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Hermeneutics as a methodology for textual analysis
MAY 2001, VOL 13. NO 5 RESEARCH CORNER
Hermeneutics us a methodology for textual analysls ast month's column discussed phenomenology and explained that the term hermeneutics often is used in conjunction or even in confusion with the term phenomenology. This column will define and prwide a background of hermeneutics. The relationship that hermeneutics has with phenomenology also will be reviewed. The column will conclude with a discussion of critical hermeneutics and its research implications.
struction (ie, forming a new perspective) to find the original intended meaning. Hermeneutics has evolved from an analysis of biblical texts to a method used to gain undexstanding of human nat~re.~
PHENOMENOLOGY AND HERMENEUTICS AS APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDIN0 A close link between phenomenology and hermeneutics has resulted in the interchangeable use of the terms; however, philosophical beliefs differ among phenomeDEFINIT..ON AND RACKGROUND nologists and hermeneutic A simple definition of hermeneutics is te~tu.4interpreta- philosophers.' Phenomenology focuses on a person's lived expetion,or, in other words, finding meaning in tbe written word. TWO rience and elicits commonalties and shared meanings, whereas embedded assumptions of hermeneutics refers to an interprehermeneutim are that humans experience the worId through lan- tation of textual language. Although there is no absolute or guage and this language provides universal defulition of either term, both understandmg and knowlwhen these cancepts arc UBed edge. The term hermeneutics was together, they usually are closely derived from two words-the Greek verb hermeneuein,meaning related to qualitative research methods that use words or nmato interpret, and the noun tives as the basis to gain underhermeneiu, meaning interpretastanding. Researchers must define tion.' This method of textual analysis emphasizes the sociocul- these terms and link them with a particular philosophy or approach tural and historic influences on as they develop the framework for qualitative interpretation. It also a research study. exposes hidden meanings? Hermeneutic analysis primarily Historically, hermeneutics has focuses on texts as a research data been associated with the interpresource. These texts can be genertation of biblical texts. Religious leaders sought to identify the liter- ated by stories, interviews, participant observations, diaries, literaal or authentic meanings of reliture, letters, or other relevant docgious fexts so they could explain ument~.~ One article identifies how to live a Christian life. Early three strategies for generating monks analyzed literary works nursing stories, including storythrough a method termed recon-
968 AORN JOURNAL
telling, narration, and critical incident technique.6 Altfrough the backgrwnds of these three strategies differ, they are very similar in that they ask a p ~ s o nto recall a meaningful experience about a specific topic. After a text is generated, usually one or more approaches is used to idenhfy meaningful pieces of information, which in turn are used to generate themes or categories from a group of texts. These themes or categories communicate findings that reflect knowledge of the phenomenon under study.
CRmcAL MRMENEIJTICS Critical hermeneutics is linked to a view of science known as critical social theory (ie, identification of societal contradictions).' One purpose of critical hermeneutics is to expose hidden power imbalances and challenge the status quo? The researcher always should clarify his or her interpretation of critical hermeneutics when asking a research question and reporting the findings. For example, a critical hermeneutics approach might be used to explore hidden power imbalances in the surgical setting by examining written transcripts of surgeon and nurse communication during surgery. Philosophers associated with critical hermeneutic perspectives include Paul Ricour, Jurgen Habermas, and Hans-Georg Gadarner.9 Gadamer 's hermeneutics emphasizes the e?tW&Wnass of language in OUT understanding of our world.1° His work helped
MAY 2001. VOL 73, NO 5
extend philosophical hermeneutics to critical hermeneutics by stressing the importance of tradition, background, and history in our ways of understanding. Gadamer believed that understanding comes from interpretations embedded in our linguistic and cultural traditions, which contribute to our inherent prejudices.” Gadamer defined the concept of prejudice as prejudgment.I2 Prejudices are preconceived notions of things arising from our past experience and socialization. Some believe the way to eradicate prejudice is to maintain objectivity by not considering previous experiences. Gadamer, however, believed this was impossible. He believed that to understand each other we cannot shed our past experiences, and that these experiences actually enhance our understanding. Gadamer advocated continually striving to identify our prejudices. In support of this, one philosopher stated To be engaged in a conver sation with a text is to bring one’s prejudices into play. On the basis of one’s prejudices’ one is able to understand the content of what the text says. The reader is engaged from a definite point of view and is only able to understand the content of the text from this perspective. The very fact that we question the text suggests that we are trying to transcend our own prejudices.” The prejudices of a researcher originate from the researcher’s backgro~nd.‘~ From the hermeneutic perspective, personal
experiences are not considered an impediment to the researcher’s ability to understand. In fact, the researcher’s values provide contextual meaning for consumers. For the reader to understand the influence of the re-
Prejudices are preconceived notions of things arising from past experience and socialization. searcher’s background, the researcher must document his or her decisions and actions in a research journal.I5 Excerpts from the research journal frequently are published along with the research. In critical hermeneutics, the researcher also must document his or her background in terms of race, gender, education, and experiential background related to the topic at hand. For example, a perioperative researcher studying multicultural surgical patients might document his or her Caucasian, Anglo-Saxon background growing up in a rural community and the resultant lack of exposure to diverse ethnic groups. One researcher used critical hermeneutics to analyze fundamental nursing textbooks in an effort to uncover common types of racial bias. The textbooks provided a textual data source that was analyzed for themes reflecting the portrayal of African 969 AORN JOURNAL
Americans. The researcher clearly linked the philosophy of Gadamer, especially the concept of prejudice, with the research topic of racial bias. The researcher’s race, background, and research assumptions were explicated in a research journal providing readers with a context for critique. The thematic findings then were compared to numerous literary sources on racial bias. African-American experts were used to confirm the findings that nursing textbooks may contribute to reinforcing racial bias. This research did not explore a lived experience and, therefore, could not be considered phenomenological. Rather, the goal was to uncover hidden bias, which is congruent with critical social theory. This research, therefore, was considered critical hermeneutic rather than philosophical hermeneutic.
CONCLUSlOiV The past two columns have provided insight into phenomenology and hermeneutics. Although these two philosophies may seem complex, reading this type of research usually is not difficult. Research findings usually are stated in terms of themes or categories. Passages from the text often are included to provide readers with examples, allowing them to decide whether they agree with the researcher’s identification of themes and categories. Refer to the “Research Corner” in the March 200 1 AORN Journal, which addresses the evaluation of findings to assist you in your critique. An important assumption of these two methodologies is that knowledge is embedded in our nursing experiences and language.
MAY 2001, VOL 73, NO 5
Phenomenology and hermeneutics provide two approaches to communicate and articulate the knowledge embedded in our practice. Become familiar with
these methods by reading qualitative research. Learning more about both phenomenology and hermeneutics provides readers a more in-depth understanding for
a particular study and its specific research methods. MICHELLE BYRNE RN, MS, PHD, CNOR NURSINQ RESEARCH COMMITTEE
NOTES 1. J Thompson, “Hermeneutic inquiry,” in Advancing Nursing Science Through Research, ed L E Moody (Newbury Park, Calif Sage Publications, 1990) 224-267. 2. D Allen, “Hermeneutics: Philosophical traditions and nursing practice research,” Nursing Science Quarterly 8 (Winter 1995) 174-182. 3. H Spiegelberg, The Phenomenological Movement: A Historical Introduction (The Hauge: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1982) 69-421. 4. M Byme, “Uncovering Racial Bias in Fundamental Nursing Textbooks: A Critical Hermeneutic Analysis of the Portrayal of African Americans” (PhD dissertation, Georgia State University, Atlanta, 2000) 41-47; Thompson, “Hermeneutic inquiry,” 224-267; A J Walters, “The phenomenological movement: Implications for nursing research,” Journal of Advanced Nursing 22 (October 1995) 791799. 5. P Benner, interpretive Phenomenology: Embodiment,
Caring, and Ethics in Health and Illness (Thousand Oaks, Calif Sage Publications, 1994) 55-81. 6. I von Post, K Erikkson, “A hermeneutic textual analysis of suffering and caring in the perioperative context,” Journal of Advanced Nursing 30 (October 1999) 983-989. 7. Allen, “Hermeneutics: Philosophical traditions and nursing practice research,” 174-182. 8. M Ford-Gilboe, J Campbell, H Berman, “Stories and numbers: Coexistence without compromise,” Advances in Nursing Science 18 (September 1995) 14-26. 9. J Baptiste, “Race and Attrition in Baccalaureate Nursing Programs: A Hermeneutic Inquiry” (PhD dissertation, Adelphi University, Garden City, NY, 1995) 32-51; Byme, “Uncovering Racial Bias in Fundamental Nursing Textbooks: A Critical Hermeneutic Analysis of the Portrayal of African Americans,” 224-267; A Hiraki, “Tradition, Rationality, and Power in Introductory Nursing Textbooks: A Critical Hermeneutics Study” (PhD dissertation, University of San
Francisco, 1989) 37-63. 10. H Gadamer, Truth and Method, translators, J Weinsheimer, D G Marshall (New York: Continuum, 1994) 173-492; H Gadamer, Philosophical Hermeneutics, translator, D E Linge (Berkeley, Calif University of California Press, 1976) 18-177. 11, E Pascoe, “The value to nursing research of Gadamer’s hermeneutic philosophy,” Journal of Advanced Nursing 24 (December 1996) 1309-1314. 12. Gadamer, Truth and Method, 173-492; Gadamer, Philosophical Hermeneutics, 18-177. 13. S J Maguire, “Gadamer’s Hermeneutics: Criticism and Community” (PhD dissertation, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada, 1991) 11-305. 14. Allen, “Hermeneutics: Philosophical traditions and nursing practice research,” 174-182. 15. T Koch, “Implementation of a hermeneutic inquiry in nursing: Philosophy, rigour, and representation,” Journal of Advanced Nursing 24 (July 1996) 174-184.
Behavior Problems Part of, Not Product of, Epilepsy A new study suggests that behavior problems in children with epilepsy actually may be part of the disease and not a side effect, according to a Jan 4, 2001, news release from Indiana University Purdue University, Indianapolis. Children with epilepsy often have behavior problems, such as difficulty paying attention and difficulty thinking. It is commonly thought that the problems develop after the onset of the disease and as a reaction to the disease and its treatment. The new study negates this theory by showing that children’s behavior problems often begin before their first seizure is recognized by caregivers, according to the release. The study compared
224 children ages 4 to 14. who had suffered their first seizure recognized by caregivers, to their nearest-in-age healthy sibling. Researchers asked parents to check off a list of behaviors demonstrated by their child in the six months before his or her f i s t seizure. They found that one-third of the children already had behavioral problems at the time they experienced their first recognized seizure.
Study by IUPUl Professors Suggests Behavior Problems May Be Part, Not Product of, Epilepsy (news release: Indianapolis, Indian0 Universii)-Purdue University lndianapalis, Jun 4, 200 I ) 1 . 970
AORN JOURNAL
Hermeneutics us a methodology for textual analysls ast month's column discussed phenomenology and explained that the term hermeneutics often is used in conjunction or even in confusion with the term phenomenology. This column will define and prwide a background of hermeneutics. The relationship that hermeneutics has with phenomenology also will be reviewed. The column will conclude with a discussion of critical hermeneutics and its research implications.
struction (ie, forming a new perspective) to find the original intended meaning. Hermeneutics has evolved from an analysis of biblical texts to a method used to gain undexstanding of human nat~re.~
PHENOMENOLOGY AND HERMENEUTICS AS APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDIN0 A close link between phenomenology and hermeneutics has resulted in the interchangeable use of the terms; however, philosophical beliefs differ among phenomeDEFINIT..ON AND RACKGROUND nologists and hermeneutic A simple definition of hermeneutics is te~tu.4interpreta- philosophers.' Phenomenology focuses on a person's lived expetion,or, in other words, finding meaning in tbe written word. TWO rience and elicits commonalties and shared meanings, whereas embedded assumptions of hermeneutics refers to an interprehermeneutim are that humans experience the worId through lan- tation of textual language. Although there is no absolute or guage and this language provides universal defulition of either term, both understandmg and knowlwhen these cancepts arc UBed edge. The term hermeneutics was together, they usually are closely derived from two words-the Greek verb hermeneuein,meaning related to qualitative research methods that use words or nmato interpret, and the noun tives as the basis to gain underhermeneiu, meaning interpretastanding. Researchers must define tion.' This method of textual analysis emphasizes the sociocul- these terms and link them with a particular philosophy or approach tural and historic influences on as they develop the framework for qualitative interpretation. It also a research study. exposes hidden meanings? Hermeneutic analysis primarily Historically, hermeneutics has focuses on texts as a research data been associated with the interpresource. These texts can be genertation of biblical texts. Religious leaders sought to identify the liter- ated by stories, interviews, participant observations, diaries, literaal or authentic meanings of reliture, letters, or other relevant docgious fexts so they could explain ument~.~ One article identifies how to live a Christian life. Early three strategies for generating monks analyzed literary works nursing stories, including storythrough a method termed recon-
968 AORN JOURNAL
telling, narration, and critical incident technique.6 Altfrough the backgrwnds of these three strategies differ, they are very similar in that they ask a p ~ s o nto recall a meaningful experience about a specific topic. After a text is generated, usually one or more approaches is used to idenhfy meaningful pieces of information, which in turn are used to generate themes or categories from a group of texts. These themes or categories communicate findings that reflect knowledge of the phenomenon under study.
CRmcAL MRMENEIJTICS Critical hermeneutics is linked to a view of science known as critical social theory (ie, identification of societal contradictions).' One purpose of critical hermeneutics is to expose hidden power imbalances and challenge the status quo? The researcher always should clarify his or her interpretation of critical hermeneutics when asking a research question and reporting the findings. For example, a critical hermeneutics approach might be used to explore hidden power imbalances in the surgical setting by examining written transcripts of surgeon and nurse communication during surgery. Philosophers associated with critical hermeneutic perspectives include Paul Ricour, Jurgen Habermas, and Hans-Georg Gadarner.9 Gadamer 's hermeneutics emphasizes the e?tW&Wnass of language in OUT understanding of our world.1° His work helped
MAY 2001. VOL 73, NO 5
extend philosophical hermeneutics to critical hermeneutics by stressing the importance of tradition, background, and history in our ways of understanding. Gadamer believed that understanding comes from interpretations embedded in our linguistic and cultural traditions, which contribute to our inherent prejudices.” Gadamer defined the concept of prejudice as prejudgment.I2 Prejudices are preconceived notions of things arising from our past experience and socialization. Some believe the way to eradicate prejudice is to maintain objectivity by not considering previous experiences. Gadamer, however, believed this was impossible. He believed that to understand each other we cannot shed our past experiences, and that these experiences actually enhance our understanding. Gadamer advocated continually striving to identify our prejudices. In support of this, one philosopher stated To be engaged in a conver sation with a text is to bring one’s prejudices into play. On the basis of one’s prejudices’ one is able to understand the content of what the text says. The reader is engaged from a definite point of view and is only able to understand the content of the text from this perspective. The very fact that we question the text suggests that we are trying to transcend our own prejudices.” The prejudices of a researcher originate from the researcher’s backgro~nd.‘~ From the hermeneutic perspective, personal
experiences are not considered an impediment to the researcher’s ability to understand. In fact, the researcher’s values provide contextual meaning for consumers. For the reader to understand the influence of the re-
Prejudices are preconceived notions of things arising from past experience and socialization. searcher’s background, the researcher must document his or her decisions and actions in a research journal.I5 Excerpts from the research journal frequently are published along with the research. In critical hermeneutics, the researcher also must document his or her background in terms of race, gender, education, and experiential background related to the topic at hand. For example, a perioperative researcher studying multicultural surgical patients might document his or her Caucasian, Anglo-Saxon background growing up in a rural community and the resultant lack of exposure to diverse ethnic groups. One researcher used critical hermeneutics to analyze fundamental nursing textbooks in an effort to uncover common types of racial bias. The textbooks provided a textual data source that was analyzed for themes reflecting the portrayal of African 969 AORN JOURNAL
Americans. The researcher clearly linked the philosophy of Gadamer, especially the concept of prejudice, with the research topic of racial bias. The researcher’s race, background, and research assumptions were explicated in a research journal providing readers with a context for critique. The thematic findings then were compared to numerous literary sources on racial bias. African-American experts were used to confirm the findings that nursing textbooks may contribute to reinforcing racial bias. This research did not explore a lived experience and, therefore, could not be considered phenomenological. Rather, the goal was to uncover hidden bias, which is congruent with critical social theory. This research, therefore, was considered critical hermeneutic rather than philosophical hermeneutic.
CONCLUSlOiV The past two columns have provided insight into phenomenology and hermeneutics. Although these two philosophies may seem complex, reading this type of research usually is not difficult. Research findings usually are stated in terms of themes or categories. Passages from the text often are included to provide readers with examples, allowing them to decide whether they agree with the researcher’s identification of themes and categories. Refer to the “Research Corner” in the March 200 1 AORN Journal, which addresses the evaluation of findings to assist you in your critique. An important assumption of these two methodologies is that knowledge is embedded in our nursing experiences and language.
MAY 2001, VOL 73, NO 5
Phenomenology and hermeneutics provide two approaches to communicate and articulate the knowledge embedded in our practice. Become familiar with
these methods by reading qualitative research. Learning more about both phenomenology and hermeneutics provides readers a more in-depth understanding for
a particular study and its specific research methods. MICHELLE BYRNE RN, MS, PHD, CNOR NURSINQ RESEARCH COMMITTEE
NOTES 1. J Thompson, “Hermeneutic inquiry,” in Advancing Nursing Science Through Research, ed L E Moody (Newbury Park, Calif Sage Publications, 1990) 224-267. 2. D Allen, “Hermeneutics: Philosophical traditions and nursing practice research,” Nursing Science Quarterly 8 (Winter 1995) 174-182. 3. H Spiegelberg, The Phenomenological Movement: A Historical Introduction (The Hauge: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1982) 69-421. 4. M Byme, “Uncovering Racial Bias in Fundamental Nursing Textbooks: A Critical Hermeneutic Analysis of the Portrayal of African Americans” (PhD dissertation, Georgia State University, Atlanta, 2000) 41-47; Thompson, “Hermeneutic inquiry,” 224-267; A J Walters, “The phenomenological movement: Implications for nursing research,” Journal of Advanced Nursing 22 (October 1995) 791799. 5. P Benner, interpretive Phenomenology: Embodiment,
Caring, and Ethics in Health and Illness (Thousand Oaks, Calif Sage Publications, 1994) 55-81. 6. I von Post, K Erikkson, “A hermeneutic textual analysis of suffering and caring in the perioperative context,” Journal of Advanced Nursing 30 (October 1999) 983-989. 7. Allen, “Hermeneutics: Philosophical traditions and nursing practice research,” 174-182. 8. M Ford-Gilboe, J Campbell, H Berman, “Stories and numbers: Coexistence without compromise,” Advances in Nursing Science 18 (September 1995) 14-26. 9. J Baptiste, “Race and Attrition in Baccalaureate Nursing Programs: A Hermeneutic Inquiry” (PhD dissertation, Adelphi University, Garden City, NY, 1995) 32-51; Byme, “Uncovering Racial Bias in Fundamental Nursing Textbooks: A Critical Hermeneutic Analysis of the Portrayal of African Americans,” 224-267; A Hiraki, “Tradition, Rationality, and Power in Introductory Nursing Textbooks: A Critical Hermeneutics Study” (PhD dissertation, University of San
Francisco, 1989) 37-63. 10. H Gadamer, Truth and Method, translators, J Weinsheimer, D G Marshall (New York: Continuum, 1994) 173-492; H Gadamer, Philosophical Hermeneutics, translator, D E Linge (Berkeley, Calif University of California Press, 1976) 18-177. 11, E Pascoe, “The value to nursing research of Gadamer’s hermeneutic philosophy,” Journal of Advanced Nursing 24 (December 1996) 1309-1314. 12. Gadamer, Truth and Method, 173-492; Gadamer, Philosophical Hermeneutics, 18-177. 13. S J Maguire, “Gadamer’s Hermeneutics: Criticism and Community” (PhD dissertation, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada, 1991) 11-305. 14. Allen, “Hermeneutics: Philosophical traditions and nursing practice research,” 174-182. 15. T Koch, “Implementation of a hermeneutic inquiry in nursing: Philosophy, rigour, and representation,” Journal of Advanced Nursing 24 (July 1996) 174-184.
Behavior Problems Part of, Not Product of, Epilepsy A new study suggests that behavior problems in children with epilepsy actually may be part of the disease and not a side effect, according to a Jan 4, 2001, news release from Indiana University Purdue University, Indianapolis. Children with epilepsy often have behavior problems, such as difficulty paying attention and difficulty thinking. It is commonly thought that the problems develop after the onset of the disease and as a reaction to the disease and its treatment. The new study negates this theory by showing that children’s behavior problems often begin before their first seizure is recognized by caregivers, according to the release. The study compared
224 children ages 4 to 14. who had suffered their first seizure recognized by caregivers, to their nearest-in-age healthy sibling. Researchers asked parents to check off a list of behaviors demonstrated by their child in the six months before his or her f i s t seizure. They found that one-third of the children already had behavioral problems at the time they experienced their first recognized seizure.
Study by IUPUl Professors Suggests Behavior Problems May Be Part, Not Product of, Epilepsy (news release: Indianapolis, Indian0 Universii)-Purdue University lndianapalis, Jun 4, 200 I ) 1 . 970
AORN JOURNAL