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From vision to action: Towards a national policy for integrated water management in Sudan
From Vision to Action: Management in Sudan
Towards a National Policy for Integrated Water
OSMAN M I R G H A N I M O H A M E D ALl Institute of Environmental Studies, University of Khartoum, Sudan. E-mail: [email protected]
A B S T R A C T : An overview of the water resources in Sudan and the patterns of their utilization is given.
Through an evaluating perspective, the problems and constraints are outlined. Sudan's efforts in the realm of water resources conservation and rational exploitation are reviewed. From an oblique reference to an environmental policy in the 1973 Constitution to the proposed National Water Policy of 1999, the legislation, policies and plans were followed. Prior to 1992 policies and legislation were fragmented. In the National Comprehensive Strategy for Development (1992-2002) the water resources sector was considered as a subsector of the agricultural sector. Currently, the water sector in Sudan is characterizes by overlapping legal regimes and the situation is further complicated by the federal system of governance. The proposed Water Policy covers a wide variety of issues. It is built upon twelve overarching policy principles and objectives set out to embrace areas of water resources, utilization, water and the environment, regional water issues, socio-economic issues, disaster management and public safety and institutions, capacity building and technical assistance. It is envisaged that the adoption and implementation of the National Water Policy would mark a milestone in the history of Sudan's development. The policy is reviewed and appraised. Specific aspects where the proposed policy needs strengthening were highlighted.
INTRODUCTION Sudan is the biggest country in Africa, covering one-eighth of the continent with an area of 2.5 million km 2, and sharing its border with nine countries. It comprises several climo-ecological zones: desert, semi-desert, savanna, tropical forests, flood region (swamps), equatorial and montane. The population of the county is estimated at 30 million with an annual rate of growth of 2.8%. More than 50% of the population lives on just 15% of the land along the fiver Nile and its tributaries. The remaining population lives in towns away from the Nile and depends primarily on deep groundwater. W a t e r Resources in the Sudan
There are four main resources of water in the Sudan: rainfall, surface, ground water and the Red Sea. Rain represents the largest water source available in Sudan. Despite the fact that almost 50% of the country is desert and semi-desert, the annual rainfall is estimated at 1.07 trillion m 3, almost 45% of the total annual precipitation of the whole Arab region (AOAD, 1989). Rainfall increases from almost zero in the north to 1600 mm in the equatorial region in the south (Table 1). The country has high potential evapotranspiration rates exceeding, 1450 mm in most areas.
Considering the year as a whole, the annual water deficit is above 600 mm in most of the country. However, water deficit generally decreases during the rainy season. During the months July and August there is practically no water deficit to the south of latitude 12~ (Satakopan, 1965). The availability of rainwater is further complicated by the fact that great areas of the country are sandy soils. Table 1: Distribution of annual rainfall and water input in various regions of Sudan (modified from IHP, 1988)
Climatic region
Area (10 6 km 2)
Average annual rainfall (mm)
Length of season (month)
Equatorial
0.14
1200-1600
7-9
Tropical forests and swamps
0.46
800-1200
6-7
Savanna
0.68
300-800
3-6
Semi-desert
0.50
75-300
1-3
Desert
0.73
3-75
0-1
The Nile system represents the main surface water source in Sudan. The main axis of the Nile system including the White Nile runs for more than 300 km within Sudan's borders. The combined length of the Blue Nile, the tributaries of the White Nile and the seasonal rivers is over 6000 km (Beshir
Water ResourcesPerspectives:Evaluation,Managementand Policy. Editedby A.S. Alsharhanand W.W. Wood. Published in 2003 by ElsevierScience,Amsterdam,The Netherlands,p. 237-244.
O. M. M. ALI
and E1 Moghraby, 1980). The average annual discharge of the Nile is estimated at 84 km 3 measured at Aswan in Egypt. Over 80% of the Nile's annual flow take place between August and October. Some of the seasonal wadis and khors in the eastern and western regions do not reach the main Nile. At their maximum discharge their annual flow is about 5-7 km 3 a year (SRFAC, 2001). Sudan is unique among the ten countries of the Nile basin as it is a sink, a path and a resource. All the five sub-basins making the Nile basin (The White Nile, Sobat, The Blue Nile, Atbra and the River Nile) are represented within Sudan's border, which embraces 60% of the Nile system (MOIWR, 1999). The swamps of the upper reaches of the Nile could be one of the largest in the world with 8,000 km 2 permanent swamps and 80,000 km 2 seasonal swamps (Thompson, 1985). The construction of dams along the Nile has resulted in the creation of large water impoundments such as Lake J. Aulia, Sennar, E1 Roseiris, Khashm el Girba and Nubia. Away from the Nile system, there are a number of non- nilotic lakes. Some of these are freshwater lakes such Kundi, Abyad, Keilak, and Turdat el Rahad. Saline lakes in the country are either crater lakes represented by the two lakes of Dariba in the massif volcanic caldera of Jebel Marra, and the Malha Lake in the Medoub series- both in western Sudan- or non-crater lakes such as Nikheila, Natroon and Salima oases in the northern region. The freshwater lakes are small, in areas sparsely populated and are mainly used as watering points for livestock. Available records indicate that Sudan has a large storage of groundwater. The area of land suitable to bear groundwater is 1.3 million km 2, with an annual recharge of two milliard m 3. The main aquifers of the Sudan are formed of the Mesozoic Nubian Sandstone Formation; the detrital Quaternary to Tertiary deposits (of Um Ruwaba Formation, E1 Gezira Formation and A1 Atshan Formation) and the Alluvial wadi-fill deposits (SNC/UNESCO, 2000) (Table 2). The Nubian formation is the most extensive and largest aquifer in the Sudan. Besides these inland and ground water resources, Sudan has 750 km of Red Sea coastline. However, currently this marine water is not utilized for drinking or irrigation, as desalination is not practiced on a large scale yet. Utilization Patterns
Water consumption for domestic purposes is estimated at 100 1/day, albeit no authentic figures are available. Industry utilizes only 1% of the total water
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consumption. Irrigation is the principal consumer of the water in the Sudan with over 80% of the water withdrawal from the Nile being used for irrigated agriculture. Hydropower is generated from the Blue and River Atbra rivers. The present installed capacities are around 200MW. The Nile in the Sudan is used for transportation and the navigable water courses are estimated at 5000 km (Beshir and E1 Moghrabi, 1980). The Nile is renounced for its rich and diverse fisheries especially in the man-made lakes behind the dams.
Table 2: Groundwater basins in Sudan (SNC/UNESCO, 2000).
11
Formation
Main water basins
< The Nubian Sandstone
The Sahara Basin The Nile Basin The Central Darfur Basin The Atbra Basin The Nahud Basin The Sag E1 Naam Basin
The Detrital Quaternary Tertiary Deposits
The Bara basin The Atshan Basin The Baggara Basin The Sudd Basin
Alluvial Wadi-filled depressions
El Gash WadiAzum WadiNyala
Total
O onl r
<
1 0 7 4 636
585
148
376
160
2035
944
The Vision: Evaluation and Perspectives
The strive of Sudan to institute a water policy has been a continuous process hinging on and spurred by a vision stemming from evaluation of the current status and future perspective of water needs. 9 Remarkable variations in the spatial and temporal distribution in quantities and duration of the rains. With high potential evapotranspiration, the rainwater surplus is practically nil for the whole country except in the extreme south. 9 The Nile normally witnesses high seasonal and annual periodicity in its discharge.
From Vision to Action: Towards a National Policy for Integrated Water Management in Sudan
9
Storage capacities of surface water are limited and with decreasing efficiencies. More water flows out of the country (120 km 3) than is stored in. 9 Most of the surface and groundwater resources are shared with neighboring countries. 9 Sudan can use only 22% of the Nile water. 9 Sudan is the only country within the Nile basin that has a potential to increase the natural flow via conservation of the river flow through the wetland areas of the upper stretches of Nile. The Jonglei Project's phase I and phase II are planned to provide 4.7 and 9.0 km 3 annually, respectively. If the amounts envisaged to be available from River Baro (Sobat swamps) and the Machar marshes (4.0 km 3 each)are added, then 21.7 km 3 could be added to the current discharge. Although these aliquots will be shared with Egypt, Sudan can increase its within-border waters by heightening E1 Roseiris dam-adding 7.0 km 3, by construction of Hamadab Dam at the fourth cataract and by more utilizing groundwater (Table 3). 9 Although 52% of the country's area overlies water bearing formations, the exact hydrogeological situation - groundwater in storage and groundwater recharge- is yet to be elucidated and documented. Huge incongruities are reported in the literature. 9 Although huge .quantities of groundwater estimated as 1678 milliard m 3 a r e believed to be stored in the Nubian Sandstone basin, much of it is paleo-water (Kheir, 1986; Abdel Salam, 1986, cited by SNC/UNESCO, 2000) and thus nonrenewable. 9 Non-nilotic seasonal streams and wadis are not receiving equal attention as the Nile system. They are not sufficiently studied nor are they properly utilized. 9 There are tremendous losses of water in the swampy regions of the upper Nile, estimated at 42 km 3 annually (El Moghrabi and Ali, 1989). 9 The actual cultivated area is only about 29% of total arable land. 9 Present hydropower utilization is only 2% of the potential power from the Nile and its tributaries. 9 The per capita available water is declining progressively. As cited by SRFAC (2001), available water has decreased progressively from 5.3 thousand m 3 per year in 1970 to 2.8 thousand m 3 in 1995. The forecast for the year 2025 is 1.3 thousand m 3 per year. The present trends in availability, allocation and use of water resources
point to unsustainable water resources, exploitation and demand (SRFAC, 2001). 9 Although Sudanese water resources are comparatively clean, signs of contamination are manifested in both the Nile and the groundwaters and pollution is imminent (Dirar, 1986; Abdellatif et al., 1993; Ali, 2000; SNC/ UNESCO, 2000). Urbanization, agricultural practices, industrial waste and the newly discovered oil resources represent the main threat to water resources. 9 Water quality does not receive due attention within the current institutional structure. 9 The present water administrative structure ignores non-conventional resources such as sewage, irrigation runoff waters (AOAD, 2000) and desalinization. 9 Inadequacy of water supply is affecting the sanitation standards. Only 30% of the rural population has access to adequate water supply while nearly 40% of the urban population and 90% of people living in rural areas lack basic sanitation services (MOIWR, 1999). On the other hand, almost 90% of the epidemic diseases are water induced or water related. 9 The development of water resources cannot be viewed in isolation from the overall social and economic development in the country. 9 It is a top priority to review and revise existing legal regimes to remove redundancies and inconsistencies. 9 A major gap in water resource management includes data and information management, water quality monitoring and cross-sectoral coordination. 9 Exodus of trained and qualified engineers and difficulties in training and qualifying younger engineers abroad due to financial constraints 9 The country is suffering from the long civil strife, which impinges upon its political stability and development strategies. 9 The Nile could be both a source of conflict and a basis for collaboration among the riparian countries. 9 Management of water resources is best carried out on a regional or catchment-wide basis 9 Under globalization, no vision of sound policies and planning could be developed without an international dimension.
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O. M. M. ALI
Table 3: Availability and Constraints of Water in Sudan (modified from MOIWR, 1999).
The Action
sector was embodied as a sub-sector of the agricultural sector. The strategy sets a number of policy objectives and strategies oriented towards solving the water resources problems and developing the resource. At the close of the NCSD decade, most of those objectives have not been fulfilled. In 1995 the National Council for Water Resources (NCWR) was established headed by the Minister of the Federal Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources (FMOIWR) with representatives from major suppliers and users of water at the national and state levels. Its mandate included formulation of the general policy for water resources as a long-term federal plan for optimal and balanced use of water resources, and determination of priorities. As for drinking water, the National Water Corporation Act of 1995 has established a corporation with policy powers in the drinking water (MOIWR, 1999). A significant development resulted from the 1998 Constitution whereby the federal government is responsible for planning, regulating and executing inter-state waters and national electricity projects. The major federal development projects were considered by the Constitutional Decree No. 14 as national wealth, to be managed at the federal level. Currently the water sector in the Sudan is governed by three overlapping legal regimes: The Nile Pump Control Act of 1939 and the 1952 Regulations made there under, the Irrigation and Drainage Act of 1990 and the Water Resources Act of 1995. The last Act has repealed the NPCA of 1939 while keeping the 1951 Regulations but it has not repealed the Irrigation and Drainage Act of 1990 (MOIWR, 1999). As for the ground water legislation gaps include the oil resources development and its impact on groundwater resources, and the groundwater basins shared with neighboring countries.
Water Management History
Proposed National Water Policy
The draft document of the Sudan National Water Policy (MOIWR, 1999) divided the development of water policy and legislation in the Sudan into two eras: pre-1992 and post 1992. During the first era the main water regulations in the Sudan were based on the 1951 Regulations which are licensing regulations for pumping water from the Nile according to the Nile Pump Control Act (NPCA) of 1939. This was recently modified in the Water Resources Act of 1995. In addition there are about ten other pieces of fragmented legislations. There is no policy for selling water in the country. The second era began with the National Comprehensive Strategy for Development of 1992 (1992-2002) when the irrigation and water resources
For a water policy to be effective in Sudan, it has to cope with a set of extremes: drought and deluge episodes; Nilotic and non-Nilotic systems; marine and fresh waters, surface and sub-surface resources, Federal and State authorities; health and ailment; national and regional interests. The Proposed Water Policy (PWP) lays a framework composed of a set of over-arching policy issues that apply to the water sector as a whole and to most of the individual components. All the main specific areas of concern in water development, management and protection are to be tested against these principles and objectives. The overarching policy principles and objectives laid by the proposed policy are highlighted below:
Water Resources
~~
Constraints
Sudan present share from the Nile (1959 Agreementa) Non-Nile streams
20.5
Seasonal pattern coupled with limited storage facilities
5.4
Renewable Groundwater
4.1
Highly variable, short duration flows difficult to monitor or harvest. Some are shared with neighbours. Deep water entailing high cost of exploitation and pumping. Remote areas of weak infrastructure.
Present Total Expected share from reclamation of swamps
Heightening of El Roseiris Damb
Total
30 10.25 Capitalintensive with considerable social and environmental cost. Security dimension due civil strife. 7.0 Capitalintensive
47.25
a) Agreement signed by Egypt and the Sudan in 1959 whereby the former receives 55.5 km 3 and the later receives 18.5 km 3 of the 84 km 3 Nile annual discharge. 10 km 3 are regarded as lost in Lake Nassir-Nubia by evaporation. b) On the Blue Nile. Major source of hydropower and irrigation water in the Sudan.
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From Vision to Action: Towards a National Policy for Integrated Water Management in Sudan
1. Water is a scarce and valuable resource. 2. Access to water for human needs is the highest priority in the development of water resources. 3. Development of water resources must be demand-driven and management should be undertaken at the lowest possible level. 4. Development and management of water resources, and the operation and maintenance of water services must be economically sustainable through the recovery of cost from those who benefit. 5. All water should be managed in an integrated manner as part of the hydrological cycle. 6. Water resources management affects everybody and should be undertaken with the participation of relevant stakeholders 7. People are stakeholders and the national government is the custodian of all water in Sudan for the equitable benefit of all. 8. The gathering and management of accurate information for the investigation and continuos monitoring of water resources is essential for proper development, management and protection of the resource. 9. The environment needs to be protected in order to ensure sustainable utilization for present and future generations. 10. The development of water resources will be undertaken in order to maximize its benefits in the public interest whilst ensuring minimum adverse impact on the environment. 11. Public institutional arrangements at federal and state levels shall be integrated, efficient and transparent whilst avoiding duplication of functions and responsibilities. 12. Water and water related issues are an integral part of the wider economy and have direct effects on many other sectors that require interdepartmental and inter-sectoral communications and co-operation. All the subordinate policies related to the development, management and protection of water resources are tested against the above principles and objectives. In formulating the surface-water resources policy, six issues and problems associated with their development and protection are addressed. These are: flood and drought spells; storage facilities for the highly variable flow; maintenance of irrigation infrastructure; supply and demand management; surface-water quality management and human resources. The policy principles and objectives emphasize that surface- water planning and development must be integrated at all levels. The protection of surface water is the obligation of all
sectors and, therefore, the development policy had to be clear and accessible to the involved communities. A reliable data and information system is a prerequisite for sound assessment, planning, management and development of surface-water. To ensure continuity of services, the operation and maintenance of surface-water should be based on the "user pays principle". To meet the increasing demand, the storage capacity has to be increased through heightening of E1 Roseiris Dam and via building new dams and barrages. Optimum and equitable use of surface-water should be promoted through the cooperation between the national water users. The final principle emphasizes the regulatory function of the Federal Government in ensuring that appropriate standards of service quality, sustainability and environmental friendliness are met by both water suppliers and users. The Proposed Water Policy summarizes the key issues pertaining to groundwater in the aspects of monitoring and information base; quality, pollution and environmental degradation; development and utilization; and institutional arrangements. The policy principles and objectives stress that groundwater resources are an indivisible part of the hydrological cycle, the national water balance and the natural resources base. The Proposed Water Policy draws from the Islamic principle which regards water as a common property and spells it quite clear that groundwater resources are a national property, the equitable use of which is common to all subject to national authority control. Proper planning, assessment, development and management of water resources cannot be achieved without strengthening the information base at the national and the state levels. The Proposed Water Policy recognizes the present and future users fight of access to clean and unpolluted groundwater resources and an undegraded environment. Groundwater in the proposed policy is recognized as having a social and economic value based on the cost of its development, operation and maintenance. Concerning sustainability of groundwater resources, the Proposed Water Policy urges that abstraction shall be based on recharge and safe yield concepts. Sustainability of groundwater development and supply services shall be planned for and considered as part of development and management policy of the water resources systems. The Proposed Water Policy is acclaimed for stressing the importance of the unconventional water resources. It draws the attention that research, planning and development of unconventional water resources, such as domestic sewage and desalinated waters, will be undertaken in order to use such alternative resources for Sudan.
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O. M. M. ALI
In the realm of sanitation, the Proposed Water Policy identifies certain issues and problems such as supply-demand imbalance, sustainability of water supply systems, sanitation and water disposal, water supply and sanitation sector institutional reform. The reform is required to ensure that, inter alia, water supply and sanitation sectors and the associated projects should be integrated, adopting a communitybased approach. Further, clear identification is needed for roles, responsibilities and obligations of federal and state govemments, NGO's, local communities, the private sector and the National Council for Water Resource. Towards such extent, the policy and objectives stress that access to adequate water supply and sanitation is a basic necessity. The achievement of sustainable and financially viable water supply and sanitation services must be the objective of service providers. In the agriculture and landuse sectors, the Proposed Water Policy points to specific key issues and problems. Wind and water erosion has resulted from overgrazing and over-cultivation. Crop yields are declining due to the ensuing environmental degradation, successive drought episodes, animal death and migration of rural people to towns. Other issues included are excessive removal of vegetation cover, concentration of agricultural activities in central Sudan, wildlife depletion, soil degradation and poor traditional landuse practices. To ameliorate the situation, the Proposed Water Policy principles and objectives urge that the improvement of water use efficiency in agriculture shall be a priority. The licensing of water use must include a rigorous assessment of water resources to be utilized. The water pricing must promote equitable and efficient water use. The use of water in irrigation projects should be monitored and evaluated properly. The Proposed Water Policy reviews all the problems related to hydropower and sets suitable principles and objectives. It rates hydropower as a clean energy form, relatively cheap to produce and remains a priority for investment. The thermal backup shall be secured to fill the gap. In order to optimize the use of the water stored for different purposes, dam operation should be co-coordinated at all levels through appropriate institutional arrangements. Beneficiaries participation in management of hydropower must be institutionalized. Public awareness, clarity and transparency of energy policy are needed to gain acceptance of customers. While advocating private sector to be encouraged in the development of hydropower sector, the Proposed Water Policy maintains that the govemment must oversee the equality of services provided to the consumers.
242
As for industry sector, the Proposed Water Policy recognizes the associated problems and the expected increase in water requirements (5% of total water consumption by 2025) and sets definite principles and objectives. The use of water to transport and dilute waste and to act as a coolant has to be linked with treatment. The Precautionary Principle of pollution control should be adopted with financial penalties for polluters. Adequate legislation should prevail and be enforced to prevent pollution of the environment at large and fresh sources in particular. The Proposed Water Policy regards fiver and sea navigation as constituting an important form of transportation in Sudan that needs to be promoted and adequately regulated in coordination and cooperation with the concerned bodies. Fisheries are catered for in the Proposed Water Policy and the principles and objectives pertaining to this important economic activity call for the identification and implementation of appropriate water resources management measures. The environment is featured prominently in the Proposed Water Policy. The issues dealt with are: the environment as the resource base; pollution control; catchment degradation; biodiversity and wildlife. Four principles and objectives are highlighted: The necessity to sustain the aquatic environments; the realization that people and the consequences of their development are part of the environment; the impact of development and use of water resources should not compromise the long-term sustainability of aquatic environments; and a balance must be maintained between water resources development and utilization on the one hand and their protection on the other. The Proposed Water Policy, aware that water does not recognize political boundaries, calls for Sudan to seek to cooperate with other countries for the development, optimum use and protection of international waters wherever possible in its national interests and without compromising its sovereignty. It regards watershed management inside the country and in neighbouring countries as a pre-requisite for efficient water use and for strengthening political relations. For a water policy to be effective, it has to incorporate both recurring flood and drought phenomena. Within this context, the Proposed Water Policy sets as a priority the development of a National Disaster Management Plan to enable both the avoidance of and effective response to disasters. International co-operation is critical for proper and adequate response to natural and other disasters. Sudan will seek to participate in and contribute to
From Vision to Action: Towards a National Policyfor Integrated Water Management in Sudan
international efforts such as the Program to Combat Desertification. The Proposed Water Policy emphasizes that the development of water resources can not be seen in isolation from the overall social and economic development. Towards that end, the policy stresses that accommodating social and economic issues in water resources development projects is very important and often determines the difference between success and failure. The Proposed Water Policy regards the major challenge in relation to institutional development of the water sector in the Sudan is to develop appropriate institutions for effective management, allocation and protection of the country's water resources. There is an urgent need to develop modem data collection and data information management processes and techniques through the application of computerization, system analysis, GIS, remote sensing telemetry and mathematical modeling. There is a need also for structured research on the impact of water policy. The proposed policy envisages that building the capacity of the water sector at large in the country is one of the fundamental requirements for achieving proper resources management. Finally, the PWP emphasizes that external donor assistance will be needed to support capacity building programmes, especially those that focus on users' group.
husbandry and in fetching water, sometimes from distant locations. As such, they are impacted and have an impact on water as a resource. Although any water policy has to reflect and be tailored to a specific country, it would be beneficial to draw from other countries e x p e r i e n c e s - especially the Nile basin countries - in developing and implementing water policies. The relation between federal and state authorities in utilizing, developing and investing in inter-state rivers and groundwater basins has to be clarified and stated clearly in all decrees and regulations. The Proposed Water Policy should embrace issues of shared groundwater basins with emphasis on neighbouring activities that would adversely impact the water quality of the basin. Coordination is also needed in the institutions responsible for the legislation and implementation of water quality. Finally, the water policy needs to be strengthened by legislative power and to be backed by research capabilities. The Environment Protection Law of 2001, the Regulations for Environmental Impact Assessment and for the Environment Protection in the Petroleum Industry -both yet to be passed- will augment the former need while the latter could be achieved by a specialized national center for water resources research and technology.
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Abdellatif, E., Ali, O.M., Khalil, I.F. and Nyonje, B. M., 1993. Effects of sewage disposal into the White Nile on the plankton community. Hydrobiologia 259:185201. Ali, O. M., 2000. Towards an Arab Region Water Security - The water resources in the Sudan: patterns of use and constraints to utilization. The Arab Journal for Irrigation Water Management 3(2): 45-50. AOAD (Arab Organization for Agricultural Development), 1989. Utilization of Water for Agricultural Purposes and the Future Trends. Science and Technology, Institute of Arabic Development, Lebanon. AOAD (Arab Organization for Agricultural Development), 2000. Study of Promotion of Institutional and Organizational Structures for the Management of Water Resources in the Arab Countries. Arab Organization For Agricultural Development, Khartoum. 132p. Beshir, M. and E1 Moghraby, A.I., 1980. Ecological studies on the Sudanese Nile System. Water Supply and Management 4: 25-28. Dirar, H., 1986. Coliform bacterial counts in the Nile water. Environmental International 12:571-576. El Moghraby and Ali, O. M., 1989. The Aquatic Environment in the Sudan. In: " Problems of Environment and Legislation in the Sudan". By (eds.)
Summary
The paper gave an overview of the water resources in the Sudan and their patterns of utilization. Through evaluating the current status of the water resources in the Sudan and the inherent pitfalls in managing the water resources, a vision is perceived heralding the issues, policies and principles of the proposed water policy. The salient features of the proposed national water policy for Sudan, regarded as a milestone in the water sector in the country' s endeavour to develop, prosper and promote the well being of its people, are highlighted. The proposed draft, the first of its kind in the country, is an excellent document reflecting the strenuous effort exerted in its production. Recommendations
The proposed water policy needs to be subjected to more discussion and to be reviewed by as a wide a sector of people as possible. Certain areas have to be fine-tuned in particular the gender issues. Women in most parts of the Sudan are involved in all activities pertaining to water use such as agriculture,
REFERENCES
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Mahmoud, Z. N.; Abdellatif, E. and Ali, O. M. Sudan Environment Conservation Society, Khartoum. 83p. IHP, 1988. Water Resources Assessment in the Arab Region. ACSAD, UNESCO/IHE. 398p. MOIWR, 1999. Sudan National Water Policy. Draft Document. Satakopan, V., 1965. Water Balance in the Sudan. Sudan Meteorological Service. Memoir No. 5, 33p. SNC/UNESCO, 2000. Vulnerability of Groundwater Resources of Sudan to Pollution Risks. Khartoum.
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The Sudanese National Commission for UNESCO. 104p. SRFAC, 2001. Integrated Water Resources Management. Scientific Research Foreign Affairs Centre. Sudan University for Science and Technology. Technical Paper Series No. (2). 64p. Thompson, K., 1985. Emergent plants of permanent and seasonally flooded wetlands. In: P. Denny (Edit.), The Ecology and Management of African Wetland Vegetation. Dr Junk, Dordrecht, The Netherlands: 43107.
Towards a National Policy for Integrated Water
OSMAN M I R G H A N I M O H A M E D ALl Institute of Environmental Studies, University of Khartoum, Sudan. E-mail: [email protected]
A B S T R A C T : An overview of the water resources in Sudan and the patterns of their utilization is given.
Through an evaluating perspective, the problems and constraints are outlined. Sudan's efforts in the realm of water resources conservation and rational exploitation are reviewed. From an oblique reference to an environmental policy in the 1973 Constitution to the proposed National Water Policy of 1999, the legislation, policies and plans were followed. Prior to 1992 policies and legislation were fragmented. In the National Comprehensive Strategy for Development (1992-2002) the water resources sector was considered as a subsector of the agricultural sector. Currently, the water sector in Sudan is characterizes by overlapping legal regimes and the situation is further complicated by the federal system of governance. The proposed Water Policy covers a wide variety of issues. It is built upon twelve overarching policy principles and objectives set out to embrace areas of water resources, utilization, water and the environment, regional water issues, socio-economic issues, disaster management and public safety and institutions, capacity building and technical assistance. It is envisaged that the adoption and implementation of the National Water Policy would mark a milestone in the history of Sudan's development. The policy is reviewed and appraised. Specific aspects where the proposed policy needs strengthening were highlighted.
INTRODUCTION Sudan is the biggest country in Africa, covering one-eighth of the continent with an area of 2.5 million km 2, and sharing its border with nine countries. It comprises several climo-ecological zones: desert, semi-desert, savanna, tropical forests, flood region (swamps), equatorial and montane. The population of the county is estimated at 30 million with an annual rate of growth of 2.8%. More than 50% of the population lives on just 15% of the land along the fiver Nile and its tributaries. The remaining population lives in towns away from the Nile and depends primarily on deep groundwater. W a t e r Resources in the Sudan
There are four main resources of water in the Sudan: rainfall, surface, ground water and the Red Sea. Rain represents the largest water source available in Sudan. Despite the fact that almost 50% of the country is desert and semi-desert, the annual rainfall is estimated at 1.07 trillion m 3, almost 45% of the total annual precipitation of the whole Arab region (AOAD, 1989). Rainfall increases from almost zero in the north to 1600 mm in the equatorial region in the south (Table 1). The country has high potential evapotranspiration rates exceeding, 1450 mm in most areas.
Considering the year as a whole, the annual water deficit is above 600 mm in most of the country. However, water deficit generally decreases during the rainy season. During the months July and August there is practically no water deficit to the south of latitude 12~ (Satakopan, 1965). The availability of rainwater is further complicated by the fact that great areas of the country are sandy soils. Table 1: Distribution of annual rainfall and water input in various regions of Sudan (modified from IHP, 1988)
Climatic region
Area (10 6 km 2)
Average annual rainfall (mm)
Length of season (month)
Equatorial
0.14
1200-1600
7-9
Tropical forests and swamps
0.46
800-1200
6-7
Savanna
0.68
300-800
3-6
Semi-desert
0.50
75-300
1-3
Desert
0.73
3-75
0-1
The Nile system represents the main surface water source in Sudan. The main axis of the Nile system including the White Nile runs for more than 300 km within Sudan's borders. The combined length of the Blue Nile, the tributaries of the White Nile and the seasonal rivers is over 6000 km (Beshir
Water ResourcesPerspectives:Evaluation,Managementand Policy. Editedby A.S. Alsharhanand W.W. Wood. Published in 2003 by ElsevierScience,Amsterdam,The Netherlands,p. 237-244.
O. M. M. ALI
and E1 Moghraby, 1980). The average annual discharge of the Nile is estimated at 84 km 3 measured at Aswan in Egypt. Over 80% of the Nile's annual flow take place between August and October. Some of the seasonal wadis and khors in the eastern and western regions do not reach the main Nile. At their maximum discharge their annual flow is about 5-7 km 3 a year (SRFAC, 2001). Sudan is unique among the ten countries of the Nile basin as it is a sink, a path and a resource. All the five sub-basins making the Nile basin (The White Nile, Sobat, The Blue Nile, Atbra and the River Nile) are represented within Sudan's border, which embraces 60% of the Nile system (MOIWR, 1999). The swamps of the upper reaches of the Nile could be one of the largest in the world with 8,000 km 2 permanent swamps and 80,000 km 2 seasonal swamps (Thompson, 1985). The construction of dams along the Nile has resulted in the creation of large water impoundments such as Lake J. Aulia, Sennar, E1 Roseiris, Khashm el Girba and Nubia. Away from the Nile system, there are a number of non- nilotic lakes. Some of these are freshwater lakes such Kundi, Abyad, Keilak, and Turdat el Rahad. Saline lakes in the country are either crater lakes represented by the two lakes of Dariba in the massif volcanic caldera of Jebel Marra, and the Malha Lake in the Medoub series- both in western Sudan- or non-crater lakes such as Nikheila, Natroon and Salima oases in the northern region. The freshwater lakes are small, in areas sparsely populated and are mainly used as watering points for livestock. Available records indicate that Sudan has a large storage of groundwater. The area of land suitable to bear groundwater is 1.3 million km 2, with an annual recharge of two milliard m 3. The main aquifers of the Sudan are formed of the Mesozoic Nubian Sandstone Formation; the detrital Quaternary to Tertiary deposits (of Um Ruwaba Formation, E1 Gezira Formation and A1 Atshan Formation) and the Alluvial wadi-fill deposits (SNC/UNESCO, 2000) (Table 2). The Nubian formation is the most extensive and largest aquifer in the Sudan. Besides these inland and ground water resources, Sudan has 750 km of Red Sea coastline. However, currently this marine water is not utilized for drinking or irrigation, as desalination is not practiced on a large scale yet. Utilization Patterns
Water consumption for domestic purposes is estimated at 100 1/day, albeit no authentic figures are available. Industry utilizes only 1% of the total water
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consumption. Irrigation is the principal consumer of the water in the Sudan with over 80% of the water withdrawal from the Nile being used for irrigated agriculture. Hydropower is generated from the Blue and River Atbra rivers. The present installed capacities are around 200MW. The Nile in the Sudan is used for transportation and the navigable water courses are estimated at 5000 km (Beshir and E1 Moghrabi, 1980). The Nile is renounced for its rich and diverse fisheries especially in the man-made lakes behind the dams.
Table 2: Groundwater basins in Sudan (SNC/UNESCO, 2000).
11
Formation
Main water basins
< The Nubian Sandstone
The Sahara Basin The Nile Basin The Central Darfur Basin The Atbra Basin The Nahud Basin The Sag E1 Naam Basin
The Detrital Quaternary Tertiary Deposits
The Bara basin The Atshan Basin The Baggara Basin The Sudd Basin
Alluvial Wadi-filled depressions
El Gash WadiAzum WadiNyala
Total
O onl r
<
1 0 7 4 636
585
148
376
160
2035
944
The Vision: Evaluation and Perspectives
The strive of Sudan to institute a water policy has been a continuous process hinging on and spurred by a vision stemming from evaluation of the current status and future perspective of water needs. 9 Remarkable variations in the spatial and temporal distribution in quantities and duration of the rains. With high potential evapotranspiration, the rainwater surplus is practically nil for the whole country except in the extreme south. 9 The Nile normally witnesses high seasonal and annual periodicity in its discharge.
From Vision to Action: Towards a National Policy for Integrated Water Management in Sudan
9
Storage capacities of surface water are limited and with decreasing efficiencies. More water flows out of the country (120 km 3) than is stored in. 9 Most of the surface and groundwater resources are shared with neighboring countries. 9 Sudan can use only 22% of the Nile water. 9 Sudan is the only country within the Nile basin that has a potential to increase the natural flow via conservation of the river flow through the wetland areas of the upper stretches of Nile. The Jonglei Project's phase I and phase II are planned to provide 4.7 and 9.0 km 3 annually, respectively. If the amounts envisaged to be available from River Baro (Sobat swamps) and the Machar marshes (4.0 km 3 each)are added, then 21.7 km 3 could be added to the current discharge. Although these aliquots will be shared with Egypt, Sudan can increase its within-border waters by heightening E1 Roseiris dam-adding 7.0 km 3, by construction of Hamadab Dam at the fourth cataract and by more utilizing groundwater (Table 3). 9 Although 52% of the country's area overlies water bearing formations, the exact hydrogeological situation - groundwater in storage and groundwater recharge- is yet to be elucidated and documented. Huge incongruities are reported in the literature. 9 Although huge .quantities of groundwater estimated as 1678 milliard m 3 a r e believed to be stored in the Nubian Sandstone basin, much of it is paleo-water (Kheir, 1986; Abdel Salam, 1986, cited by SNC/UNESCO, 2000) and thus nonrenewable. 9 Non-nilotic seasonal streams and wadis are not receiving equal attention as the Nile system. They are not sufficiently studied nor are they properly utilized. 9 There are tremendous losses of water in the swampy regions of the upper Nile, estimated at 42 km 3 annually (El Moghrabi and Ali, 1989). 9 The actual cultivated area is only about 29% of total arable land. 9 Present hydropower utilization is only 2% of the potential power from the Nile and its tributaries. 9 The per capita available water is declining progressively. As cited by SRFAC (2001), available water has decreased progressively from 5.3 thousand m 3 per year in 1970 to 2.8 thousand m 3 in 1995. The forecast for the year 2025 is 1.3 thousand m 3 per year. The present trends in availability, allocation and use of water resources
point to unsustainable water resources, exploitation and demand (SRFAC, 2001). 9 Although Sudanese water resources are comparatively clean, signs of contamination are manifested in both the Nile and the groundwaters and pollution is imminent (Dirar, 1986; Abdellatif et al., 1993; Ali, 2000; SNC/ UNESCO, 2000). Urbanization, agricultural practices, industrial waste and the newly discovered oil resources represent the main threat to water resources. 9 Water quality does not receive due attention within the current institutional structure. 9 The present water administrative structure ignores non-conventional resources such as sewage, irrigation runoff waters (AOAD, 2000) and desalinization. 9 Inadequacy of water supply is affecting the sanitation standards. Only 30% of the rural population has access to adequate water supply while nearly 40% of the urban population and 90% of people living in rural areas lack basic sanitation services (MOIWR, 1999). On the other hand, almost 90% of the epidemic diseases are water induced or water related. 9 The development of water resources cannot be viewed in isolation from the overall social and economic development in the country. 9 It is a top priority to review and revise existing legal regimes to remove redundancies and inconsistencies. 9 A major gap in water resource management includes data and information management, water quality monitoring and cross-sectoral coordination. 9 Exodus of trained and qualified engineers and difficulties in training and qualifying younger engineers abroad due to financial constraints 9 The country is suffering from the long civil strife, which impinges upon its political stability and development strategies. 9 The Nile could be both a source of conflict and a basis for collaboration among the riparian countries. 9 Management of water resources is best carried out on a regional or catchment-wide basis 9 Under globalization, no vision of sound policies and planning could be developed without an international dimension.
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Table 3: Availability and Constraints of Water in Sudan (modified from MOIWR, 1999).
The Action
sector was embodied as a sub-sector of the agricultural sector. The strategy sets a number of policy objectives and strategies oriented towards solving the water resources problems and developing the resource. At the close of the NCSD decade, most of those objectives have not been fulfilled. In 1995 the National Council for Water Resources (NCWR) was established headed by the Minister of the Federal Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources (FMOIWR) with representatives from major suppliers and users of water at the national and state levels. Its mandate included formulation of the general policy for water resources as a long-term federal plan for optimal and balanced use of water resources, and determination of priorities. As for drinking water, the National Water Corporation Act of 1995 has established a corporation with policy powers in the drinking water (MOIWR, 1999). A significant development resulted from the 1998 Constitution whereby the federal government is responsible for planning, regulating and executing inter-state waters and national electricity projects. The major federal development projects were considered by the Constitutional Decree No. 14 as national wealth, to be managed at the federal level. Currently the water sector in the Sudan is governed by three overlapping legal regimes: The Nile Pump Control Act of 1939 and the 1952 Regulations made there under, the Irrigation and Drainage Act of 1990 and the Water Resources Act of 1995. The last Act has repealed the NPCA of 1939 while keeping the 1951 Regulations but it has not repealed the Irrigation and Drainage Act of 1990 (MOIWR, 1999). As for the ground water legislation gaps include the oil resources development and its impact on groundwater resources, and the groundwater basins shared with neighboring countries.
Water Management History
Proposed National Water Policy
The draft document of the Sudan National Water Policy (MOIWR, 1999) divided the development of water policy and legislation in the Sudan into two eras: pre-1992 and post 1992. During the first era the main water regulations in the Sudan were based on the 1951 Regulations which are licensing regulations for pumping water from the Nile according to the Nile Pump Control Act (NPCA) of 1939. This was recently modified in the Water Resources Act of 1995. In addition there are about ten other pieces of fragmented legislations. There is no policy for selling water in the country. The second era began with the National Comprehensive Strategy for Development of 1992 (1992-2002) when the irrigation and water resources
For a water policy to be effective in Sudan, it has to cope with a set of extremes: drought and deluge episodes; Nilotic and non-Nilotic systems; marine and fresh waters, surface and sub-surface resources, Federal and State authorities; health and ailment; national and regional interests. The Proposed Water Policy (PWP) lays a framework composed of a set of over-arching policy issues that apply to the water sector as a whole and to most of the individual components. All the main specific areas of concern in water development, management and protection are to be tested against these principles and objectives. The overarching policy principles and objectives laid by the proposed policy are highlighted below:
Water Resources
~~
Constraints
Sudan present share from the Nile (1959 Agreementa) Non-Nile streams
20.5
Seasonal pattern coupled with limited storage facilities
5.4
Renewable Groundwater
4.1
Highly variable, short duration flows difficult to monitor or harvest. Some are shared with neighbours. Deep water entailing high cost of exploitation and pumping. Remote areas of weak infrastructure.
Present Total Expected share from reclamation of swamps
Heightening of El Roseiris Damb
Total
30 10.25 Capitalintensive with considerable social and environmental cost. Security dimension due civil strife. 7.0 Capitalintensive
47.25
a) Agreement signed by Egypt and the Sudan in 1959 whereby the former receives 55.5 km 3 and the later receives 18.5 km 3 of the 84 km 3 Nile annual discharge. 10 km 3 are regarded as lost in Lake Nassir-Nubia by evaporation. b) On the Blue Nile. Major source of hydropower and irrigation water in the Sudan.
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From Vision to Action: Towards a National Policy for Integrated Water Management in Sudan
1. Water is a scarce and valuable resource. 2. Access to water for human needs is the highest priority in the development of water resources. 3. Development of water resources must be demand-driven and management should be undertaken at the lowest possible level. 4. Development and management of water resources, and the operation and maintenance of water services must be economically sustainable through the recovery of cost from those who benefit. 5. All water should be managed in an integrated manner as part of the hydrological cycle. 6. Water resources management affects everybody and should be undertaken with the participation of relevant stakeholders 7. People are stakeholders and the national government is the custodian of all water in Sudan for the equitable benefit of all. 8. The gathering and management of accurate information for the investigation and continuos monitoring of water resources is essential for proper development, management and protection of the resource. 9. The environment needs to be protected in order to ensure sustainable utilization for present and future generations. 10. The development of water resources will be undertaken in order to maximize its benefits in the public interest whilst ensuring minimum adverse impact on the environment. 11. Public institutional arrangements at federal and state levels shall be integrated, efficient and transparent whilst avoiding duplication of functions and responsibilities. 12. Water and water related issues are an integral part of the wider economy and have direct effects on many other sectors that require interdepartmental and inter-sectoral communications and co-operation. All the subordinate policies related to the development, management and protection of water resources are tested against the above principles and objectives. In formulating the surface-water resources policy, six issues and problems associated with their development and protection are addressed. These are: flood and drought spells; storage facilities for the highly variable flow; maintenance of irrigation infrastructure; supply and demand management; surface-water quality management and human resources. The policy principles and objectives emphasize that surface- water planning and development must be integrated at all levels. The protection of surface water is the obligation of all
sectors and, therefore, the development policy had to be clear and accessible to the involved communities. A reliable data and information system is a prerequisite for sound assessment, planning, management and development of surface-water. To ensure continuity of services, the operation and maintenance of surface-water should be based on the "user pays principle". To meet the increasing demand, the storage capacity has to be increased through heightening of E1 Roseiris Dam and via building new dams and barrages. Optimum and equitable use of surface-water should be promoted through the cooperation between the national water users. The final principle emphasizes the regulatory function of the Federal Government in ensuring that appropriate standards of service quality, sustainability and environmental friendliness are met by both water suppliers and users. The Proposed Water Policy summarizes the key issues pertaining to groundwater in the aspects of monitoring and information base; quality, pollution and environmental degradation; development and utilization; and institutional arrangements. The policy principles and objectives stress that groundwater resources are an indivisible part of the hydrological cycle, the national water balance and the natural resources base. The Proposed Water Policy draws from the Islamic principle which regards water as a common property and spells it quite clear that groundwater resources are a national property, the equitable use of which is common to all subject to national authority control. Proper planning, assessment, development and management of water resources cannot be achieved without strengthening the information base at the national and the state levels. The Proposed Water Policy recognizes the present and future users fight of access to clean and unpolluted groundwater resources and an undegraded environment. Groundwater in the proposed policy is recognized as having a social and economic value based on the cost of its development, operation and maintenance. Concerning sustainability of groundwater resources, the Proposed Water Policy urges that abstraction shall be based on recharge and safe yield concepts. Sustainability of groundwater development and supply services shall be planned for and considered as part of development and management policy of the water resources systems. The Proposed Water Policy is acclaimed for stressing the importance of the unconventional water resources. It draws the attention that research, planning and development of unconventional water resources, such as domestic sewage and desalinated waters, will be undertaken in order to use such alternative resources for Sudan.
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In the realm of sanitation, the Proposed Water Policy identifies certain issues and problems such as supply-demand imbalance, sustainability of water supply systems, sanitation and water disposal, water supply and sanitation sector institutional reform. The reform is required to ensure that, inter alia, water supply and sanitation sectors and the associated projects should be integrated, adopting a communitybased approach. Further, clear identification is needed for roles, responsibilities and obligations of federal and state govemments, NGO's, local communities, the private sector and the National Council for Water Resource. Towards such extent, the policy and objectives stress that access to adequate water supply and sanitation is a basic necessity. The achievement of sustainable and financially viable water supply and sanitation services must be the objective of service providers. In the agriculture and landuse sectors, the Proposed Water Policy points to specific key issues and problems. Wind and water erosion has resulted from overgrazing and over-cultivation. Crop yields are declining due to the ensuing environmental degradation, successive drought episodes, animal death and migration of rural people to towns. Other issues included are excessive removal of vegetation cover, concentration of agricultural activities in central Sudan, wildlife depletion, soil degradation and poor traditional landuse practices. To ameliorate the situation, the Proposed Water Policy principles and objectives urge that the improvement of water use efficiency in agriculture shall be a priority. The licensing of water use must include a rigorous assessment of water resources to be utilized. The water pricing must promote equitable and efficient water use. The use of water in irrigation projects should be monitored and evaluated properly. The Proposed Water Policy reviews all the problems related to hydropower and sets suitable principles and objectives. It rates hydropower as a clean energy form, relatively cheap to produce and remains a priority for investment. The thermal backup shall be secured to fill the gap. In order to optimize the use of the water stored for different purposes, dam operation should be co-coordinated at all levels through appropriate institutional arrangements. Beneficiaries participation in management of hydropower must be institutionalized. Public awareness, clarity and transparency of energy policy are needed to gain acceptance of customers. While advocating private sector to be encouraged in the development of hydropower sector, the Proposed Water Policy maintains that the govemment must oversee the equality of services provided to the consumers.
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As for industry sector, the Proposed Water Policy recognizes the associated problems and the expected increase in water requirements (5% of total water consumption by 2025) and sets definite principles and objectives. The use of water to transport and dilute waste and to act as a coolant has to be linked with treatment. The Precautionary Principle of pollution control should be adopted with financial penalties for polluters. Adequate legislation should prevail and be enforced to prevent pollution of the environment at large and fresh sources in particular. The Proposed Water Policy regards fiver and sea navigation as constituting an important form of transportation in Sudan that needs to be promoted and adequately regulated in coordination and cooperation with the concerned bodies. Fisheries are catered for in the Proposed Water Policy and the principles and objectives pertaining to this important economic activity call for the identification and implementation of appropriate water resources management measures. The environment is featured prominently in the Proposed Water Policy. The issues dealt with are: the environment as the resource base; pollution control; catchment degradation; biodiversity and wildlife. Four principles and objectives are highlighted: The necessity to sustain the aquatic environments; the realization that people and the consequences of their development are part of the environment; the impact of development and use of water resources should not compromise the long-term sustainability of aquatic environments; and a balance must be maintained between water resources development and utilization on the one hand and their protection on the other. The Proposed Water Policy, aware that water does not recognize political boundaries, calls for Sudan to seek to cooperate with other countries for the development, optimum use and protection of international waters wherever possible in its national interests and without compromising its sovereignty. It regards watershed management inside the country and in neighbouring countries as a pre-requisite for efficient water use and for strengthening political relations. For a water policy to be effective, it has to incorporate both recurring flood and drought phenomena. Within this context, the Proposed Water Policy sets as a priority the development of a National Disaster Management Plan to enable both the avoidance of and effective response to disasters. International co-operation is critical for proper and adequate response to natural and other disasters. Sudan will seek to participate in and contribute to
From Vision to Action: Towards a National Policyfor Integrated Water Management in Sudan
international efforts such as the Program to Combat Desertification. The Proposed Water Policy emphasizes that the development of water resources can not be seen in isolation from the overall social and economic development. Towards that end, the policy stresses that accommodating social and economic issues in water resources development projects is very important and often determines the difference between success and failure. The Proposed Water Policy regards the major challenge in relation to institutional development of the water sector in the Sudan is to develop appropriate institutions for effective management, allocation and protection of the country's water resources. There is an urgent need to develop modem data collection and data information management processes and techniques through the application of computerization, system analysis, GIS, remote sensing telemetry and mathematical modeling. There is a need also for structured research on the impact of water policy. The proposed policy envisages that building the capacity of the water sector at large in the country is one of the fundamental requirements for achieving proper resources management. Finally, the PWP emphasizes that external donor assistance will be needed to support capacity building programmes, especially those that focus on users' group.
husbandry and in fetching water, sometimes from distant locations. As such, they are impacted and have an impact on water as a resource. Although any water policy has to reflect and be tailored to a specific country, it would be beneficial to draw from other countries e x p e r i e n c e s - especially the Nile basin countries - in developing and implementing water policies. The relation between federal and state authorities in utilizing, developing and investing in inter-state rivers and groundwater basins has to be clarified and stated clearly in all decrees and regulations. The Proposed Water Policy should embrace issues of shared groundwater basins with emphasis on neighbouring activities that would adversely impact the water quality of the basin. Coordination is also needed in the institutions responsible for the legislation and implementation of water quality. Finally, the water policy needs to be strengthened by legislative power and to be backed by research capabilities. The Environment Protection Law of 2001, the Regulations for Environmental Impact Assessment and for the Environment Protection in the Petroleum Industry -both yet to be passed- will augment the former need while the latter could be achieved by a specialized national center for water resources research and technology.
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Abdellatif, E., Ali, O.M., Khalil, I.F. and Nyonje, B. M., 1993. Effects of sewage disposal into the White Nile on the plankton community. Hydrobiologia 259:185201. Ali, O. M., 2000. Towards an Arab Region Water Security - The water resources in the Sudan: patterns of use and constraints to utilization. The Arab Journal for Irrigation Water Management 3(2): 45-50. AOAD (Arab Organization for Agricultural Development), 1989. Utilization of Water for Agricultural Purposes and the Future Trends. Science and Technology, Institute of Arabic Development, Lebanon. AOAD (Arab Organization for Agricultural Development), 2000. Study of Promotion of Institutional and Organizational Structures for the Management of Water Resources in the Arab Countries. Arab Organization For Agricultural Development, Khartoum. 132p. Beshir, M. and E1 Moghraby, A.I., 1980. Ecological studies on the Sudanese Nile System. Water Supply and Management 4: 25-28. Dirar, H., 1986. Coliform bacterial counts in the Nile water. Environmental International 12:571-576. El Moghraby and Ali, O. M., 1989. The Aquatic Environment in the Sudan. In: " Problems of Environment and Legislation in the Sudan". By (eds.)
Summary
The paper gave an overview of the water resources in the Sudan and their patterns of utilization. Through evaluating the current status of the water resources in the Sudan and the inherent pitfalls in managing the water resources, a vision is perceived heralding the issues, policies and principles of the proposed water policy. The salient features of the proposed national water policy for Sudan, regarded as a milestone in the water sector in the country' s endeavour to develop, prosper and promote the well being of its people, are highlighted. The proposed draft, the first of its kind in the country, is an excellent document reflecting the strenuous effort exerted in its production. Recommendations
The proposed water policy needs to be subjected to more discussion and to be reviewed by as a wide a sector of people as possible. Certain areas have to be fine-tuned in particular the gender issues. Women in most parts of the Sudan are involved in all activities pertaining to water use such as agriculture,
REFERENCES
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Mahmoud, Z. N.; Abdellatif, E. and Ali, O. M. Sudan Environment Conservation Society, Khartoum. 83p. IHP, 1988. Water Resources Assessment in the Arab Region. ACSAD, UNESCO/IHE. 398p. MOIWR, 1999. Sudan National Water Policy. Draft Document. Satakopan, V., 1965. Water Balance in the Sudan. Sudan Meteorological Service. Memoir No. 5, 33p. SNC/UNESCO, 2000. Vulnerability of Groundwater Resources of Sudan to Pollution Risks. Khartoum.
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The Sudanese National Commission for UNESCO. 104p. SRFAC, 2001. Integrated Water Resources Management. Scientific Research Foreign Affairs Centre. Sudan University for Science and Technology. Technical Paper Series No. (2). 64p. Thompson, K., 1985. Emergent plants of permanent and seasonally flooded wetlands. In: P. Denny (Edit.), The Ecology and Management of African Wetland Vegetation. Dr Junk, Dordrecht, The Netherlands: 43107.