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Integrated water management: a new concept. From treating of symptoms towards a controlled ecosystem management in the Dutch delta
Landscape and Urban Planning, 20 ( 1991 ) 245-255
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Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam
Integrated water management: a new concept. From treating of symptoms towards a controlled ecosystem management in the Dutch Delta H.L.F. Saeijs Rijkswaterstaat, Directie Zeeland, Koestraat 30, 4331 KX Middelburg (The Netherlands) (Accepted for publication 23 August 1990)
ABSTRACT Saeijs, H.L.F., 1991. Integrated water management: a new concept. From treating of symptoms towards a controlled ecosystem management in the Dutch Delta. Landscape Urban Plann., 20: 245-255. The Dutch can be characterized by the expression "God created man, but the Dutch created their own land". This conditioning behaviour has become the "art of a nation". In the last decade spectacular developments took place, resulting in a new way of living with water. With the aid of examples the following points are addressed: the lessons that can be learned from 2000 years of living with water; how new water management concepts have developed in the last decade; and what applications are possible.
T H E C H A L L E N G E TO LIVE W I T H WATER
A large part of The Netherlands is actually a river delta (Fig. 1 ). A part of the country is situated above sea level, the major part of the country, however (60%), is situated below sea level and exists as a result of h u m a n action and dedication (Fig. 2). In the course of 2000 years, hydraulic engineering activities changed in character (van Veen, 1950, 1953; Saeijs, 1982a, 1988): from small to large scale, from defensive to offensive, from short to long term, from specific to multifunctional, and from stemming the tides to controlling them. Local coastal engineering measures in the eleventh century and earlier developed into well-organized dyke building programmes in the twelfth century, land reclamation from inland lakes began in the sixteenth century, and large-scale 0169-2046/91/$03.50
and complex transformations have taken place in the twentieth century (Fig. 2 ). In The Netherlands, the twentieth century is characterized by large-scale operations such as the Zuiderzee project (de Jong and Roelofs, 1983; Adriaanse et al., 1986) and the Delta project (Saeijs and Bannink, 1978, Saeijs, 1982a; Knoester et al., 1983 ). Action was necessary otherwise erosion would have been a major problem. The aims of the Zuiderzee project were: safety, land reclamation, and management, storage and control of freshwater. The project involved dividing the area up into 13 sections or "compartments", separated by dykes and dams; four polders and nine lakes (Fig. 3). The aims of the Delta project were: safety, management, storage and control of freshwater, and to combat salinization. Seven estuaries were divided into 12 compartments, among which are saltwater and freshwater lakes and a controlled tidal estuary (Saeijs, 1982b;
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Knoester et al., 1983: Saeijs, 1986: Fig. 4). Compartmentalization meant that the compartments could be treated in stages. By dividing the area into compartments, it has proved to be possible to control elementary forces of nature and to facilitate the choice of particular types of environmental conditions. We are talking here of a strategy of divide and rule. It is now clear that the ecological impact of compartmentalization, the following choices of types of environmental conditions and the
management of the new system have important ecological, economic and social potentials. IS WATER R E C L A M A T I O N AS I M P O R T A N T AS L A N D R E C L A M A T I O N ? Let us have a quick look at the Zuiderzee project ( Fig. 3 ). Although originally the main emphasis was laid on agriculture (Wieringermeer, 1930 ), the goals were soon broadened to include urbanization ( Noord-Oostpolder, 1942) and recreation, landscape and nature
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tions, it is possible to allow other types of environment to develop! The Markerwaard (from 1975 Lake Marken), would actually form the fifth polder. After reassessing whether to proceed with land reclamation work in Lake Marken, it has been decided to choose the water system. This represents a second significant change in traditional thinking: the conditioning of terrestrial systems is no longer considered to be of sole importance, as freshwater systems are also seen as valuable alternatives. This trend is actively pursued in the delta area, but with the inclusion of elements such as salt waters and controlled tidal systems. Land reclamation developed into land and.., water reclamation.
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THE PURIFYING EFFECT OF A RANGE O F WATER C O M P A R T M E N T S AREA SUBJECT TO FLOODING IN THE ABSENCE OF SEA DIKES AND DUNES AREA SUBJECT TO FLOODING IN THE ABSENCE OF RIVER DIKES
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conservation (Flevopolder, 1957 and 1968). By the time the work was ready to start on the Flevopolder, ecology had begun to assume greater importance in construction, planning, management and decision making. As a result, in the 1970s another significant change took place; the development of new marshlands, instead of reclaiming them. After defining certain environmental conditions (water level, residence-time, concentration of nutrients, etc.), the new environment can be effectively left to nature. By applying this same basic principle, but starting with different condi-
The fact that using the possibilities afforded by the aquatic infrastructure allows a new ecological perspective to be developed, is illustrated with the following example. The River IJssel, which mainly contains water from the River Rhine, flows into Lake Ketel (Fig. 3). The majority of the sediments it carries, which are contaminated with pollutants, settle in Lake Ketel. This accumulation of toxic sludge causes severe pollution of the lake bed. However, the quality of the water that flows on into Lake IJssel, has undergone considerable improvement. Further improvements in quality are occurring in Lake IJssel owing to physical/chemical/biological processes. As Lake Marken receives its water from Lake IJssel, in addition to supplies of rainwater, this lake derives substantial benefits from its location and relative position in the compartmentalization system. Lake Gouwzee is even more favourably placed in this respect. It is not surprising that this was the first lake in this series where abundant submerged vegetation was found. In these situations it is important that such "'gains" are not negated by local sources of pollution.
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Two interesting management strategies can be identified: - t h e strategy of concentrating problems in particular areas; - the strategy of interconnected surface waters. The first strategy is, in fact, an emergency measure. As long as upstream pollution prevention cannot be guaranteed, the downstream distribution of pollutants can be (considerably) reduced, by regulating the flow of noxious substances. P O L L U T E D B E D S OF T H E L O W E R R E A C H E S OF T H E R I V E R S R H I N E A N D MEUSE In 1970 the most important outlet of the Rivers Rhine and Meuse, the Haringvliet (Fig. 4), was closed by a sluice complex (Ferguson
and Wolff, 1983). This estuary was transformed into a freshwater river/lake system. Though an increase in sedimentation was expected as a result of the intervention, in 1980 it became clear that The Netherlands was becoming the rubbish d u m p o f the Rivers Rhine and Meuse. More than 100 million m 3 of highly polluted sludge have settled there. The estimated cost of a clean-up operation amounts to more than 2000 million US dollars. As in the case of Lakes Ketel and IJssel, there is a positive side effect. The North Sea is safeguarded against this pollution! The lessons to be learned from this experience are also of interest to other countries. If rivers upstream of a d a m are seriously polluted, then a similar accumulation phenomenon is likely to occur. The accumulation may develop more rapidly at one d a m than at an-
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other, but the final result will be the same: lake and river beds become practically lifeless and unable to carry out their essential functions in their water systems. Moreover, polluted river beds act as storage areas. It is likely that even if the original sources of pollution are removed, the contaminated riverbed will still act as a source of pollution during the coming decades. DIVERSIFICATION BY CHOICE The 'divide and rule strategy' was also applied in the case of the Delta project, but the arguments for doing so and the manner of implementation differed considerably from those of the Zuiderzee project (Saeijs et al., 1983). The compartmentalization operation in the Zuiderzee project was motivated basically by
opportunities for agriculture. However, in the Delta project, hydraulic engineering considerations were merely instrumental (Fig. 4). This has eventually resulted in a compartmentalized area characterized by many different types of environment. The seven estuaries were transformed into either freshwater, brackishwater or saltwater environments, bordered by former intertidal areas. One estuary was converted into a water system with reduced, controllable tidal movements. A SALT LAKE, A DARING EXPERIMENT It is not possible to discuss all the details concerned; for these details the reader is referred to the literature (Saeijs, 1982a, 1988; Nienhuis, 1983). However, one example will be mentioned. Lake Grevelingen (Fig. 4) was
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t'ormed when the Grevelingendam ( 1968 ) and tile Brouwersdam (1971) were completed ( Saeijs and Stortelder, 1982; Nienhuis, 1989 ). As a result, the Grevelingen estuary has been transformed into a salt lake ( > 16 g C1 1 ' ), surrounded by extensive shallow areas and sand plains, which are now covered with vegetation. The lakebed is considered to be unpolluted, the water in the lake is clear (Secchi classification > 10 m), even in summer. Primary production rates are relatively high and are still increasing. Despite high concentrations of N and P, there are no eutrophication problems. Tile ecosystem in the lake had adapted to the new situation in a reasonably short period of time. The composition of the ecological communities present is diverse and has now achieved an acceptable degree of stability. The lake is developing as a wetland with an international reputation. How did this happen and how was it brought about? In 1971 the Dutch people were faced with the consequences of the decision to close the estuary. The survival of an active and healthy estuarine c o m m u n i t y was at risk, as the influence of the tides disappeared overnight. In the intertidal areas that no longer remained under water and in water where the depth exceeded 8 m, all t'orms of life died. Pessimistic predictions were made about what the future would bring. The suggestion was made, to "create the most favourable conditions for a salt water lake and let nature take its course" (Saeijs, 1982a). The properties and processes of a saltwater lake ecosystem were unknown, but by using approaches founded on "best professional judgem e n t " and "adaptive environmental management" (Holling, 1980), the final result appears to be quite acceptable. Although much was left to nature, measures were taken where necessary to control the situation. The main management actions were control of water level, residence time, salinity and stratification, in addition to nutrients and living organisms from the sea. Consequently, the link with the sea was restored. The developments taking place were
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studied and monitored carefully, using techniques such as simulation modelling. By doing this, it was possible to have a "dialogue" with the system. This is the strategy of spontaneous development within certain, man-induced and controlled, environmental conditions. It is essential that choices are made in time and that the decision-making process is speeded up. This approach had consequences for the design of hydraulic engineering schemes. The sluice in the Brouwersdam, for example, must allow water to flow both out and in. The capacity should be sufficient for water level, salinity and oxygen control. A further requirement [or the sluice was to allow free exchange of organisms with the sea. Experience has shown that it is important to have a balanced administrative approach involving all the relevant authorities rather than with a single authority, i.e. the government, alone ( Saeijs, 1982b ). The most important conclusion that can be derived from experience gained over the last century is that the design and management of such engineering projects should not simply be directed to certain specific aims, such as safety, water storage or water distribution. Full recognition is needed of the importance of the processes of change that take place in a landscape. Take advantage of changing conditions! Then the role of man in wetland management can be much more profitable. It is not only valid in coastal engineering projects, but also in other projects, such as weirs in river basins. FROM TREATING SYMPTOMS TOWARDS MANAGING ECOSYSTEMS The revolutionary developments that have taken place over the last 20 years, are by no means over yet (Saeijs, 1988). Let us have a quick look at the developments of the last three decades! It might be helpful to understand general trends. After World War II, attention was focused
I N T E G R A T E D W-\TER M A N A G E M E N T : A NEW ( ' ( ) N C E P T
on reconstruction and economic expansion. In this context, in 1968 the Dutch government published a first national water policy document (Ministry of Transport and Public Works, 1968 ). Understandably, the basic philosophy was, that the d e m a n d for water had to be met everywhere and always. The policy was focused on the supply of domestic and industrial water, drainage, combating salinization and the infrastructure necessary to attain this. Ground water was regarded as the basic supply for drinking water. Water was only seen as a resource for human use! The transport function of water (shipping and pollution ) was not mentioned. There was no cost/benefit analysis added. Water quality was defined in terms of "unacceptably high levels of inorganic substances" (salt) and "organic substances" (oxygen-consuming substances). Salt water was even referred to as "useless" and " p o o r quality". The basis for the infrastructure was the need for measures to prevent salinization and to combat salt from the River Rhine; water supplies in Lake IJssel and a link between Lake IJssel and southwest Netherlands. New reservoirs should be constructed in the dunes and in the new Lake Grevelingen. The cost of these measures was estimated to be 1.5 billion US$. In 1971 the Pollution of Surface Water Act was passed. The aim was the protection of the environment against pollution, because human use was at stake. The policy of water quality came into force in three Indicative Multi-year Plans for Water ( I M P 1974, 1979, 1982). These have made an extremely important contribution to the broadening of the water quality policy. As a result the various water authorities were brought much closer together, which meant that they could learn from each other's experiences. The basic philosophy was to combat water pollution, both in a preventive and a curative sense. In the first I M P (Ministry of Transport and Public Works, 1975) the problem was identified as being an excess of oxygen-consuming substances. The remedy suggested was to treat
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these substances in the same way as the discharge from sewerage systems. A water quality map showing the oxygen content in different areas was prepared as part of this report. The second IMP (Ministry of Transport and Public Works, 1981) also included the "substances on the black and grey lists". The increased knowledge in relation to the purification of non-oxygen-consuming substances is also reflected in this policy document. Four water quality maps were given, concerning oxygen, phosphates, heavy metals and organic micropollutants. The relationship between water quality policy and environmental policy was more fully dealt with in the third IMP (Ministry of Transport and Public Works, 1986). Function-oriented and ecological objectives were included for the first time. New problems were discussed, such as lakebed and riverbed pollution and non-point-source pollution. The realization has grown that surface waters are ecosystems, where organisms as well as physical, chemical and biological processes have an important role to play. This new insight makes it possible to describe these relations in a more logical and coherent way. It was obvious that in further policy developments, attention should be paid not only to broadening the approach, but also to integrating quantity and quality water policies. Developing a stronger ecological basis for water management policy was also seen as essential. In the second Policy D o c u m e n t on Water Management (1984) (Ministry of Transport and Public Works, 1985 ), an attempt was made to integrate the various aspects. The document was based on the results of a model study - Policy Analysis Water Management Netherlands ( P A W N ) (Anonymous, 1982; Pulles and Sprong, 1984). The objective of the 1984 document was "to lay down the main aspects of government policy on water management both quantitatively and qualitatively". To sum up the highlights:
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- T h e water system as a whole is of primary importance. This includes everything that is related to the system; the living creatures and substances that are contained within the water, lakebeds and riverbeds, banks and dykes, salt marshes and mudflats in tidal systems. - A l l aspects of water management are included as part of a balanced decision-making process, taking full account of the interrelationships involved. This concerns: safety, agriculture, homes, industry, electricity supply, services sector, shipping, fisheries, recreation, landscape and nature. - A cost/benefit analysis was added. - The wishes expressed by society and the possibilities offered by individual systems were brought into line and responsible choices were made. - Water is no longer considered as merely a raw material or a way of transport, but the importance of a properly functioning aquatic ecosystem is now also acknowledged. The definition of water quality, as described in the IMPs, has been integrated into this policy document: quantity and quality were seen as interrelated subjects, as are ground water and surface water. - A t t e n t i o n is also paid to saltwater systems, such as lakes, estuaries and the sea. A main infrastructure (including the major inland freshwaters, salt coastal waters and the North Sea), managed by Rijkswaterstaat (a governmental water agency), is distinguished from a regional infrastructure, managed by local water authorities. - T h e problems identified in the document were: anticipated local shortages of water as a result of drought; the alarmingly poor water quality coupled with transfrontier pollution; the poor quality of lakebeds and riverbeds; the considerable falls in groundwater levels owing to extraction; groundwater pollution; the decisions of which problems should be addressed first. As a result, the conclusions are different from
H i . F . SAEIJS
those arrived at in 1968. Various measures that were planned in 1968 have been dropped: the n o r t h - s o u t h link; the canalization of the River IJssel; the development of major water supplies in Lake IJssel; and the closing off of the River Oude Maas. Altogether, this represents a saving in investment of about 1.5 billion US dollars. It was recognized that the majority of problems can be solved by means of small-scale operations and management of the existing infrastructure. O f the plans involving local water authorities, some 50 schemes looked promising; the direct benefit from the smaller schemes would a m o u n t annually to 5 0 - 1 5 0 million US dollars, for an investment of 250 million US dollars. T H E N E E D FOR P R O G R E S S
Thus, in order to manage water successfully, the relationships between several factors must be taken into account. Integrated water management aims to manage water systems (or land systems where water is an essential part) together with the associated lakebeds and riverbeds, banks and ground water, as one complete unit in relation to the h u m a n interests. Arguments in favour of integrated water management may be s u m m e d up by the following: - Water systems function as an entirety. The coherence in diversity must be preserved in policy. - A large n u m b e r of methods are available to control a system (level, salinity, residence time, collecting, transporting, extracting, infiltrating, separation of salt and fresh water, constructing barrages, etc. ). However, application must be carefully considered. Many utilizations have their roots in the ecology of the system, which has its limits. - Many parties are involved in water systems, but all may have different and sometimes conflicting demands on the system. Interests and possibilities must be weighed up in a
I N T E G R A T E D WATER M A N A G E M E N T : A NEW C O N C E P T
balanced way, taking account of their interrelationship. - Water, with everything in it, is a moving part of the landscape: here today, gone tomorrow and subject to changing authorities. Intervention at one place may have far-reaching consequences for quality and utilization elsewhere. The duties and responsibilities for certain policy areas are vested in various administrative bodies involving both the national and provincial authorities, as well as the local water authorities. An integrated approach to water management must therefore include measures to coordinate these individual policy areas. Such a harmonization of policy and management by the individual authorities concerned must primarily concentrate on developing administrative agreements for each water system, which are then put into practice by the requisite authorities, each having their own duties and area of jurisdiction. The above shows, that the actual water systems, the opportunities and functions that these systems represent, coupled with the harmonization of administration and management are the central elements in an integrated approach to water systems. Such an approach also implies a greater regional differentiation in policy matters. Every individual water system has different characteristics and processes and consequently different functions and discharge situations. In the meantime care must be taken not to lose sight of national aspects. It must be emphasized that it is essential to have a national approach for water management based on national standards for the protection of water systems. THE COURSE OF DUTCH WATER M A N A G E M E N T U P TO 2000 The views of the Brundtland Committee have now been accepted in The Netherlands. The principle of sustainable development is at this moment the pivot of economic and eco-
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logical strategy. This also has consequences for the course of the water management strategy. This document on water policy works out how integrated water management can be specified into "worktasks". The objectives of water management for the planning period of 19901995 are grouped into four themes, in which 15 worktasks can be distinguished: Theme I. Protection against pollution. Worktasks: 1, oxygen-consuming substances; 2, nutrients; 3, heavy metals; 4, organic micro-pollutants; 5, beds of rivers, canals, lakes, etc.; 6, calamities. Theme II. Land-use. Worktasks: 7, banks, intertidal areas, etc.; 8, restoration of water systems. Theme III. Control. Worktasks: 9, water supply; 10, drainage; 11, ground water. Theme IV. Organization and instruments. Worktasks: 12, administration; 13, legal and infrastructural instruments; 14, financing; 15, international deliberations. The worktasks are translated into aims and goals to be realized in 1995. For example, the aim of worktask 4 is "a reduction of, at least, 90% of the 1989 emissions of organic micropollutants into the surface waters". The goal for 1995 is a reduction of about 50% and for a number of pollutants of 90%. ATTACKING ONE OF THE MAIN ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS OF THE WORLD, THE DESTRUCTION OF THE CATCHMENT AREAS OF RIVER SYSTEMS A final word is dedicated to the applications. I would like to focus on the attacking of one of the main environmental problems of the world, the destruction of the catchment areas of rivers such as the Rhine, Nile, Ganges, Bramaputrah, Pearl, Orinoco, Paranah and the Amazon. All these river systems, and the list could be extended easily, have severe problems in their catchment areas. The methodol-
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ogy of integrated planning and development, as presented above for delta areas, can be extended to complete catchment areas of river systems. The d e m a n d s and claims on the river systems can be divided into three aspects: safety demands, users demands, and system demands. The safety demands for the people in the area should be brought and maintained to the expected safety standards. This is a boundary condition for the regulation and development. The aspects involved are mainly protection against flooding and erosion and aspects of public health related to pollution. The user demands of the river systems show a list of claims from forestry, transport and navigation, agriculture, land reclamation, irrigation, drainage, fishery, disposal storage, freshwater storage, electricity power, purification of waste water and nature conservation. The use can be divided into two parts: claims on the areas and zones of the river system, and claims on the use of the properties of the system - the latter seen as a physical, chemical and biological complex. During the realization of these user functions, the claims on the area will grow as well as the conflicts between these functions. Irrespective of the outcome of the policy analysis regarding the use of the river systems, and irrespective of the regulation or development programmes based on such analysis, there are two basic principles for sustainable development in relation to the system demands: the first principle is that the discharge of water and sediments of the rivers to the sea should be maintained, during and after the regulation. The second principle is that the ecosystem of the river system, including the catchment area, should be sustained. Respecting these principles will ensure long-term utilization of the resources. An integrated water system approach, in combination with the instrument of policy analysis have proved in The Netherlands to be
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very helpful in decision making, fbr the short and the long term, in a coherent w~/. With a comparable approach, complex problems can be solved in large river basins. One example is the Amazon river basin. In some tributaries, barrages and man-made lakes were made to produce electricity, and many more have been planned. Without an integrated water system approach, taking into account all barrages (also those planned! ) and all interests involved in the river basin, it is impossible to avoid a disaster, both in terms of ecological impact, and cost/benefit in the long term. Without careful and balanced decision making, based on a policy analysis, it is not justified to decide for new investments in more barrages in tributaries in the Amazon river basin. It is another serious threat to the tropical rain forests! All the functions are at stake! The Nile river basin is another wetland, where it is profitable to prepare comprehensive and up to date plans or policy options, for the development and the use of water, and water dependent land resources, comparable with the PAWN approach in The Netherlands. I will not go into further details here, however. Egypt provides another example of application, namely to take profitable advantage of the surplus of brackish water and of coastal lagoons and waters. Egypt can make a "golden line'" of the coastal zone, by using the salt water and the brackish water in that area. It requires a daring way of thinking and acting which is really a challenge. Instead of reclaiming the coastal lagoons in the Nile delta for agricultural purposes, or making freshwater reservoirs, as suggested, one could decide to manage them as controlled estuarine ecosystems and take advantage of their unique position in the delta. There is plenty scope for using fresh water to irrigate deserts. Another suggestion is to make use of the socalled "useless" 10% of the brackish Nile water, leaving Egypt now via the Rosetta branch of the Nile, to create new productive brackish water and saltwater lagoons and lakes: for ex-
IN I'E(IR~TED W~,TER MANkGEMENI: A NEW C()N('EPT
ample in the deserts west or east of the Nile delta, or in the shallow coastal waters. Summarizing, water reclamation (!) is proposed instead of land reclamation; the use of brackish water and salt water instead of fresh water.., why not? In the world many more, small- and largescale applications are possible. The main message here is to emphasize the positive role man can play in wetlands. Who else controls the water, directs and rules the developments! REFERENCES Adriaanse, M.. de ,long, J. and van der Tuin, H., 1986. Historical and present day engineering aspects of lowland development in The Netherlands. Rijkswaterstaat. Institute for Inland and Waste Water Treatment (DBW/RIZA). Lelystad. The Netherlands, 37 pp. Anonymous, 1982. Policy analysis for the national water management of The Netherlands. Rijkswalersiaat ( o m munications 31: 1-142. Dc Jong. J. and Roelofs, J.H.. 1983. Ecology and the Zuidcrzeeproject. Water Sci. Technol., 16: 51-77. Ferguson. H.A. and Wolff, W.J., 1983. The Haringvlietprojcct. The development of the Rhine, Meuse estuary from tidal inlet to stagnant freshwater lake. Water Sci. Technol., 16: 11-26. Holling, C.S. (Editor). 1980. Adaptive environmental managemeni assessments and statements. Van Nostrand Reinhold, Nev, York, 367 pp. Knoester, M., Visser, J., Bannink, B.A., Colijn, C.J. and Broeders, W.P.A., 1983. The Easterscheldt Project. Water Sci. Technol., 16: 171-206. Ministry of Transport and Public Works, 1968. Water Managemenl of The Netherlands. Government Publication Office. The Hague. 250 pp. (In Dutch.) Ministry of Transport and Public Works, 1975. Indicative More Year Programme Water. 1975-1979. Government Publication Office, The Hague, 92 pp. ( In Dutch. ) Ministry of Transport and Public Works. 1981. Indicative More Year Programme Water, 1980-1984. Government Publication ()ffice. The Hague, 146 pp. (In Dutch. )
255 Ministry of Transport and Public Works, 1985. Water Management of The Netherlands. Government Publication Office, The Hague. 253 pp. (In Dutch.) Ministry of Transport and Public Works, 1986. Indicative More Year Programme Water, 1985-1990. Government Publication Office. The Hague, 146 pp. (In Dutch. ) Nienhuis, P.H., 1989. Eutrophication of estuaries and brackish lagoons in the SW Netherlands. Proc. CHO-TNO, Techn. Meet., Rotterdam, 8th March, 1989. Rijkswaterstaat, Middelburg. 41: 49-70. Nienhuis, P.H. and Huts in "t Veld, J.C., 1983. Grevelingen: From an estuary to a saline lake. Water Sci. Technol., 16: 27-50. Pulles, J.W. and Sprong, T.A., 1984. A policy analysis for the water management of The Netherlands (PAWN). Proceedings of the 4th Congress of the Asian and Pacific Division (AI)P-IAHR), 11-13 September, Chiang-mai, Thailand, pp. 1371-1387. Saeijs, H.L.F.. 1982a. (;hanging estuaries. Rijkswaterstaat Communications 32, 414 pp. Saeijs, H.L.E., 1982b. The Oosterschelde and the protection of the environmcnt. A policy plan for a changing estuar_',. Rijkswaterstaal Communications, 32: 241-278. Saeijs. H.LF.. 1987. Towards control of an estuary. Proceedings of the 41h International Conference on River Basin Management, Sao Paolo, Brazil, 13-15 August 1986. ANAIS, IAWPRC, Water Sci. Technol., pp. 155-174. Saeijs, H.L.F., 1988. From treating of symptoms towards a controlled ecosystem management in the Dutch Delta. The lessons learned from 2000 years of living with water and ecolechnolog?~ in The Netherlands. Proc. Dutch Delta Project, 17 November, 1988, Rijkswaterstaat, Middelburg, 41 pp. Saeijs, H.L.F. and Bannink. B.A., 1978. Environmental considerations in a coastal engineering project. Hydrobiol. Bull., 12, 3/4, pp. 178-202. Saeijs, H i . F . and Slortelder, P.B.M., 1982. Converting an estuary to Lake Grcvclingcn. Environmental review of a coastal engineering project. Environ. Manage., 6(5 ): 377405. Saeijs, H.LF.. Duursma, E.K. and Davoren. W.T., 1983. Integration of ecology in coastal engineering. Water Sci. Technol.. 16: 745-757. Van Veen, J., 1950, Dredge, Drain, Reclaim. Tile Art of a Nation. M. Nijhoft\ The Hague, 179 pp. Van Veen, J., 1953. Land below sealevel. Holland in its agelong fight against water. Trio, The Hague, 32 pp.
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Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam
Integrated water management: a new concept. From treating of symptoms towards a controlled ecosystem management in the Dutch Delta H.L.F. Saeijs Rijkswaterstaat, Directie Zeeland, Koestraat 30, 4331 KX Middelburg (The Netherlands) (Accepted for publication 23 August 1990)
ABSTRACT Saeijs, H.L.F., 1991. Integrated water management: a new concept. From treating of symptoms towards a controlled ecosystem management in the Dutch Delta. Landscape Urban Plann., 20: 245-255. The Dutch can be characterized by the expression "God created man, but the Dutch created their own land". This conditioning behaviour has become the "art of a nation". In the last decade spectacular developments took place, resulting in a new way of living with water. With the aid of examples the following points are addressed: the lessons that can be learned from 2000 years of living with water; how new water management concepts have developed in the last decade; and what applications are possible.
T H E C H A L L E N G E TO LIVE W I T H WATER
A large part of The Netherlands is actually a river delta (Fig. 1 ). A part of the country is situated above sea level, the major part of the country, however (60%), is situated below sea level and exists as a result of h u m a n action and dedication (Fig. 2). In the course of 2000 years, hydraulic engineering activities changed in character (van Veen, 1950, 1953; Saeijs, 1982a, 1988): from small to large scale, from defensive to offensive, from short to long term, from specific to multifunctional, and from stemming the tides to controlling them. Local coastal engineering measures in the eleventh century and earlier developed into well-organized dyke building programmes in the twelfth century, land reclamation from inland lakes began in the sixteenth century, and large-scale 0169-2046/91/$03.50
and complex transformations have taken place in the twentieth century (Fig. 2 ). In The Netherlands, the twentieth century is characterized by large-scale operations such as the Zuiderzee project (de Jong and Roelofs, 1983; Adriaanse et al., 1986) and the Delta project (Saeijs and Bannink, 1978, Saeijs, 1982a; Knoester et al., 1983 ). Action was necessary otherwise erosion would have been a major problem. The aims of the Zuiderzee project were: safety, land reclamation, and management, storage and control of freshwater. The project involved dividing the area up into 13 sections or "compartments", separated by dykes and dams; four polders and nine lakes (Fig. 3). The aims of the Delta project were: safety, management, storage and control of freshwater, and to combat salinization. Seven estuaries were divided into 12 compartments, among which are saltwater and freshwater lakes and a controlled tidal estuary (Saeijs, 1982b;
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Knoester et al., 1983: Saeijs, 1986: Fig. 4). Compartmentalization meant that the compartments could be treated in stages. By dividing the area into compartments, it has proved to be possible to control elementary forces of nature and to facilitate the choice of particular types of environmental conditions. We are talking here of a strategy of divide and rule. It is now clear that the ecological impact of compartmentalization, the following choices of types of environmental conditions and the
management of the new system have important ecological, economic and social potentials. IS WATER R E C L A M A T I O N AS I M P O R T A N T AS L A N D R E C L A M A T I O N ? Let us have a quick look at the Zuiderzee project ( Fig. 3 ). Although originally the main emphasis was laid on agriculture (Wieringermeer, 1930 ), the goals were soon broadened to include urbanization ( Noord-Oostpolder, 1942) and recreation, landscape and nature
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tions, it is possible to allow other types of environment to develop! The Markerwaard (from 1975 Lake Marken), would actually form the fifth polder. After reassessing whether to proceed with land reclamation work in Lake Marken, it has been decided to choose the water system. This represents a second significant change in traditional thinking: the conditioning of terrestrial systems is no longer considered to be of sole importance, as freshwater systems are also seen as valuable alternatives. This trend is actively pursued in the delta area, but with the inclusion of elements such as salt waters and controlled tidal systems. Land reclamation developed into land and.., water reclamation.
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THE PURIFYING EFFECT OF A RANGE O F WATER C O M P A R T M E N T S AREA SUBJECT TO FLOODING IN THE ABSENCE OF SEA DIKES AND DUNES AREA SUBJECT TO FLOODING IN THE ABSENCE OF RIVER DIKES
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conservation (Flevopolder, 1957 and 1968). By the time the work was ready to start on the Flevopolder, ecology had begun to assume greater importance in construction, planning, management and decision making. As a result, in the 1970s another significant change took place; the development of new marshlands, instead of reclaiming them. After defining certain environmental conditions (water level, residence-time, concentration of nutrients, etc.), the new environment can be effectively left to nature. By applying this same basic principle, but starting with different condi-
The fact that using the possibilities afforded by the aquatic infrastructure allows a new ecological perspective to be developed, is illustrated with the following example. The River IJssel, which mainly contains water from the River Rhine, flows into Lake Ketel (Fig. 3). The majority of the sediments it carries, which are contaminated with pollutants, settle in Lake Ketel. This accumulation of toxic sludge causes severe pollution of the lake bed. However, the quality of the water that flows on into Lake IJssel, has undergone considerable improvement. Further improvements in quality are occurring in Lake IJssel owing to physical/chemical/biological processes. As Lake Marken receives its water from Lake IJssel, in addition to supplies of rainwater, this lake derives substantial benefits from its location and relative position in the compartmentalization system. Lake Gouwzee is even more favourably placed in this respect. It is not surprising that this was the first lake in this series where abundant submerged vegetation was found. In these situations it is important that such "'gains" are not negated by local sources of pollution.
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Two interesting management strategies can be identified: - t h e strategy of concentrating problems in particular areas; - the strategy of interconnected surface waters. The first strategy is, in fact, an emergency measure. As long as upstream pollution prevention cannot be guaranteed, the downstream distribution of pollutants can be (considerably) reduced, by regulating the flow of noxious substances. P O L L U T E D B E D S OF T H E L O W E R R E A C H E S OF T H E R I V E R S R H I N E A N D MEUSE In 1970 the most important outlet of the Rivers Rhine and Meuse, the Haringvliet (Fig. 4), was closed by a sluice complex (Ferguson
and Wolff, 1983). This estuary was transformed into a freshwater river/lake system. Though an increase in sedimentation was expected as a result of the intervention, in 1980 it became clear that The Netherlands was becoming the rubbish d u m p o f the Rivers Rhine and Meuse. More than 100 million m 3 of highly polluted sludge have settled there. The estimated cost of a clean-up operation amounts to more than 2000 million US dollars. As in the case of Lakes Ketel and IJssel, there is a positive side effect. The North Sea is safeguarded against this pollution! The lessons to be learned from this experience are also of interest to other countries. If rivers upstream of a d a m are seriously polluted, then a similar accumulation phenomenon is likely to occur. The accumulation may develop more rapidly at one d a m than at an-
249
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other, but the final result will be the same: lake and river beds become practically lifeless and unable to carry out their essential functions in their water systems. Moreover, polluted river beds act as storage areas. It is likely that even if the original sources of pollution are removed, the contaminated riverbed will still act as a source of pollution during the coming decades. DIVERSIFICATION BY CHOICE The 'divide and rule strategy' was also applied in the case of the Delta project, but the arguments for doing so and the manner of implementation differed considerably from those of the Zuiderzee project (Saeijs et al., 1983). The compartmentalization operation in the Zuiderzee project was motivated basically by
opportunities for agriculture. However, in the Delta project, hydraulic engineering considerations were merely instrumental (Fig. 4). This has eventually resulted in a compartmentalized area characterized by many different types of environment. The seven estuaries were transformed into either freshwater, brackishwater or saltwater environments, bordered by former intertidal areas. One estuary was converted into a water system with reduced, controllable tidal movements. A SALT LAKE, A DARING EXPERIMENT It is not possible to discuss all the details concerned; for these details the reader is referred to the literature (Saeijs, 1982a, 1988; Nienhuis, 1983). However, one example will be mentioned. Lake Grevelingen (Fig. 4) was
25()
t'ormed when the Grevelingendam ( 1968 ) and tile Brouwersdam (1971) were completed ( Saeijs and Stortelder, 1982; Nienhuis, 1989 ). As a result, the Grevelingen estuary has been transformed into a salt lake ( > 16 g C1 1 ' ), surrounded by extensive shallow areas and sand plains, which are now covered with vegetation. The lakebed is considered to be unpolluted, the water in the lake is clear (Secchi classification > 10 m), even in summer. Primary production rates are relatively high and are still increasing. Despite high concentrations of N and P, there are no eutrophication problems. Tile ecosystem in the lake had adapted to the new situation in a reasonably short period of time. The composition of the ecological communities present is diverse and has now achieved an acceptable degree of stability. The lake is developing as a wetland with an international reputation. How did this happen and how was it brought about? In 1971 the Dutch people were faced with the consequences of the decision to close the estuary. The survival of an active and healthy estuarine c o m m u n i t y was at risk, as the influence of the tides disappeared overnight. In the intertidal areas that no longer remained under water and in water where the depth exceeded 8 m, all t'orms of life died. Pessimistic predictions were made about what the future would bring. The suggestion was made, to "create the most favourable conditions for a salt water lake and let nature take its course" (Saeijs, 1982a). The properties and processes of a saltwater lake ecosystem were unknown, but by using approaches founded on "best professional judgem e n t " and "adaptive environmental management" (Holling, 1980), the final result appears to be quite acceptable. Although much was left to nature, measures were taken where necessary to control the situation. The main management actions were control of water level, residence time, salinity and stratification, in addition to nutrients and living organisms from the sea. Consequently, the link with the sea was restored. The developments taking place were
H . I . F S Xl l.JS
studied and monitored carefully, using techniques such as simulation modelling. By doing this, it was possible to have a "dialogue" with the system. This is the strategy of spontaneous development within certain, man-induced and controlled, environmental conditions. It is essential that choices are made in time and that the decision-making process is speeded up. This approach had consequences for the design of hydraulic engineering schemes. The sluice in the Brouwersdam, for example, must allow water to flow both out and in. The capacity should be sufficient for water level, salinity and oxygen control. A further requirement [or the sluice was to allow free exchange of organisms with the sea. Experience has shown that it is important to have a balanced administrative approach involving all the relevant authorities rather than with a single authority, i.e. the government, alone ( Saeijs, 1982b ). The most important conclusion that can be derived from experience gained over the last century is that the design and management of such engineering projects should not simply be directed to certain specific aims, such as safety, water storage or water distribution. Full recognition is needed of the importance of the processes of change that take place in a landscape. Take advantage of changing conditions! Then the role of man in wetland management can be much more profitable. It is not only valid in coastal engineering projects, but also in other projects, such as weirs in river basins. FROM TREATING SYMPTOMS TOWARDS MANAGING ECOSYSTEMS The revolutionary developments that have taken place over the last 20 years, are by no means over yet (Saeijs, 1988). Let us have a quick look at the developments of the last three decades! It might be helpful to understand general trends. After World War II, attention was focused
I N T E G R A T E D W-\TER M A N A G E M E N T : A NEW ( ' ( ) N C E P T
on reconstruction and economic expansion. In this context, in 1968 the Dutch government published a first national water policy document (Ministry of Transport and Public Works, 1968 ). Understandably, the basic philosophy was, that the d e m a n d for water had to be met everywhere and always. The policy was focused on the supply of domestic and industrial water, drainage, combating salinization and the infrastructure necessary to attain this. Ground water was regarded as the basic supply for drinking water. Water was only seen as a resource for human use! The transport function of water (shipping and pollution ) was not mentioned. There was no cost/benefit analysis added. Water quality was defined in terms of "unacceptably high levels of inorganic substances" (salt) and "organic substances" (oxygen-consuming substances). Salt water was even referred to as "useless" and " p o o r quality". The basis for the infrastructure was the need for measures to prevent salinization and to combat salt from the River Rhine; water supplies in Lake IJssel and a link between Lake IJssel and southwest Netherlands. New reservoirs should be constructed in the dunes and in the new Lake Grevelingen. The cost of these measures was estimated to be 1.5 billion US$. In 1971 the Pollution of Surface Water Act was passed. The aim was the protection of the environment against pollution, because human use was at stake. The policy of water quality came into force in three Indicative Multi-year Plans for Water ( I M P 1974, 1979, 1982). These have made an extremely important contribution to the broadening of the water quality policy. As a result the various water authorities were brought much closer together, which meant that they could learn from each other's experiences. The basic philosophy was to combat water pollution, both in a preventive and a curative sense. In the first I M P (Ministry of Transport and Public Works, 1975) the problem was identified as being an excess of oxygen-consuming substances. The remedy suggested was to treat
251
these substances in the same way as the discharge from sewerage systems. A water quality map showing the oxygen content in different areas was prepared as part of this report. The second IMP (Ministry of Transport and Public Works, 1981) also included the "substances on the black and grey lists". The increased knowledge in relation to the purification of non-oxygen-consuming substances is also reflected in this policy document. Four water quality maps were given, concerning oxygen, phosphates, heavy metals and organic micropollutants. The relationship between water quality policy and environmental policy was more fully dealt with in the third IMP (Ministry of Transport and Public Works, 1986). Function-oriented and ecological objectives were included for the first time. New problems were discussed, such as lakebed and riverbed pollution and non-point-source pollution. The realization has grown that surface waters are ecosystems, where organisms as well as physical, chemical and biological processes have an important role to play. This new insight makes it possible to describe these relations in a more logical and coherent way. It was obvious that in further policy developments, attention should be paid not only to broadening the approach, but also to integrating quantity and quality water policies. Developing a stronger ecological basis for water management policy was also seen as essential. In the second Policy D o c u m e n t on Water Management (1984) (Ministry of Transport and Public Works, 1985 ), an attempt was made to integrate the various aspects. The document was based on the results of a model study - Policy Analysis Water Management Netherlands ( P A W N ) (Anonymous, 1982; Pulles and Sprong, 1984). The objective of the 1984 document was "to lay down the main aspects of government policy on water management both quantitatively and qualitatively". To sum up the highlights:
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- T h e water system as a whole is of primary importance. This includes everything that is related to the system; the living creatures and substances that are contained within the water, lakebeds and riverbeds, banks and dykes, salt marshes and mudflats in tidal systems. - A l l aspects of water management are included as part of a balanced decision-making process, taking full account of the interrelationships involved. This concerns: safety, agriculture, homes, industry, electricity supply, services sector, shipping, fisheries, recreation, landscape and nature. - A cost/benefit analysis was added. - The wishes expressed by society and the possibilities offered by individual systems were brought into line and responsible choices were made. - Water is no longer considered as merely a raw material or a way of transport, but the importance of a properly functioning aquatic ecosystem is now also acknowledged. The definition of water quality, as described in the IMPs, has been integrated into this policy document: quantity and quality were seen as interrelated subjects, as are ground water and surface water. - A t t e n t i o n is also paid to saltwater systems, such as lakes, estuaries and the sea. A main infrastructure (including the major inland freshwaters, salt coastal waters and the North Sea), managed by Rijkswaterstaat (a governmental water agency), is distinguished from a regional infrastructure, managed by local water authorities. - T h e problems identified in the document were: anticipated local shortages of water as a result of drought; the alarmingly poor water quality coupled with transfrontier pollution; the poor quality of lakebeds and riverbeds; the considerable falls in groundwater levels owing to extraction; groundwater pollution; the decisions of which problems should be addressed first. As a result, the conclusions are different from
H i . F . SAEIJS
those arrived at in 1968. Various measures that were planned in 1968 have been dropped: the n o r t h - s o u t h link; the canalization of the River IJssel; the development of major water supplies in Lake IJssel; and the closing off of the River Oude Maas. Altogether, this represents a saving in investment of about 1.5 billion US dollars. It was recognized that the majority of problems can be solved by means of small-scale operations and management of the existing infrastructure. O f the plans involving local water authorities, some 50 schemes looked promising; the direct benefit from the smaller schemes would a m o u n t annually to 5 0 - 1 5 0 million US dollars, for an investment of 250 million US dollars. T H E N E E D FOR P R O G R E S S
Thus, in order to manage water successfully, the relationships between several factors must be taken into account. Integrated water management aims to manage water systems (or land systems where water is an essential part) together with the associated lakebeds and riverbeds, banks and ground water, as one complete unit in relation to the h u m a n interests. Arguments in favour of integrated water management may be s u m m e d up by the following: - Water systems function as an entirety. The coherence in diversity must be preserved in policy. - A large n u m b e r of methods are available to control a system (level, salinity, residence time, collecting, transporting, extracting, infiltrating, separation of salt and fresh water, constructing barrages, etc. ). However, application must be carefully considered. Many utilizations have their roots in the ecology of the system, which has its limits. - Many parties are involved in water systems, but all may have different and sometimes conflicting demands on the system. Interests and possibilities must be weighed up in a
I N T E G R A T E D WATER M A N A G E M E N T : A NEW C O N C E P T
balanced way, taking account of their interrelationship. - Water, with everything in it, is a moving part of the landscape: here today, gone tomorrow and subject to changing authorities. Intervention at one place may have far-reaching consequences for quality and utilization elsewhere. The duties and responsibilities for certain policy areas are vested in various administrative bodies involving both the national and provincial authorities, as well as the local water authorities. An integrated approach to water management must therefore include measures to coordinate these individual policy areas. Such a harmonization of policy and management by the individual authorities concerned must primarily concentrate on developing administrative agreements for each water system, which are then put into practice by the requisite authorities, each having their own duties and area of jurisdiction. The above shows, that the actual water systems, the opportunities and functions that these systems represent, coupled with the harmonization of administration and management are the central elements in an integrated approach to water systems. Such an approach also implies a greater regional differentiation in policy matters. Every individual water system has different characteristics and processes and consequently different functions and discharge situations. In the meantime care must be taken not to lose sight of national aspects. It must be emphasized that it is essential to have a national approach for water management based on national standards for the protection of water systems. THE COURSE OF DUTCH WATER M A N A G E M E N T U P TO 2000 The views of the Brundtland Committee have now been accepted in The Netherlands. The principle of sustainable development is at this moment the pivot of economic and eco-
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logical strategy. This also has consequences for the course of the water management strategy. This document on water policy works out how integrated water management can be specified into "worktasks". The objectives of water management for the planning period of 19901995 are grouped into four themes, in which 15 worktasks can be distinguished: Theme I. Protection against pollution. Worktasks: 1, oxygen-consuming substances; 2, nutrients; 3, heavy metals; 4, organic micro-pollutants; 5, beds of rivers, canals, lakes, etc.; 6, calamities. Theme II. Land-use. Worktasks: 7, banks, intertidal areas, etc.; 8, restoration of water systems. Theme III. Control. Worktasks: 9, water supply; 10, drainage; 11, ground water. Theme IV. Organization and instruments. Worktasks: 12, administration; 13, legal and infrastructural instruments; 14, financing; 15, international deliberations. The worktasks are translated into aims and goals to be realized in 1995. For example, the aim of worktask 4 is "a reduction of, at least, 90% of the 1989 emissions of organic micropollutants into the surface waters". The goal for 1995 is a reduction of about 50% and for a number of pollutants of 90%. ATTACKING ONE OF THE MAIN ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS OF THE WORLD, THE DESTRUCTION OF THE CATCHMENT AREAS OF RIVER SYSTEMS A final word is dedicated to the applications. I would like to focus on the attacking of one of the main environmental problems of the world, the destruction of the catchment areas of rivers such as the Rhine, Nile, Ganges, Bramaputrah, Pearl, Orinoco, Paranah and the Amazon. All these river systems, and the list could be extended easily, have severe problems in their catchment areas. The methodol-
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ogy of integrated planning and development, as presented above for delta areas, can be extended to complete catchment areas of river systems. The d e m a n d s and claims on the river systems can be divided into three aspects: safety demands, users demands, and system demands. The safety demands for the people in the area should be brought and maintained to the expected safety standards. This is a boundary condition for the regulation and development. The aspects involved are mainly protection against flooding and erosion and aspects of public health related to pollution. The user demands of the river systems show a list of claims from forestry, transport and navigation, agriculture, land reclamation, irrigation, drainage, fishery, disposal storage, freshwater storage, electricity power, purification of waste water and nature conservation. The use can be divided into two parts: claims on the areas and zones of the river system, and claims on the use of the properties of the system - the latter seen as a physical, chemical and biological complex. During the realization of these user functions, the claims on the area will grow as well as the conflicts between these functions. Irrespective of the outcome of the policy analysis regarding the use of the river systems, and irrespective of the regulation or development programmes based on such analysis, there are two basic principles for sustainable development in relation to the system demands: the first principle is that the discharge of water and sediments of the rivers to the sea should be maintained, during and after the regulation. The second principle is that the ecosystem of the river system, including the catchment area, should be sustained. Respecting these principles will ensure long-term utilization of the resources. An integrated water system approach, in combination with the instrument of policy analysis have proved in The Netherlands to be
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very helpful in decision making, fbr the short and the long term, in a coherent w~/. With a comparable approach, complex problems can be solved in large river basins. One example is the Amazon river basin. In some tributaries, barrages and man-made lakes were made to produce electricity, and many more have been planned. Without an integrated water system approach, taking into account all barrages (also those planned! ) and all interests involved in the river basin, it is impossible to avoid a disaster, both in terms of ecological impact, and cost/benefit in the long term. Without careful and balanced decision making, based on a policy analysis, it is not justified to decide for new investments in more barrages in tributaries in the Amazon river basin. It is another serious threat to the tropical rain forests! All the functions are at stake! The Nile river basin is another wetland, where it is profitable to prepare comprehensive and up to date plans or policy options, for the development and the use of water, and water dependent land resources, comparable with the PAWN approach in The Netherlands. I will not go into further details here, however. Egypt provides another example of application, namely to take profitable advantage of the surplus of brackish water and of coastal lagoons and waters. Egypt can make a "golden line'" of the coastal zone, by using the salt water and the brackish water in that area. It requires a daring way of thinking and acting which is really a challenge. Instead of reclaiming the coastal lagoons in the Nile delta for agricultural purposes, or making freshwater reservoirs, as suggested, one could decide to manage them as controlled estuarine ecosystems and take advantage of their unique position in the delta. There is plenty scope for using fresh water to irrigate deserts. Another suggestion is to make use of the socalled "useless" 10% of the brackish Nile water, leaving Egypt now via the Rosetta branch of the Nile, to create new productive brackish water and saltwater lagoons and lakes: for ex-
IN I'E(IR~TED W~,TER MANkGEMENI: A NEW C()N('EPT
ample in the deserts west or east of the Nile delta, or in the shallow coastal waters. Summarizing, water reclamation (!) is proposed instead of land reclamation; the use of brackish water and salt water instead of fresh water.., why not? In the world many more, small- and largescale applications are possible. The main message here is to emphasize the positive role man can play in wetlands. Who else controls the water, directs and rules the developments! REFERENCES Adriaanse, M.. de ,long, J. and van der Tuin, H., 1986. Historical and present day engineering aspects of lowland development in The Netherlands. Rijkswaterstaat. Institute for Inland and Waste Water Treatment (DBW/RIZA). Lelystad. The Netherlands, 37 pp. Anonymous, 1982. Policy analysis for the national water management of The Netherlands. Rijkswalersiaat ( o m munications 31: 1-142. Dc Jong. J. and Roelofs, J.H.. 1983. Ecology and the Zuidcrzeeproject. Water Sci. Technol., 16: 51-77. Ferguson. H.A. and Wolff, W.J., 1983. The Haringvlietprojcct. The development of the Rhine, Meuse estuary from tidal inlet to stagnant freshwater lake. Water Sci. Technol., 16: 11-26. Holling, C.S. (Editor). 1980. Adaptive environmental managemeni assessments and statements. Van Nostrand Reinhold, Nev, York, 367 pp. Knoester, M., Visser, J., Bannink, B.A., Colijn, C.J. and Broeders, W.P.A., 1983. The Easterscheldt Project. Water Sci. Technol., 16: 171-206. Ministry of Transport and Public Works, 1968. Water Managemenl of The Netherlands. Government Publication Office. The Hague. 250 pp. (In Dutch.) Ministry of Transport and Public Works, 1975. Indicative More Year Programme Water. 1975-1979. Government Publication Office, The Hague, 92 pp. ( In Dutch. ) Ministry of Transport and Public Works. 1981. Indicative More Year Programme Water, 1980-1984. Government Publication ()ffice. The Hague, 146 pp. (In Dutch. )
255 Ministry of Transport and Public Works, 1985. Water Management of The Netherlands. Government Publication Office, The Hague. 253 pp. (In Dutch.) Ministry of Transport and Public Works, 1986. Indicative More Year Programme Water, 1985-1990. Government Publication Office. The Hague, 146 pp. (In Dutch. ) Nienhuis, P.H., 1989. Eutrophication of estuaries and brackish lagoons in the SW Netherlands. Proc. CHO-TNO, Techn. Meet., Rotterdam, 8th March, 1989. Rijkswaterstaat, Middelburg. 41: 49-70. Nienhuis, P.H. and Huts in "t Veld, J.C., 1983. Grevelingen: From an estuary to a saline lake. Water Sci. Technol., 16: 27-50. Pulles, J.W. and Sprong, T.A., 1984. A policy analysis for the water management of The Netherlands (PAWN). Proceedings of the 4th Congress of the Asian and Pacific Division (AI)P-IAHR), 11-13 September, Chiang-mai, Thailand, pp. 1371-1387. Saeijs, H.L.F.. 1982a. (;hanging estuaries. Rijkswaterstaat Communications 32, 414 pp. Saeijs, H.L.E., 1982b. The Oosterschelde and the protection of the environmcnt. A policy plan for a changing estuar_',. Rijkswaterstaal Communications, 32: 241-278. Saeijs. H.LF.. 1987. Towards control of an estuary. Proceedings of the 41h International Conference on River Basin Management, Sao Paolo, Brazil, 13-15 August 1986. ANAIS, IAWPRC, Water Sci. Technol., pp. 155-174. Saeijs, H.L.F., 1988. From treating of symptoms towards a controlled ecosystem management in the Dutch Delta. The lessons learned from 2000 years of living with water and ecolechnolog?~ in The Netherlands. Proc. Dutch Delta Project, 17 November, 1988, Rijkswaterstaat, Middelburg, 41 pp. Saeijs, H.L.F. and Bannink. B.A., 1978. Environmental considerations in a coastal engineering project. Hydrobiol. Bull., 12, 3/4, pp. 178-202. Saeijs, H i . F . and Slortelder, P.B.M., 1982. Converting an estuary to Lake Grcvclingcn. Environmental review of a coastal engineering project. Environ. Manage., 6(5 ): 377405. Saeijs, H.LF.. Duursma, E.K. and Davoren. W.T., 1983. Integration of ecology in coastal engineering. Water Sci. Technol.. 16: 745-757. Van Veen, J., 1950, Dredge, Drain, Reclaim. Tile Art of a Nation. M. Nijhoft\ The Hague, 179 pp. Van Veen, J., 1953. Land below sealevel. Holland in its agelong fight against water. Trio, The Hague, 32 pp.