. The basalts and rhyolites like those of Macdonalds-Brook were associated with rifting at the early stage of the Iapetus paleo-ocean. Their development indicates that the extension and rifting was associated with a continuing opening of the Iapetus Ocean. The sedimentary complexes are represented mainly by coarse clastics, sandstones and shales (Ronov et al., 1984). Subsidence and transgressions occurred on the major part of the North American craton during the Sauk supersequence. The size of marine basins increased. By Late Cambrian almost one third of the craton

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was covered by marine sedimentary basins. A stable tectonic regime and a hot climate resulted in the deposition of limestone and dolomite (Fig. 2), particularly in the southern part of the mid-North American continent, on the Barentsia plate, and on the eastern Greenland shelf (Chafetz, 1980; Mellen, 1977; McKerrow et al., 1991; Stewart and Pool, 1974). Mixed carbonate/clastic sediments were

deposited on Baltica in Poland and Scandinavia (McKerrow et al., 1991; Ronov et al., 1984). Uplifts were dominant on the Gondwanian craton. Marine, mainly clastic deposits are mostly known in the Peri-Atlas zone of Africa and in the Peri-Andean zone of South America. The rest of the Africa and South America has undergone uplifting and erosion eliminating any record of former deposition.

Fig. 3. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Atlantic area during Ordovician; Plate position at 452 Ma. For explanation—see keys in Fig. 2.

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3.2. Middle Ordovician – Early Devonian (Tippecanoe): closing of the Iapetus Ocean 3.2.1. Geodynamic evolution Tippecanoe was the time of continental assembly leading to the formation of a supercontinent, Oldredia (formally proposed below). Avalonia was probably sutured to Baltica by the end of the Ordovician or during the Early Silurian (Torsvik et al., 1996). The closure of the Tornquist Sea was dominated by a strike-slip suturing of the two continents, rather than by direct continental collision (Torsvik & Trench, 1991). The Taconic Orogeny, caused by arc collision with Laurentia, continued through the Caradocian (McKerrow et al., 1991). At the same time, the Rheic Ocean between Gondwana and Avalonia – Baltica widened significantly (McKerrow et al., 1991). This ocean was connected in the west with the Phoibic or western Iapetus Ocean, and in the east and northeast with the Paleoasian and Ural Oceans. A large latitudinal ocean system began to emerge. The Caledonian Orogeny during the Silurian and Early Devonian was the result of the collision of Baltica, Laurentia, and Avalonian terranes. These plates were sutured together to form the large Laurussia continent (Fig. 4). The transpressional collision between Gondwana and Laurussia occurred during the early Devonian. During the Late Silurian, the collision between Baltica and Greenland continued. This was the main phase of the Scandian orogeny, which is marked by nappes in Norway and Greenland. Laurentian crust was thrust over Baltica, causing large crustal thickening in the Caledonian belt (Torsvik et al., 1996). According to Soper, Strachan, Holdsworth, Gayer, and Greiling (1992), the East Greenland and Scandinavian Caledonides display similar age and kinematic patterns, indicating a change of convergence vector between Baltica and Greenland from sinistrally oblique to nearly orthogonal. During the mid-Silurian, western Avalonia docked sinistrally with New Foundland and eastern Avalonia rotated toward Scotland (Soper et al., 1992). After the complete closure of the Iapetus Ocean, the continents of Baltica, Avalonia, and Laurentia formed the continent of Laurussia (Ziegler, 1989). At this time the Rheic Ocean represented the proto-Atlantic. The main part of the Rheic Ocean had a latitudinal orientation between 30 and 608S, and must have spanned 1608 of longitude. It was connected in the northeast with the Paleoasian Ocean (Zonenshain, Kuzmin, & Natapov, 1990), and in the west with the remnants of the Phoibic Ocean. The collision of South and North America occurred during Early Devonian. The exact location of the collision and the exact time remain uncertain (Dalziel et al., 1994; Keppie, 1989; Keppie, Dostal, Murphy & Nance, 1996; McKerrow et al., 1991). Orogenic events occurred in Venezuela, Columbia, Peru, and northern Argentina (Gallagher & Tauvers, 1992; Marton & Buffler, 1994; Williams, 1995). Paleomagnetic data (Lewandowski, 1998;

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Kent & Van der Voo, 1990; Van der Voo, 1993) and paleobiogeography (Young, 1990) support the hypothesis about the proximity of South and North America. The late stage collisional event, involving western Avalonia and Laurentia, is known as the Acadian Orogeny (McKerrow et al., 1991; Rast & Skehan, 1993). It is also possible that an element of collision and transpression between South and North America existed in the region southwest of the Carolinas. According to Rast and Skehan (1993), the Carolina block acted as an indentor in the transpressive regime, with a dextral strike-slip component. As a result of these orogenic events, the western Rheic Ocean was closed at this time. With Siberia in contact with Laurentia and Baltica, through the Canadian Arctic Islands and Barentsia, all major continents were together forming a supercontinent. This megacontinent could be easily compared with the Carboniferous-Jurassic Pangea. We propose the name ‘Oldredia’, derived from the Old Red Continent named after the Scottish Old Red Sandstone (McKerrow et al., 1991; Ziegler, 1989). It was much larger than the traditional Old Red Continent and Ziegler’s Laurussia. 3.2.2. Sea level and climate The Tippecanoe I (late Middle – Late Ordovician) supersequence represents a continuously rising sea level with several fluctuations (Fig. 3). According to Loydell (1998), global sea level fluctuated markedly during the Silurian as a result of the waxing and waning ice-sheets. Glaciation existed in Africa and Brazil (Grahn & Caputo, 1992; Williams, 1995). This was also a time of continued significant submergence of the Laurentian, Siberian and Baltican cratons. The Tippecanoe II (Early Silurian) represented a slow rise of sea level with an oceanic anoxic event (OAE). According to Ross and Ross (1988), the second highest global first-order sea level highstand for the Paleozoic is represented by the Tippecanoe III (Late Silurian). Large areas of Gondwana were submerged. This was followed by general regression, which occurred, especially on the North American craton (Fig. 4). Climate warming accompanied the equatorial location of Laurussia and submergence of Gondwana. Tippecanoe IV (latest Silurian – Early Devonian) was deposited at a time of relative low sea level with continental emergence following the Caledonian and Acadian orogenies, and formation of the Oldredia supercontinent. A dry, arid climate produced abundant, widespread red sediments (Old Red). The Gondwanian glaciers existed continuously during the Silurian – Early Devonian (Veevers & Powell, 1987; Williams, 1995). Although the Gondwana ice cap still existed, it was waning toward the end of that time (Williams, 1995). 3.2.3. Lithofacies During late-Middle to Late Ordovician (Fig. 3) total size of marine basins in North America increased due to

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Fig. 4. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Atlantic area during Late Silurian; Plate position at 425 Ma. For explanation—see keys in Fig. 2.

transgression southeast and north of Canada. Most of the North American plate was submerged at this time, with the dominance of carbonates in the United States and Canada (Ross, 1976). Carbonate also dominated in the proto-Arctic area, on Barentsia, and eastern Greenland (McGill 1974; Surlyk, Hurst, & Bjerreskov, 1980). The thickness of

the Middle Ordovician rocks is usually tens of meters. High sedimentation rate existed along the Iapetus margin where clastic sedimentation prevailed. Clastic sedimentation prevailed also on Avalonia. Carbonate and carbonateterrigenous facies occurred in the eastern part of Baltica (Nikishin et al., 1996).

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After the Late Ordovician transgression, a maximum of the Paleozoic, a regression developed in the Early Silurian in North America and the total size of marine basins was reduced (Fig. 4). A large land area formed, especially in the mid-continental region. This feature plus a warm climate and marine circulation restricted by the orogeny resulted in the dominant accumulation of carbonates and evaporites. The basins in East Greenland and adjacent part of Baltica were closed, due to the ongoing Caledonian orogeny. Suturing of Avalonian terranes resulted in the development of the new active margin of Rheic Ocean with clastic sedimentation and volcanics. Carbonates covered the Baltic Sea area on Baltica (McKerrow et al., 1991). Shallow-water carbonate muds were deposited in southern Scandinavia and adjacent parts of Poland (McKerrow et al., 1991; Ronov et al. 1984). The Late Ordovician of Africa is characterized by a wide development of the Late Ordovician tillites, which indicate that glaciation covered a large part of the continent. Tillites are also known in Morocco, many regions of Sahara (from Sierra-Leone to Tunis), Egypt, and the Arabian Peninsula. Their age is Late Caradocian to Early Llandoverian. Tillites are found as well in Cape Province of South Africa. Marine transgression in Africa increased in the north, almost covering the entire Sahara. The rate of subsidence of this huge basin was rather small and subsidence was entirely accommodated by sedimentation of sandy-argillaceous deposits. The influx of clastic material was derived from the south, from the erosion of central Africa. There the typical thickness is 150 – 200 m. In the south (Cape Province), the slight subsidence of marine basins was accompanied by sedimentation of marine and continental sandy rocks (Table Mountain). During the Late Ordovician and Silurian, subsidence of the inner Amazon, Maranaˆo and Parana basins started (Milani & Zala´n, 1999). Subsidence of these basins resulted in the development of a wide transgression of the craton, the first in Paleozoic time. The Amazon basin crossed the craton from west to east and sandy-argillaceous strata with thickness up to 1 km were deposited. In the Maranaˆo Basin, sandy rocks dominated, while fluvioglacial facies are known near its western slope at the base of the Lower Silurian. In the Parana Basin, coarse-grained sandy sediments prevailed, essentially a continental facies. Llandoverian was a time of a global OAE characterized by widespread occurrence of organic-rich rocks, usually graptolitic shale. 3.3. Early Devonian-Late Carboniferous (Kaskaskia): closing of the Rheic Ocean 3.3.1. Geodynamic evolution According to Milnes, Wennberg, Skar, and Koestler (1997), the final stage of contraction of the Caledonides in Norway took place between 410 and 395 Ma. At the end of

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this phase, the strain field in the upper crust changed from contraction to extension. Sinistral displacement in Scandinavia and Greenland was a result of transtensional orogenic collapse (Soper et al., 1992). The western Rheic Ocean became quite narrow. During the Devonian, Gondwana moved northward and rotated clockwise (Scotese & Barret, 1990; Scotese & McKerrow, 1990). At the same time, Laurussia was rotating clockwise (Torsvik et al., 1996) at a somewhat faster rate. The first contact between Laurussia and the Central European promontory of Gondwana occurred in the Tornquist –Teisseyre zone (Fig. 5). At the same time, South and North America were again separated. The early Devonian Oldredia supercontinent was disassembled. The gap was not very large according to the Gondwana position of Scotese and Barret (1990); supported by Golonka et al. (1994), Scotese and McKerrow, (1990) and Williams (1995). With an alternative position of Gondwana (Bachtadse, Torsvik, Tait, & Soffel, 1995), the gap seems much larger, particularly between Africa and Armorica. A reconstruction based on the pole of rotation in central Africa suggestes a very rapid movement of the northern margin of Africa. Starting from near the Equator (Kent & van der Voo, 1990), during Early Devonian, it moved to 608S during the Late Devonian, and back to the Equator, during the Carboniferous (Bachtadse et al., 1995). Such a movement is very hard to explain considering existing geological and paleoclimatological records. A large gap between Gondwana and Laurussia still existed due to differences in longitude for South and North America. Also, paleontological data (Robardet et al., 1993) suggest affinities between the fauna in Armorica and Africa and differences between Armorican and Avalonian margins of Laurussia. The ongoing Hercynian convergence in Europe led to large-scale dextral shortening, overthrusting, and emplacement of parts of the accretionary complexes (Edel & Weber, 1995). The amount of convergence was modified by large transfer faults. The clockwise rotation of Gondwana (Smethurst, Khramov, & Torsvik, 1998), during the collision with Laurussia closed the southwest remnant of the Rheic Ocean. The Hercynian orogeny in Europe was a result of the collision of several separate blocks with the Laurussian margin (Franke, 1989, 1992; Franke, Dallmeyer, & Weber, 1995; Lewandowski, 1998), followed by the involvement of the Gondwana continent. Widespread orogenic deformation occurred across western and central Europe in Iberia, Ligerian, Central Massif, Sardinian-Corsican, Armorican, Harz Mts., Saxoturingian, Bohemian, and Silesia areas (Yilmaz, Norton, Leary, & Chuchla, 1996). The Rheno-Hercynian basin turned into a foredeep, with flysch deposition. The Alleghenian orogeny in North America was a result of the collision of the Gondwanian and Laurussian cratons (Dewey & Burke, 1973). This orogenic event was prolonged, polyphase,

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Fig. 5. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Atlantic area area during Late Devonian; Plate position at 370 Ma. For explanation—see keys in Fig. 2.

and pervasive (Rast, 1990) extending to the southern and central Appalachians. 3.3.2. Sea level and climate The sea level lowstand of Tippecanoe IV (middle Pridolian – middle Pragian) continued to Kaskaskia I (late Pragian –Eifelian) with the temporary rise toward

the top of the supersequence (Fig. 5). The climate was still arid with abundant red beds deposited. The northward drift of Gondwana contributed to the warming of the climate and transition from icehouse to greenhouse. A small icecap still existed in Gondwana (Williams, 1995). Global sea level was relatively high during Kaskaskia II – IV (Givetian – Serpukhovian) deposition and dropped

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dramatically toward the top of Kaskaskia IV supersequence. Kaskaskia II climates were generally warm and equable, but minor alpine and continental ice was present in the southern polar regions. A major extinction event took place at the upper boundary of the Kaskaskia II (Givetian – Fammenian) supersequence (Joachimski & Buggisch, 1993; Racki, 1998a,b). Kaskaskia III and IV supersequences were deposited during a time of frequent glacioeustatic sea level fluctuations. Icehouse conditions prevailed with cool temperatures extending to low latitudes. The southern polar icecap increased significantly in size (Williams, 1995). OAEs and organic-rich marine sediments are noted in the Kaskaskia II and III supersequences. 3.3.3. Lithofacies The Early Devonian was characterized by a new cycle of transgressions and subsidence which occurred on the large territory of South America including the Amazon, Maranaˆo, and Parana basins and the southern part of the Peri-Andean zone (Ronov et al., 1984; Milani & Zala´n, 1999). Arenaceous sediments were the dominant deposits. At that time, the Amazon basin subsided in the east and was connected to the marine basins of the Andean belt in the west. Abundant red beds, molasse, and continental evaporites were deposited in basins in the rain shadow of the north-south oriented Laurussian orogenic belt. Laurussian shelves exhibit both sandstone and shale, with sandstones being most abundant in interior seaways proximal to mountain belts. Sedimentation on the wide Gondwanan margins was dominated by fine-grained siliciclastics. Paralic and shallow marine clastics were deposited on the southwestern margin of Gondwana in the Sierra de la Ventana region, Chaco-Parana and Parana basins in South America, Cape Area in South Africa, and in Falkland Islands (Williams, 1995; Tankard et al., 1995). Sandstones were restricted to narrow shoreline belts. Deep-sea fans occurred basinward of the narrow continental margins of southern Laurussia. Fluvial/deltaic sediments were located at the seaward terminations of orogenic belts in northern Laurussia. Lacustrine sediments were localized in pull-apart basins within the central Laurussian mountain belt. Limestones, dolomites and mixed clastic-carbonate facies were present in the central European and northwest African terranes (Ziegler, 1989). Middle and Late Devonian was a period of major reef development (Fig. 5). Carbonate-buildup trends occurred along the northern African and central European continental shelves. Many of these carbonate-rimmed shelves provided raised rims for intrashelf basins. Abundant back-stepping reefal margins occurred due to second-order sea level rise or accelerated subsidence. The carbonate buildups existed in proximity to the organic-rich deposits, during a time of oceanic anoxia. Late Devonian organic-rich marine black shale, potential source rocks, were best developed in large, low-latitude, restricted, intrashelf basins and interior

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seaways coincident with a global OAE (e.g. Appalachian, Madre de Dios, Parana, Amazon, Chaco, and North Africa). Clastic deposition dominated the Early Carboniferous period. Increased deltaic deposition occurred in orogenic belts and rift grabens. Abundant, deep-water turbidite/flysch deposition occurred in foreland basins associated with the Hercynian collision (eastern USA, Morocco, and Europe). Flooded shelves of northern Gondwana and Laurussia were dominated by fine-grained clastics. Worldwide tectonism and plate convergence, associated with the formation of Pangea, increased erosional gradients and enhanced deltaic and flysch deposition. Major deltaic systems developed adjacent to the central Laurussian mountain belt. Extensive flysch deposits accumulated adjacent to the Hercynian Mountains and within Antler and Ouachita foreland basins. Restricted, low-latitude carbonates exhibit extensive shelf margin skeletal and oolitic sand bodies. Carbonate buildups (i.e. reef mounds) were rare and mostly composed of muddy, non-framework, algal and skeletal components. The overlying major unconformity and contemporary glacioeustatic sea level fluctuations subjected carbonates of this age to episodes of erosion and karstification. 3.4. Late Carboniferous – Middle Jurassic (Absaroka): Pangea 3.4.1. Geodynamic evolution The collision between Gondwana and Laurussia continued to develop (Fig. 6). The intercontinental collision began to affect the northwestern part of Africa. According to Le´corche´, Dallmeyer, and Villeneuve (1989), the age of the West African orogens (Mauretinides, Bassarides, Rokelides) is Late Carboniferous to Early Permian (ca. 300 – 275 Ma). The collision resulted in eastward translation of previously tectonized Mauretinides units over their foreland and emplacement of imbricated nappes. The Alleghenian orogeny in North America progressed (Hatcher et al., 1989; Rast, 1990), westward to the Ouachita foldbelt in Arkansas, Oklahoma, Texas and adjacent part of Mexico (Arbenz, 1990). The Hercynian orogeny in Europe continued (Franke, 1989; Ziegler, 1989). The clockwise rotation of Gondwana resulted in the deformation in the Europe. A SW – NE stress direction was added to the northern one. This Gondwanan influence resulted in the convoluted shape of the Hercynian orogen, strike-slip zones (Franke et al., 1995) and Hercynian deformation at the eastern end in Poland. The European foreland basin was elevated or changed its sedimentation regime from flysch to molasse. A central Pangean mountain range was formed, which extended from Mexico to Poland. Southward the mountain system extended to Morocco (Pique, 1989). The early stage of formation of the Ural suture marked the formation of the supercontinent Pangea (Wegener, 1912). The late Carboniferous Pangea included Australia, India, Antarctica,

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Fig. 6. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Atlantic area during Late Carboniferous; Plate position at 302 Ma. For explanation—see keys in Fig. 2.

Africa, Arabia, the Cimmerian Plate, South America, Europe, Kazakhstan, and Siberia. Many of the continental collisions, which began in the Carboniferous, reached maturity in the Early Permian. Movement of Pangea was characterized by an overall northward drift and clockwise rotation. The entire

supercontinent was rimmed by subduction zones and volcanoes (Golonka & Ford, 2000). The Ouachita Mountains of Oklahoma reflected the final phase of collision between Laurentia and Gondwana during the Early Permian. Collisional compression was still active in the Ural area, North America, and the Cape Fold Belt. The Hercynian

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Mountains, in the western and central Europe, became inactive. Continued closure between the Gondwanan and Laurussian elements of Pangea eliminated the equatorial seaway between the Paleotethys and western oceans. At the same time opening of the proto-North Sea was initiated between East Greenland and Baltica (Stemmerik, 2000) and strike-slip, pull-apart grabens developed in central Europe (Ziegler, 1988). Continuing uplift of orogenic belts at continental margins produced internal drainage and isolated arid interior basins. The southwestern margin of Gondwana was affected by a major orogenic episode which began during the Moscovian and continued during the Asselian (Golonka & Ford, 2000). Mountains were created in South America (Sierra de la Ventana), South Africa (Cape Fold Belt) and Antarctica (Pensacola Mountains) (Visser, 1987; Veevers, Cole, & Cowan 1994), resulting perhaps from collisions of minor terranes. According to Beauchamp (1997), a stress-release event of very large magnitude, probably associated with a plate reorganization shift from convergent to divergent tectonics, occurred at the Permian-Triassic boundary. This stress release event was evidently visible in the Canadian Arctic, and may have affected all of the Pangea Rifts developed in the Gulf of Mexico area, and maritime Canada (Manspeizer, 1988, 1994). In northwestern Africa, western Europe, and the proto-North Atlantic area, the Late Paleozoic fracture system was reactivated (Ziegler, 1982; 1989, Dore´, 1991). The North Sea rift system developed farther, and the Polish/ Danish Aulacogen began to form (Fig. 7). Rifting and breakup of Pangea, initiated during the Early Triassic, continued and intensified at the beginning of the Norian (Fig. 8) (Veevers, 1994; Manspeizer, 1994; Withjack, Schlische, & Olsen, 1998). The separation of North America and Gondwana, which was initiated by the Triassic stretching and rifting phase, continued during the Early – Middle Jurassic. According to Withjack et al. (1998), the transition from rifting to drifting was diachronous. In the southeastern United States, this transition occurred after the Late Triassic rifting and before the Early Jurassic (, 200 Ma) basaltic magmatism. In maritime Canada, the drift-rift transition occurred at about 185 Ma. The start of seafloor spreading in the Central Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico and Ligurian Ocean of Tethys is dated as 175 Ma (Lawver & Gahagan, 1993; Golonka et al., 1996). Karoo rifting between South Africa and Antarctica was accompanied by extrusion of flood-basalts, which, according to Cox (1992), were generated from a large-scale mantle plume. Substantial eruptive activity occurred between approximately 198 and 173 Ma. The onset of the breakup of Africa, India and Antarctica occurred during this time. According to Macdonald et al. (2003, this issue), significant extension began in the future South Atlantic area from about 210 Ma (end-Triassic). During this early syn-rift phase, extension was accompanied by strike-slip faulting and block rotation; later extension was accompanied by extrusion of large volumes of lava.

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Movement of South America was accompanied by the reorganization of crustal blocks in Patagonia, the Falkland/ Malvinas Plateau, and West Antarctica. This reorganization included clockwise rotation of the Falklands/Malvinas block in an overall extensional regime, which was complete by 165 Ma (Macdonald et al, 2003, this volume). 3.4.2. Sea level and climate Global sea level was quite low at the Late Carboniferous boundary and base of the Lower Absaroka I (Bashkirian – Kasimovian) supersequence (Fig. 6). It slowly rose and stayed medium-high before plunging dramatically to its minimum at the end of Permian and the upper boundary of the Lower Absaroka IV (Late Permian) supersequence (Fig. 7), (Ross and Ross, 1988, 1995; Ross, Baud, & Menning, 1994). Icehouse conditions prevailed during the Late Carboniferous, with cool temperatures extending to low latitudes. The southern polar icecap reached its maximum size (Crowell, 1995; Crowell & Frakes, 1975; Crowley & Baum, 1992; Frakes, Francis, & Syktus, 1992; Francis, 1994; McClure, 1978, 1980; Veevers & Powell, 1987). An icecap covered southern Australia, Antarctica, southern India and Arabia, Madagascar, eastern and southern Africa and the southeastern part of South America. Smaller independent alpine and continental glaciers also existed. The sea level was affected by glacioeustatic fluctuations, but with somewhat lower frequency, compared to that of the Kaskaskia III and IV supersequences. Less frequent sea level fluctuations indicate the stabilization of the icecap. At the same time, a major climate change was recorded in the Kungurian – Ufimian on the Barents shelf where the cool-water carbonates and spiculites were deposited (Stemmerik, 2000). The Lower Absaroka III (Sakmarian – Kungurian) supersequence was deposited during a time of waning Permian glaciation. The Gondwana glaciation decreased during the Sakmarian and ended during the Kazanian, about 254 – 252 Ma (Crowell, 1995). The warming which followed seems, according to Crowell (1995), to correspond closely with the extinction event at the Permian –Triassic boundary (Sepkoski, 1989). The Upper Absaroka I (Induan-lower Carnian) boundary, Permian –Triassic, corresponds with the lowest firstorder sea level stand during the Mesozoic and the time of maximum continental emergence (Ross & Ross, 1988; Haq, Hardenbol, & Vail, 1988). The sea level slowly rose following this boundary which is marked by a dramatic extinction event (Francis, 1994; Sepkoski, 1989). This extinction event may perhaps be related to the climate change and plate reorganization mentioned above. According to Veevers (1994), a catastrophic discharge of CO2 into the atmosphere from the eruption of Siberian traps was related to mass extinction and the change from icehouse to greenhouse conditions. However, transitional icehouse –greenhouse conditions prevailed, characterized by cool and arid climates. Humid and wet conditions were restricted to high latitudes. No

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Fig. 7. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Atlantic area during Late Permian; Plate position at 255 Ma. For explanation—see keys in Fig. 2.

evidence of significant continental glaciation is present (Frakes et al., 1992). The base of the Upper Absaroka II (late Carnian –middle Hettangian) supersequence corresponds with first-order sea level lowstand and a time of high continental emergence near the Norian– Carnian boundary (Fig. 8). The transition

from icehouse to greenhouse conditions continued (Frakes et al., 1992). The general conditions resemble those of the preceding Scythian –Carnian time, Upper Absaroka I, with a slight shift toward increased humidity. But, humid and wet conditions were restricted to high latitudes. There is no evidence of significant continental glaciation.

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Fig. 8. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Atlantic area during Late Triassic; Plate position at 225 Ma. For explanation—see keys in Fig. 2.

The uppermost part of the Absaroka megasequence, called here the Upper Absaroka III supersequence, corresponds to the Pliensbachian –Toarcian of the Early Jurassic. This was the time of the initiation of the first-order sea level rise in the mid-Mesozoic. There was generally a transgressive trend that continued throughout the entire Jurassic. The upper boundary

of the Upper Absaroka III corresponds with the welldistinguished mid-Cimmerian tectonic unconformity in Europe. Greenhouse conditions prevailed with a warm, humid environment, and moderate temperatures into high latitudes, generally arid continental interiors, and no evidence of significant continental glaciation.

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3.4.3. Lithofacies During early Absaroka, mountain ranges and uplift occupied most of the present-day North Atlantic margins. Clastic deposition was restricted to the Appalachian – Variscan foreland of Europe, North America, and North Africa. Sea level fluctuations resulted in large areas with marginal marine/paralic sedimentation and cyclothem deposition including major coal deposits (Golonka & Ford, 2000). In South America, marine incursion from the west affected the Amazon to the Parnaiba Basin. Mixed carbonate and clastic deposits developed in the Amazon Basin while clastics prevailed in the Parana Basin (Milani & Zala´n, 1999). Tillites marking the glaciation were widespread in Gondwana. Orogenic uplift along Pangean margins created internal drainage and stimulated deposition of continental sediments, red beds, evaporites, and eolian sandstones during Permian time (Fig. 7). At the same time, carbonates and cyclic spiculitic sediments prevailed in the Arctic seaway (Stemmerik, 2000). Large evaporite pans existed in central and western Europe and during Late Carboniferous through Early Permian in the Amazon Basin. Changing sea level caused cyclic deposition of clastic/carbonate/evaporite sequences. Four of such large cyclothems are distinguished within the European Zechstein sediments. Large-scale continental deposits, mainly fluvial and lacustrine with red beds and occasionally with evaporites and coals were present in South Africa, Argentina, and Brazil (Golonka & Ford, 2000). Interior sag basins with organic-rich continental and lacustrine sediments existed in the Parana and Karoo Basins (Cadle, Cairncross, Christie, & Roberts, 1993). Continental clastic deposits with red beds and evaporites were also widespread during Triassic time (Fig. 8). These types of sediments occurred in South America, Southwestern US, maritime Canada, northwestern Africa, South Africa, and western Europe. Rift basins developed in central and northern Atlantic region. Marginal marine environments with clastic deposition existed in the seaway between Europe and Greenland (Stemmerik, 2000). Continental clastic deposition continued during Early Jurassic. Color changed from red to more grays due to increased wetness. Locally, coal-bearing alluvial/fluvial depositional systems formed. 3.5. Middle Jurassic – Early Paleogene (Zuni): dispersion of continents 3.5.1. Geodynamic evolution During the Middle Jurassic, the Pangean Rim of Fire was still active (Fig. 9). Volcanism, terrane accretion, and back-arc basin development continued along the western margin of North and South America, as well as along the southern margin of Antarctica and Australia. It is possible that seafloor spreading occurred in the Weddell Sea (LaBrecque & Barker, 1981). According to Lawver and Gahagan (1993), the terranes of western North America

began to collide with North America resulting in thrusting and transpressional deformations (Oldow, Lallemant, & Leeman, 1989). This collision disturbed the westward movement of the North American plate and caused the stress and inversion on the eastern coast of America (Withjack et al., 1998). Extension of Neotethys to the northwest, through the proto-Mediterranean, produced a connection with the Central Atlantic. The Central Atlantic was in an advanced drift stage. A major Jurassic seaway opened (Ricou, 1996) connecting the Gulf of Mexico and Central America with southern Europe and the Tethyan branch of the Pacific Ocean (Fig. 10). Rifting continued in the North Sea and in the northern proto-Atlantic (Dore´, 1991; Ziegler, 1989). Rifts developed in West and Central Africa during latest Jurassic. The latest Jurassic was a time of plate reorganization. The Atlantic began to propagate to the area between Iberia and Canada (Sinclair, Shannon, Williams, Harkers, & Moore, 1993; Ziegler, 1988). The North Sea-Poland rifts ceased to expand and from this time can be considered aulacogens. Initial rifting occurred between eastern Canada and western Greenland (Dore´, 1991; Ziegler, 1988). Rifting in the Arctic was initiated. Drifting in the Gulf of Mexico ceased by Late Berriasian (Marton & Buffler, 1994; Ross & Scotese, 1988). Sea floor spreading developed in the proto-Caribbean region (Dercourt, Ricou, & Vrielynck, 1993; Ricou, 1996). Narrow transcontinental seaways developed across Europe and the North Atlantic. A narrow transcontinental seaway developed across southern Gondwana (Malvinas/Falklands area). The initial oceanic opening of South Atlantic took place during the Early Cretaceous (Fig. 11). Dispersal of the continents and development of the passive margins and rift basins continued. Seafloor spreading opened the Falklands/ Malvinas seaway between Antarctica, Africa, and South America (Lawver and Gahagan, 1993). According to Szatmari (2000), differential rotation of the South American and African continents around a pole located in northeastern Brazil created the South Atlantic rift. The oldest South Atlantic seafloor is 130 Ma (Austin and Uchupi, 1982). The Ponta Grossa dike swarm formed over the Parana-Tristan da Cunha hot spot dividing the rift into two structurally different portions (Szatmari, 2000). The Central Atlantic was spreading in the area between Iberia, the Grand Banks and the Flemish Cap (Golonka and Bocharova, 2000; Ziegler, 1988). Rifting occurred in the North Atlantic area between Newfoundland, Greenland, Ireland, United Kingdom, and France (P. Ziegler, 1988; Sinclair, 1995). Rifting in the Labrador Sea propagated northward toward the Davies Strait and also probably into southern Baffin Bay (Ziegler, 1988). Active seafloor spreading continued in the proto-Caribbean Sea, between North and South America (Ricou, 1996). The Aptian –Albian was the time of advanced break-up of Pangea and Gondwana with the rift-to-drift transition

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Fig. 9. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Atlantic area during Middle Jurassic; Plate position at 166 Ma. For explanation—see keys in Fig. 2.

between South America and Africa, resulting in extensive sea-floor spreading and increasing submergence of the continents (Fig. 12). The subduction zone between North and South America flipped polarity. A westward dipping subduction developed along the eastern side of the Greater Antilles arc, associated with the creation of blueschists and

other metamorphic rocks (Pindell & Tabbutt, 1995). The arc began to migrate eastward, consuming the proto-Caribbean oceanic crust. The sea-floor spreading phase was initiated in the equatorial Atlantic (Nu¨rnberg & Mu¨ller, 1991), concomitant with continued widening of the South Atlantic. Continued drift of the northern Hemisphere was concurrent

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Fig. 10. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Atlantic area during Late Jurassic; Plate position at 152 Ma. For explanation—see keys in Fig. 2.

with the onset of the separation of Laurentia from Eurasia (Ziegler, 1988). According to Driscoll, Hogg, Christie-Blick, and Karner (1995), the sea-floor spreading phase of the break-up between the northern portion of Newfoundland and northern Iberia began after the early Aptian. The Benue Trough opened in West Africa

(Benkhelil, 1989). Interior continental rifts of Africa remained during the Early Cretaceous (Ricou, 1996). Some Karoo troughs of southern Africa were rejuvenated (Cadle, Cairncross, Christie, & Roberts, 1993; Guiraud & Bellion, 1996). Rifts were also rejuvenated in northern Africa between Morocco and Tunisia. The opening of

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the South Atlantic Ocean caused the drift and counterclockwise rotation of Africa. During the Late Cretaceous, the spreading of the Central and South Atlantic continued (Fig. 14), with a significant increase in the size of the equatorial Atlantic (Nu¨rnberg & Mu¨ller, 1991). The Central Atlantic Ocean widened, propagating toward the Labrador Sea and the Rockall Trough in the North Atlantic (Dore´, 1991). Spreading in the Rockall trough was accompanied by intensive downwarping along the West Shetland and mid-Norway margin. This spreading ceased around 84 Ma with the development of a new spreading center in the Labrador Sea (Dore´, 1991). The onset of seafloor spreading in the Labrador Sea occurred either at 95 Ma, according to Scotese (1991), or at 84 Ma according to Lawver and Gahagan (1993). The Bay of Biscay also opened. The main line of spreading in the Atlantic realm began to be established along the Biscay Bay-Labrador Sea line (Golonka & Bocharova, 2000). A volcanic arc existed along the Andean convergent margin, where the Farallon plate was subducted beneath the South American continent (Lamb, Hoke, Kennan, & Dewey, 1997). Eastward movement of the Caribbean arc between North and South America, as well as the subduction of the proto-Caribbean oceanic crust beneath the advancing Greater Antilles island arc continued (Pindell & Tabbutt, 1995; Ross & Scotese, 1988). This arc collided with the Bahama platform during the latest Cretaceous, resulting in the capture of the Caribbean plate and the initiation of subduction along the Panama Arc (Scotese, 1991). The trapped Caribbean seafloor had been a part of the Farallon plate of the Pacific (Lawver & Gahagan, 1993). The Atlantic passive margins were uplifted (Wernicke & Tilke, 1989). The widespread inversion in the North Sea and in central Europe could have been a result of the stress induced by the movement of Europe and ridge push from the Bay of Biscay spreading (Golonka & Bocharova, 2000). Between 100 and 70 Ma, the Iceland hot spot was located between Baffin Island and Greenland (Lawver & Mu¨ller, 1994). This resulted in the spreading of the Labrador Sea, rifting in the Baffin Bay, and emplacement of volcanics on the west coast of Greenland (Gill, Holm, & Nielsen, 1992, 1995; Holm, Hald, & Nielsen, 1992; Larsen, Pedersen, Pedersen, & Piasecki, 1992). Spreading in the Makarov Basin was perhaps also related to the opening of the Labrador Sea. The uplifted African Atlantic margin created internal drainage and narrow continental margins. Marine transgression reached its maximum in North Africa, during Late Campanian time. A major mass extinction event took place during this time. South America moved westwards, encroaching on the Caribbean plate, creating a volcanic arc and foredeep along the northwestern shelf (Pindell & Tabbutt, 1995). Further development of the Panamanian arc took place along the western Caribbean plate margin. Early Cretaceous rifting and formation of retro-arc basins in

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the Andes was followed by Late Cretaceous accretion, uplift and inversion (Lamb et al., 1997, Ramos & Aleman, 2000). The Eurekan orogeny, primarily a response to sea-floor spreading in the Labrador Sea and Baffin Bay, affected much of the Arctic, from the Late Paleocene to the Eocene (Golonka, 2000). A compressive foldbelt was developed in westernmost Spitzbergen and North Greenland. The West Svalbard orogenic belts were also considered as strike-slip or transpressive orogen resulting from the continental collision and lateral escape (Lyberis and Manby, 1999). Compression also affected the Canadian Arctic, mainly Ellesmere Island and the adjacent areas. 3.5.2. Sea level and climate The Lower Zuni I supersequence (middle Aalenianmiddle Bathonian), initiated at the base of the Middle Jurassic, marks the beginning of a period of long-term first-order rise in relative global sea level which culminated in the Late Cretaceous (Fig. 9). Continental margin flooding was better pronounced in the middle of the Toarcian. A major OAE occurred during the Toarcian (Jenkyns, 1988). Wide continental shelves on the Tethyan margins and the Laurasian seaways began to form at that time (Golonka et al., 1994, 1996). The Lower Zuni I supersequence ended with a marine regression during mid-Bathonian time. Greenhouse conditions began to prevail, with the warming of the climate. Arid conditions still prevailed in the continental interiors. No significant continental glaciation was recorded. The Lower Zuni II (late Bathonian –middle Tithonian) corresponds with a period of long-term first-order rise in global sea level (Fig. 10). This supersequence began with a large transgression in the Late Bathonian. Significant continental margin flooding occurred together with submergence of both carbonate platforms and the central Laurasian rift basins. Sea level reached its Jurassic maximum during Kimmeridgian time. Wide continental shelves were established on the Tethyan margins, in Europe and in the Arctic (Golonka et al., 1994, 1996). Seaways connected the Tethyan and Boreal (Arctic) realms. Greenhouse conditions prevailed with warm, but generally arid continental interiors. No significant continental glaciation was recorded. Organic-rich marine sediments of the Lower Zuni II represent OAEs. Mainly organic-rich carbonate rocks were deposited in the Tethys area during Bathonian – Oxfordian time. In the Boreal realm, Kimmeridgian –Tithonian organic-rich shales were deposited (Baudin & Herbin; 1996; Ettensohn, 1994; Ulmishek & Klemme; 1990). The Tithonian – Valanginian, Lower Zuni III supersequence, was a time of high and falling first-order global sea level, characterized by submerged continental margins and established continental interior seaways. The supersequence ended with a dramatic drop of sea level, during mid-Valanginian time. This drop was related to

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Fig. 11. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Atlantic area during Early Cretaceous (Hauterivian–Barremian); Plate position at 130 Ma. For explanation—see keys in Fig. 2.

global plate tectonic reorganization. Global greenhouse conditions prevailed (Frakes & Francis, 1990), with rising aridity of continental interiors and in the marginal seaways. The climate was latitudinally controlled, with arid conditions at mid-latitudes, cool and wet conditions at

high latitudes and warm and wet conditions at low latitudes. The Late Jurassic OAE continued, with the widespread deposition of the organic-rich marine dark shales in the northern Pangea, especially in the boreal shallow seas like the North Sea area between Norway and Greenland,

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and West Siberia (Baudin & Herbin, 1996; Ettensohn, 1994; Ulmishek & Klemme, 1990). No evidence of continental glaciation was recorded. The Upper Zuni I supersequence (late Valanginian – early Aptian) began with a rapid transgression (Fig.11). The sea

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level had reached a peak first-order highstand and stabilized during Hauterivian and Barremian times, then decreased during mid-Aptian, at the boundary of the supersequence. The OAE conditions present during deposition of the Upper Zuni I also ceased at mid-Aptian. Global greenhouse

Fig. 12. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Atlantic area during Early Cretaceous (Aptian–Albian); Plate position at 112 Ma. For explanation— see keys in Fig. 2.

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conditions prevailed, with warm equable climates, humid continental interiors and no continental glaciation. A relatively cool period occurred by the upper part of the supersequence (Frakes & Francis, 1990). Deposition of the Upper Zuni II supersequence (late Aptian– middle Cenomanian) was accompanied by a rise in sea level, which during the Cenomanian approached its maximum first-order highstand for the entire Phanerozoic (Fig. 12). This was also the period of increasing continental submergence. Global greenhouse conditions prevailed with hot, equable climates and generally humid continental interiors. This was the peak temperature of the Cretaceous (Frakes & Francis, 1990). However, local aridity was associated with orographic effects. There is no evidence of extensive continental glaciation. The Turonian was also the time of another OAE (Arthur, Schlanger, & Jenkyns, 1987, 1990; Jenkyns, 1980). Organic-rich sediments were deposited along various continental margin basins. The Turonian and the lower part of the Upper Zuni III supersequence (late Cenomanian – early Campanian) experienced the highest 1st-order global sea level of the Mesozoic and perhaps during the entire Phanerozoic (Fig. 13). This was marked by the period of maximum continental submergence. Global greenhouse conditions prevailed (Frakes & Francis, 1990). Hot, equable climates dominated with high humidity and rainfall. The continental interiors were humid with local aridity associated with orographic effects. There is no evidence of extensive continental glaciation. This was the time of a short-lived yet intensive OAE during the Turonian (Arthur, Brumsack, Jenkyns, & Schlanger, 1990; Arthur, Schlanger, & Jenkyns, 1987). Deposition of the Upper Zuni IV supersequence (middle Campanian-Selandian) began with high sea level, which slowly lowered, then dropped dramatically at the Danian-Thanetian boundary. Global greenhouse conditions continued, with hot, equable climates and generally humid continental, interior settings. Local aridity was associated with orographic effects. Cooling occurred by the Thanetian. No evidence of extensive continental glaciation was recorded, although the polar temperatures were low enough to allow the formation of seasonal ice or even permanent glaciers (Frakes & Francis, 1990). The uplifted African Atlantic margin created internal drainage and narrow continental margins. Marine transgression reached its maximum in North Africa during Late Campanian (Philip et al., 1996). A major mass extinction event took place during this time. 3.5.3. Lithofacies During the Middle Jurassic (Fig. 9) passive margin basins formed along the central Atlantic Coast of North America, and northwestern Africa. Mixed carbonate-clastic sedimentation prevailed. Marine clastics were dominant in rifts between western Europe, Scandinavia, North America,

and Greenland (Dore´, 1991; Ziegler, 1988). Evaporites were deposited in the Gulf of Mexico area. Continental clastics were deposited in rift basins between the southern tip of Africa and South America as well as in the Parana Basin. Carbonate platforms developed during Late Jurassic (Fig. 10) on both sides of the Central Atlantic. The occurrences of major carbonate depositional systems in the Gulf of Mexico are recorded. A large carbonate platform developed in the Cuba– Bahamas –Florida area. Another large carbonate platform was located between Newfoundland and Iberia (Sinclair et al., 1993). Oolitic and skeletal grainstones were major components of the shallow-marine carbonate ramps and platforms. Organic reefs composed of corals and sponges were minor depositional components of the carbonate systems. Evaporite-related dolomitization of interior platform carbonates was common. Much of eastern South America was covered by eolian sediments in the Late Jurassic time. Continental clastics were deposited in the pre-rift continental sag basins during Late Jurassic time, followed by the opening of rift filled with fluvial-lacustrine clastics along the future South Atlantic between South America and Africa (Szatmari, 2000). Parana Basin flood basalt and rift relate volcanics were emplaced along proto-Atlantic margins about 137-125 Ma. They underlie the evaporites and continental clastics in the southern portion the South Atlantic salt basin, south of 188S (Szatmari, 2000). Late Jurassic to earliest Cretaceous (Lower Zuni II and III) was a time of significant marine source rock deposition (Baudin & Herbin, 1996; Ettensohn, 1994; Ulmishek & Klemme, 1990). Organic-rich, potential source rocks accumulated within passive margin basins of the Gulf of Mexico area, southern South America, within interior post-rift seaway embayments in the North Sea proto-North Atlantic area, and in the southernmost part of proto-South Atlantic. Lacustrine, organic-rich, potential source rocks, filled the basins between South America and Africa prior to marine deposition and deposition of evaporites (Szatmari, 2000). Upper Zuni I (late Valanginian – early Aptian) (Fig. 11) was accompanied by the development of rift basins containing continental and marine clastics, evaporites and volcanics between South America and Africa. Large scale evaporite deposition occurred in rift basins north of the South Atlantic Walvis Ridge, introducing marine sedimentation in the South Atlantic. The time of salt deposition in the South Atlantic salt basin is Aptian (Szatmari, 2000). A large carbonate platform existed in the Florida-Bahamas area. Carbonate shelves rimmed the newly formed Gulf of Mexico. The Central Atlantic margins and the area between Eurasia, North America and Greenland were dominated by clastics, mainly fine-grained deposits. Upper Zuni II (late Aptian-middle Cenomanian) was dominated by marine sediments within the South

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Fig. 13. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Atlantic area during Late Cretaceous; Plate position at 90 Ma. For explanation—see keys in Fig. 2.

Atlantic realm (Fig. 12). Rift basins turned into passive margin basin types. Most of present-day offshore basins along the South American and African coasts formed during this time (Figueiredo & Milani, 2000; Szatmari, 2000).

Carbonate platform deposition continued in the FloridaBahamas area. Rudist reefs rimmed the Gulf of Mexico. Clastic sediments during Albian and Late Cretaceous (Fig. 13) dominated the margins along North Atlantic and northwestern Africa. Organic-rich sediments were

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widespread on the margins of South America and Africa. The most important potential source rocks are calcareous marine shales and carbonates (Africa, North America, and South America). Upwelling may be important in controlling the location of some marine potential source rock occurrences; e.g. La Luna of Venezuela (Figueiredo & Milani, 2000). Chalks and calcareous plankton marls were common in western Europe (Ziegler, 1988). Fine-grained clastics were deposited in the area between Greenland and Scandinavia. Clastic sedimentation was also dominant along the South Atlantic margin during the Late Cretaceous. The uplifted African Atlantic margin created internal drainage and narrow continental margins. Active, deltaic depocenters existed along the West African margin (De Klasz, 1978). 3.6. Early Paleogene – Neogene (Tejas): widening of the Atlantic Ocean 3.6.1. Geodynamic evolution The breakup of North America, Greenland and Eurasia occurred during the Paleogene (Fig. 14). The northern Atlantic and the Norwegian – Greenland Sea basins opened during the early Eocene (Lawver & Gahagan, 1993; Ziegler, 1988). This opening was initiated at the Paleocene/Eocene transition and was accompanied by extensive volcanism along the plate boundaries (Eldholm, Skogseid, Sundvor, & Myhre, 1990; Planke, Skogseid, & Eldholm, 1991; Skogseid, Pedersen, Eldholm, & Larsen, 1992). White and McKenzie (1989) relate this opening to the activity of the Iceland mantle plume. At the same time, oceanic spreading was still active west of Greenland. The opening of the Arctic Ocean (Eurasian Basin) was initiated, in the late Paleocene (Kristofferson, 1990). The Central and South Atlantic oceans increased their widths, with westward movement of North and South America. Inversion of the High Atlas Mountains in Morocco marked a new, convergent boundary between stable Africa and the Moroccan and Oran mesetas (Ricou, 1996). A major compressive event took place at the Mid-Late Eocene transition (Guiraud & Bellion, 1996). According to Pindell and Tabbutt (1995), the westward movement of South America across the mantle accelerated. This triggered the Incaic phase of Andean tectonics, with a drastic uplifting of the mountain chain. Further relative eastward movement of the Caribbean plate continued, with significant transpressive deformation along the northern and southern strike-slip boundaries (Guiraud & Bellion, 1996). Cuba had docked with North America. According to White (1992), the Iceland plume was reactivated at 57 mya near the Paleocene – Eocene boundary. After which, the extension between Greenland and the northwestern European margin continued until it developed into a full oceanic spreading center. The voluminous volcanic complexes, containing wedges

of seaward-dipping reflectors, were deposited in the vicinity of the continental-oceanic transition (Coffin & Eldholm, 1994; Planke et al., 1991; Skogseid et al., 1992). During the Oligocene, the spreading of the Scotia plate created the Drake Passage, which allowed the circum-Antarctic seaway to develop (Barker and Burell, 1977; Barker and Lawver, 1988; Lawver et al., 1992). Glaciation was related to the opening of this seaway around Antarctica (Lawver et al., 1992). Seafloor spreading continued in the North Atlantic, with further opening of the Eurasian Basin in the Arctic (Zonenshain et al., 1990) which was separated from the Canadian Basin by the Lomonosov Ridge. During the Neogene (Fig. 15) subduction and orogenesis continued along the entire Cordillera of North and South America. The rate of motion of South America, relative to the mantle slowed (Pindell & Tabbutt, 1995). The Panamanian Isthmus was established. Termination of folding and thrusting in the Central Andes was a result of this change of the rate of motion (Lamb et al., 1997). The rate of motion of South America again increased relative to the mantle (Pindell & Tabbutt, 1995). The Andes were rejuvenated with crustal shortening, uplift and an increase of volcanic activity. A major uplift phase of the Colorado Plateau in the United States began. The Atlantic margin in Norway was uplifted during the Neogene (Jensen & Schmidt, 1993). Spreading in the Atlantic and Indian oceans continued, with a westward drift of the Americas and northward drifting of Africa, Eurasia and Australia. South America moved faster than North America (Mu¨ller et al., 1997; Nu¨rnberg & Mu¨ller, 1991). Again, this was a time of assembly of the continents, with large land masses and continental shelves situated around the North Pole. This was also an ice period as well as the time of a salinity crisis (Fig. 15). The mountain building process also continued in the Andes (Pindell & Tabbutt, 1995). Late Miocene-Pliocene compression occurred also in eastern Venezuela (Eva, Burke, Mann, & Wadge, 1989). Shortening took place in Central Andes (Lamb et al., 1997). Spreading in the Atlantic and Indian oceans continued with a westward drift of the Americas and northward drift of Africa, Eurasia and Australia. Spreading in the South Atlantic occurred more rapidly then in the North Atlantic (Mu¨ller et al., 1997; Nu¨rnberg & Mu¨ller, 1991). 3.6.2. Sea level and climate The Lower Tejas I (Thanetian – Ypresian) supersequence was deposited when sea level was at its highest first-order stand of the Cenozoic (Fig. 14). Greenhouse conditions still prevailed, with generally warm temperatures. Equable climates dominated, with variable conditions due to local orographic and oceanic circulation effects. No significant evidence of continental glaciation was recorded. Abundant mid- to high-latitude floras were present, with tropical affinities.

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Fig. 14. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Atlantic area during Paleogene; Plate position at 53 Ma. For explanation—see keys in Fig. 2.

The Lower Tejas II (Lutetian –Bartonian) supersequence began with a rapid marine transgression. The sea reached a relatively high level then dropped slowly toward the end of the Eocene. The sea level underwent a first-order fall from this time on to the present day. Transitional greenhouse to

icehouse conditions prevailed. The first evidence of the existence of an ice sheet in Antarctica was observed, at the base of the Lutetian stage (base of Lower Tejas II) (Abreu & Baum, 1997). Temperatures were generally still warm, followed by the onset of a long-term cooling trend.

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Fig. 15. Paleoenvironment and lithofacies of the circum-Atlantic area during Neogene; Plate position at 14 Ma. For explanation—see keys in Fig. 2.

Generally equable climates dominated, with variable conditions due to local orographic and oceanic circulation effects. The Lower Tejas III supersequence developed during the long-term first-order Cenozoic lowering of relative sea level. The largest and most rapid second-order sea level

drop in the Cenozoic occurred at the Lower Tejas III supersequence boundary. The supersequence developed during the onset of the Cenozoic icehouse conditions. A major cooling trend took place, with highly variable continental climates, associated with latitudinal and orographic effects. An ice sheet formed on the southern

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Hemisphere. According to Abreu and Baum (1997), isotopic data indicates that the ice sheet on Antarctica experienced phases of growth during the late Eocene to early Oligocene, followed by a decreased volume in the late Oligocene. The onset of Antarctica glaciation was related to the opening of the seaway around Antarctica (Lawver et al., 1992). Upper Tejas I (Chattian – Aquitanian) development occurred during the continuation of the long-term first-order Cenozoic lowering of relative sea level. This corresponds to the near maximum phase of continental emergence for the Cenozoic. This supersequence followed a Lower Tejas III second-order, lowstand, base-level shift. The supersequence developed during the Cenozoic early icehouse conditions and was characterized by cool climatic settings. Widely variable continental climates were the result of latitudinal and orographic effects. A major ice sheet existed in the southern Hemisphere, and the presence of sea ice was possible in the Arctic. The Upper Tejas II supersequence (Burdigalian – Serravallian) corresponds to the opening of several basins and to an increase in the volume of the Antarctic ice (Fig. 14). The fluctuations of sea level reflected the waxing and waning of Antarctic glaciers. Sea level dropped dramatically at the end of the Middle Miocene (Serravallian). The Upper Texas II supersequence developed during Cenozoic icehouse conditions and was characterized by relatively cool climatic settings. Widely variable continental climates were due to latitudinal and orographic effects. Sea ice was possibly located at the North Pole. According to Ziegler (1988), the Gulf Stream began to flow to the Atlantic and warm the water going to the Norwegian – Greenland Sea by mid-Miocene time. This event is shown by the ingression of warm water faunas into the North Sea Basin. The Upper Tejas III (Tortonian – Gelasian) was initiated by one of the lowest sea levels of the Phanerozoic. The continents were at maximum emergence. After that, the sea level rose until latest Miocene to early Pliocene and then dropped to produce the narrow continental margins of the Pleistocene. The sea level was affected by highamplitude, high frequency glacioeustatic fluctuations. The climate changed from cool to cold, with extreme temperature differences between the continental equatorial and polar areas. The interiors of the continents became arid, especially in the subtropical zones. Large glaciers developed on the northern Hemisphere by the Pleistocene. Likewise, Antarctica was covered by continental glaciers. 3.6.3. Lithofacies During the Paleogene, relatively narrow continental margins were established along Central Atlantic and part of the South Atlantic. The large Florida-Bahama carbonate platform was formed during the Zuni cycle and continued throughout all of the Tejas cycle. During Lower Tejas (Fig. 14), fine-grained clastics dominated sedimentation

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around North America, the Atlantic margin between Florida and Labrador Sea, and on the western European shelves (Ziegler, 1988). Carbonate sedimentation was extensive along low latitude, western African margins and in some areas along the northeastern coast of South America. They were represented by transgressive carbonates consisting of coral reefs and related grainstones as well as by shelfal marls. South Atlantic margins were typically narrow (except Argentina). They were dominated by fine-grained, shaly clastics with local development of deltas. The large Niger delta and fan was well developed during this time (Sahagian, 1993). Organic-rich sediments were deposited on the Trinidad, East Venezuela and Brazilian continental margins (Figueiredo & Milani, 2000). Increased orogenic activity enhanced continental drainage during the Upper Tejas cycle (Fig. 15). Narrow continental margins with many deltaic deposits were common. Large volumes of clastic sediments were delivered to deltas and deep-sea fans, including the Amazon fan and the Niger delta and its fan (Sahagian, 1993). Deposition followed a major 30 ma low stand. Increased deposition on continental shelves helped to bury and mature older organic-rich deposits. The last marine inundation of the Argentina coastal basins occurred during the Neogene. Central and North Atlantic margins were dominated by fine-grained clastic deposits on the American side and more coarse-grained deposits along the African and western European coast (Dercourt et al., 1993; Sahagian, 1993). Passive margin basins developed between western Eurasia and Greenland following intense volcanic activity (Ziegler, 1988). Florida –Bahama platforms were characterized by shallow-water carbonate deposition. Platform interiors were distinguished by muddy carbonates and patch reefs while platform margins were signified by coral reef buildups and associated skeletal sands. In the Caribbean-Gulf of Mexico area, shelf sedimentation consisted of carbonates with abundant, large foraminifera (Galloway, Ganey-Curray, Xiang, & Butler, 2000). Continuous carbonate shelves lined the northern Brazilian margin. Carbonates were also deposited on the narrow shelves in western Africa and southern Brazil.

4. Conclusions and summary The paloenvironment and lithofacies maps illustrate the Phanerozoic geodynamic evolution of the Earth. They show the relationship of the continental configuration, lithofacies, tectonics, and climate, from the time of the disassembly of Rodinia through the assembly and break-up of Pangea to the present. From a regional perspective, the facies in basins along the circum-Atlantic margin reflect various stages of rifting and passive margin development as well as sea-level cyclicity and climatic changes from ‘icehouse’ to ‘greenhouse’ (Fig. 16).

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1. The supercontinent Gondwana and three major continental plates: Baltica (NE Europe), Laurentia (N. America) and Siberia were distinguished at the beginning of the Phanerozoic. Laurentia and Baltica drifted apart from Gondwana during latest Vendian to earliest Cambrian time, at the beginning of the Sauk supersequence. Sauk was the time of the disassembly of

continents and opening of proto-Atlantic: Iapetus and Rheic oceans. 2. The Tippecanoe was the time of assembly of continents leading to the formation of the Oldredia supercontinent. The Caledonian Orogeny during the Silurian and Early Devonian was the result of the collision of Baltica, Laurentia, and Avalonian

Fig. 16. Development of the South and North Atlantic region during Phanerozoic-comparison of tectonic events, lihofacies, climate and sorce rock potential.

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Fig. 16 (continued )

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Fig. 16 (continued )

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

terranes. The Iapetus Ocean was closed at that time. The Kaskaskia was a time of plate reorganization and formation of the supercontinent Pangea. Oldredia was disassembled during the Devonian time. The series of orogenies during the Carboniferous time (Hercynian, Alleghenian and others) resulted in suturing of Gondwana and Laurussia, closing of Rheic and onset of Pangea. The Absaroka was a time of Pangea reorganization and final suturing. Almost all parts of Pangea were sutured together for a brief time during Early Jurassic. The break-up of the main part of Pangea began with the stress release at the Permian – Triassic boundary, extensive rifting occurred during the Triassic –Early Jurassic time, spreading began at the Middle Jurassic time. Zuni was the time of disassembly of Pangea and dispersion of continents. This disassembly began with the origin of the Central Atlantic Ocean and breakup between Laurentia and Gondwana during the Jurassic time. Gondwana was fragmented during the Jurassic– Cretaceous time. The South Atlantic was formed as result of the Gondwana break-up. Tejas was a time of widening of the Atlantic. The breakup of North America, Greenland and Eurasia occurred during the Paleogene.The northern Atlantic and the NorwegianGreenland Sea basins opened, during the early Eocene. The opening of the Arctic Ocean (Eurasian Basin) was initiated, in the late Paleocene. The Central and South Atlantic increased their widths, with westward movement of North and South America. The Atlantic margins were in numerous places uplifted during the Neogene time. The Earth’s climate reflects the plate tectonic phases of the continental breakup and assembly. Warm times are related to breakups, the icehouse conditions are related to assembly. The climate changed from the greenhouse with short icehouse interludes through icehouse with warming interludes, another greenhouse, to the present day icehouse.

Acknowledgements We would like to thank Mobil New Exploration Ventures for permission to publish this paper. We would like to express our gratitude to our numerous Mobil co-workers, especially, Mary Edrich, Bob Pauken, Jeff Brown, Lowell Waite, Jim Markello, Dick Koepnick, Chris Meisling, Martha Withjack, Jeff Kraus, as well to our academia colleagues Chris Scotese, from the University of Texas at Arlington, Larry Lawver, Ian Dalziel, Mike Coffin and Lisa Gahagan, from the University of Texas at Austin, Malcolm Ross from Rice University, Fred Ziegler and Dave Rowley, from the University of Chicago, Judy Parrish, from the University of Arizona, Erik Flu¨gel and Wolfgang Kiessling, from the University of Erlangen, Michal Krobicki, from University of Mining and Metallurgy at Krakow, Andrzej Sla˛czka, and Nestor Oszczypko from Jagiellonian Univer´ sity, Anatoliy Nikishin, from Moscow State University, Natasha Bocharova, Lev Natapov, and Vladimir Kazmin, from the Russian Academy of Sciences, for sharing their ideas about the Phanerozoic paleogeography, paleoclimatology and plate tectonics. This work was partly supported by the grant from the Jagiellonian University (Badania Wlasne). It is also a contribution to the IGCP project 453. The authors also wish to thank reviewers Peter Szatmari and David Macdonald for helpful comments and remarks.

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