- Email: [email protected]
Human numerical competence revealed by means of dog exercises
100 Outcomes of animal-assisted work in penal institutions or correctional facilities are still a relatively new area of research. There are few empirical studies, and only a small number of programs that carry out scientific evaluation of data. It has been shown that programs that include animals improve social skills and the development of empathy as well as reduce aggressive behavior among offenders. Furthermore, animal-based programs seem to increase self-esteem and decrease depression (Britton and Button, 2006). Using a pre-post design, the intervention group of male drug offenders (n 5 28) was evaluated in comparison to 2 small control groups (n 5 9 each, also offenders); all participants were from 19 to 50 years of age. The intervention group participated in the dog-assisted competence training, MTI, which was conducted weekly and took place in prison as an integral part of the therapy program. The first control group took part in a work-related rehabilitation program; the second control group received no extra training. One indicator for emotional competences was, among others, emotion regulation. The psychological instruments were the SEE (Skalen zum Erleben von Emotionen) (Becker and Behr, 2004) and the EMI-B (Emotionalita¨tsinventar als Befindlichkeitsmaß) (Ullrich and de Muynck, 2001). The hypotheses were tested using 1-way analyses of variance (ANOVA) and other procedures of the GLM. Highly significant improvements were observed and documented in the intervention group; a couple of relevant changes in comparison to the control groups are particularly noteworthy. Massive increases regarding the acceptance of their own emotions (F(2,43) 5 5.68, P 5 0.003), emotion regulation (F(2,43) 5 5.77, P 5 0.006), and emotional self-control (F(2,43) 5 9.43, P , 0.001) were found. Furthermore, after the training, the intervention group experienced less emotion flooding (F(2,43) 5 6.937, P 5 0.002) and lesser feelings of lack of emotion (F(2,43) 5 24.45, P , .001). The participants of the dog-assisted training were significantly less exhausted (F(2,43) 5 5.02, P 5 0.011) and less aggressive (F(2,43) 5 3.62, P 5 0.035) in comparison to the 2 other groups. In addition, they felt more optimistic (F(2,43) 5 3.43, P 5 0.042) and secure (F(2,43) 5 3.85, P 5 0.029). Dog-assisted training seems to have had a positive influence on the development of healthy emotion regulation strategies without explicitly teaching the use of these strategies. The generalization process from human–animal interaction to human–human interactions seems to take place without additional intervention. It can be assumed that the strengthened positive emotion regulation strategies will lead to emotionally competent behaviors and to concurrent positive outcomes for personal life. Key words: animal-assisted therapy; emotional regulation; emotional competences; human–animal interaction; animalassisted intervention
Journal of Veterinary Behavior, Vol 4, No 2, March/April 2009
References: Becker, M., Behr, M., 2004. Skalen zum Erleben von Emotionen (SEE). Go¨ttingen: Hogrefe. Britton, D.M., Button, A. Prison pups: assessing the effectiveness of dog training programs in correctional facilities J. Fam. Soc. Work. 9, 79–95 Ullrich, R., de Muynck, R., 2001. Das Emotionalita¨tsinventar als Befindlichkeitsmaß (EMI-B). Munchen: Pfeiffer.
95 HUMAN NUMERICAL COMPETENCE REVEALED BY MEANS OF DOG EXERCISES Cristina Muro*, In˜aki Linaza, Ramo´n Escobedo Group of Dog Assisted Therapy, Assistance Dogs Association AEPA-Euskadi, Spain *Corresponding author: [email protected] Dogs are becoming widely used agents in Animal Assisted Therapy (AAT) in homes, hospitals, and other assisted living facilities, especially with elderly persons or those affected by an advanced reduction of cognitive capacities. Some therapies capitalize on the exclusive relationship between humans and dogs to evaluate the cognitive competence of patients (Wells, 2007). We seek to evaluate the capacity to identify numbers and make simple numerical calculations in elderly people with a relatively reduced communication ability to determine the degree of impairment in their cognitive abilities. We used simple numerical exercises carried out by dogs specially trained to simulate mathematical computation and then determined when the patients were able to do these computations themselves by analyzing their reaction to the dogs’ performance. Dogs were trained to simulate the ability to identify and distinguish numbers from 1 to 5 and to make simple numerical operations; the dogs would ‘‘provide an answer’’ by pointing to the correct number. The dogs’ numerical ability was then demonstrated to a group of patients familiar with dogs, handler, and therapists. The dog was obviously not performing the computation, but was trained by its handler to point to the correct answer. Patients’ reactions, in terms of surprise intensity, explicit comments (spontaneous or when asked), or null reaction, were observeddfilmed when possibledfor analysis. These patients were considered to have lost part of their numerical competence and to be under-reacting to similar stimuli from children who were relatives, typically considered especially effective as stimulating agents in cognitive therapy. With the dog, all patients wanted to participate and exhibited a clear and observable reaction. Most of the patients did not show surprise, but a reaction of confirmation of what they expected. When asked directly about the computing ability of the dog, they showed a strong belief that the dog was able to do the calculations. Their confidence in the dog’s performance decreased near the limit of their own numerical competence (e.g., in division or ‘‘difficult’’ subtraction such as [1–3]). Only a small number of patients exhibited
Interactions between dogs and humans
101
evidence of surprise when seeing dogs behaving as if they were able to compute. One patient even looked for the trick. Some other patients did not show a specific reaction linked to the demonstration carried out by the dog but the usual one associated with the presence of the dog in the room, by itself pleasant enough for the patients. Their mood and degree of participation remained similar to the one corresponding to other activities without a specific cognitive component such as when grooming or caressing the dog. Patient reactions showed the degree of preservation of the concentration capacities and numerical competence. They also manifested their ideas about the possibility of the dogs performing numerical tasks or possessing symbol cognition. Lack of reaction could be for different reasons and may not be directly related to the loss of numerical competence. As in other therapies based on cognitive capacities (e.g., ‘‘use dogs that understand and use language’’), it is crucial that the demonstration be carried out by a dog, and not by a child, whose performance may not be surprising or stimulating. Our experimental design allowed performance of cognitive tests without danger of offending patients and may also be useful in ‘‘brain training,’’ turning an usually annoying activity into a stimulating one by means of a dog’s participation. Key words: dog assisted therapy; human cognition; psychophysiological interaction between humans and dogs
revealed that so-called cut-off signals, that is, signals intended to stop another individual, mostly a younger/ lower-ranking one, from continuing with whatever it is doing at the moment, are regular parts of conflict management insofar as they seem to prevent situations from escalating. They seem not to disrupt social cohesion even in a short-term perspective, nor do they lead to any recognizable behavioral indicators of stress. Appeasement/submissive signals are regularly performed from the lowerranking animal again without any detectable negative effects on group cohesion, nor any indicators of stress. Food allocation seems to follow more a motivation-dependent, egalitarian system than a long-term, dominance-based one. Long-term reconciliation lasting up to several weeks or even months, in the form of initiating friendly contacts by the highest-ranking females, is found in several species of wild canids in zoos, mainly after the peak estrous time. The results promise to shed light on several aspects of dog– person relationships but may also help to gain a less ‘‘primatocentric’’ view on the evolution of complex conflict resolution mechanisms in social mammals. Thanks are due to all my colleagues and co-workers sharing data and insights in this project, among them G. Bloch, S. Fischer, P. Laurilla, M. Meyer, M. Reimer, J. Seitz, V. Sto¨hr, V. Warstat, and E. Wieloch. Key words: submissive signaling; appeasement; reconciliation; cut-off/dominance signaling
Reference:
97
Wells, D.L., 2007. Domestic dogs and human health. Br. J. Health Psychol. 12, 145–156.
96 DYNAMICS OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT IN CANINES: PRELIMINARY RESULTS Udo Gansloßer* Zool. Inst. and Museum, University of Greifswald, Germany *Corresponding author: [email protected] Canine social organization tends to create social conditions that in other taxa often lead to the evolutionary development of patterns of conflict management and conflict resolution. Canines have, at least at certain times of the year, a high potential for intragroup aggression (and the weapons to enforce it), and they have a selective pressure on strong, longer-lasting bonds, also between generations. Similar to the pressures in primates, these evolutionary pressures should also lead to the development of intensive signaling and interacting to prevent conflicts getting out of hand and thus loss of group cohesion. Behavioral mechanisms for regulating conflict situations, both pre- and postconflict are, among others, signals for appeasement/ submission, resource allocation, and postconflict reconciliation. Behavioral observations of feral dogs in Italy have
EXPLORING BREED DIVERSITY IN BEHAVIOR IN THE DOMESTIC DOG (CANIS FAMILIARIS) Tracey Clarke* Biological Science, Lincoln University, United Kingdom *Address for reprint requests and correspondence: [email protected] ‘‘There are important breed differences in almost every aspect of behavior and physique, and even in the development of social relationships’’ (Scott and Fuller, 1965). Despite Scott and Fuller’s findings, a review of the literature in the area of canine behavior reveals that a substantial number of studies have neglected to report breed information, and there is a lamentable lack of research focusing on differences in behavior between breeds. Behavioral differences among breeds have often been regarded as remnants from past selection during the breed’s origin. Therefore, the explanatory value of the traditional breed classifications as defined by the Kennel Club were first addressed before considering whether less parsimonious classification sensitive to evolutionary changes might have greater explanatory value in illuminating and understanding breed differences in behavior and anomalies. The selection in many breeds has, during the past decades, gone through great changes, which could have influenced breed-typical behavior. The most obvious change has been the selection for physical appearance over function.
Journal of Veterinary Behavior, Vol 4, No 2, March/April 2009
References: Becker, M., Behr, M., 2004. Skalen zum Erleben von Emotionen (SEE). Go¨ttingen: Hogrefe. Britton, D.M., Button, A. Prison pups: assessing the effectiveness of dog training programs in correctional facilities J. Fam. Soc. Work. 9, 79–95 Ullrich, R., de Muynck, R., 2001. Das Emotionalita¨tsinventar als Befindlichkeitsmaß (EMI-B). Munchen: Pfeiffer.
95 HUMAN NUMERICAL COMPETENCE REVEALED BY MEANS OF DOG EXERCISES Cristina Muro*, In˜aki Linaza, Ramo´n Escobedo Group of Dog Assisted Therapy, Assistance Dogs Association AEPA-Euskadi, Spain *Corresponding author: [email protected] Dogs are becoming widely used agents in Animal Assisted Therapy (AAT) in homes, hospitals, and other assisted living facilities, especially with elderly persons or those affected by an advanced reduction of cognitive capacities. Some therapies capitalize on the exclusive relationship between humans and dogs to evaluate the cognitive competence of patients (Wells, 2007). We seek to evaluate the capacity to identify numbers and make simple numerical calculations in elderly people with a relatively reduced communication ability to determine the degree of impairment in their cognitive abilities. We used simple numerical exercises carried out by dogs specially trained to simulate mathematical computation and then determined when the patients were able to do these computations themselves by analyzing their reaction to the dogs’ performance. Dogs were trained to simulate the ability to identify and distinguish numbers from 1 to 5 and to make simple numerical operations; the dogs would ‘‘provide an answer’’ by pointing to the correct number. The dogs’ numerical ability was then demonstrated to a group of patients familiar with dogs, handler, and therapists. The dog was obviously not performing the computation, but was trained by its handler to point to the correct answer. Patients’ reactions, in terms of surprise intensity, explicit comments (spontaneous or when asked), or null reaction, were observeddfilmed when possibledfor analysis. These patients were considered to have lost part of their numerical competence and to be under-reacting to similar stimuli from children who were relatives, typically considered especially effective as stimulating agents in cognitive therapy. With the dog, all patients wanted to participate and exhibited a clear and observable reaction. Most of the patients did not show surprise, but a reaction of confirmation of what they expected. When asked directly about the computing ability of the dog, they showed a strong belief that the dog was able to do the calculations. Their confidence in the dog’s performance decreased near the limit of their own numerical competence (e.g., in division or ‘‘difficult’’ subtraction such as [1–3]). Only a small number of patients exhibited
Interactions between dogs and humans
101
evidence of surprise when seeing dogs behaving as if they were able to compute. One patient even looked for the trick. Some other patients did not show a specific reaction linked to the demonstration carried out by the dog but the usual one associated with the presence of the dog in the room, by itself pleasant enough for the patients. Their mood and degree of participation remained similar to the one corresponding to other activities without a specific cognitive component such as when grooming or caressing the dog. Patient reactions showed the degree of preservation of the concentration capacities and numerical competence. They also manifested their ideas about the possibility of the dogs performing numerical tasks or possessing symbol cognition. Lack of reaction could be for different reasons and may not be directly related to the loss of numerical competence. As in other therapies based on cognitive capacities (e.g., ‘‘use dogs that understand and use language’’), it is crucial that the demonstration be carried out by a dog, and not by a child, whose performance may not be surprising or stimulating. Our experimental design allowed performance of cognitive tests without danger of offending patients and may also be useful in ‘‘brain training,’’ turning an usually annoying activity into a stimulating one by means of a dog’s participation. Key words: dog assisted therapy; human cognition; psychophysiological interaction between humans and dogs
revealed that so-called cut-off signals, that is, signals intended to stop another individual, mostly a younger/ lower-ranking one, from continuing with whatever it is doing at the moment, are regular parts of conflict management insofar as they seem to prevent situations from escalating. They seem not to disrupt social cohesion even in a short-term perspective, nor do they lead to any recognizable behavioral indicators of stress. Appeasement/submissive signals are regularly performed from the lowerranking animal again without any detectable negative effects on group cohesion, nor any indicators of stress. Food allocation seems to follow more a motivation-dependent, egalitarian system than a long-term, dominance-based one. Long-term reconciliation lasting up to several weeks or even months, in the form of initiating friendly contacts by the highest-ranking females, is found in several species of wild canids in zoos, mainly after the peak estrous time. The results promise to shed light on several aspects of dog– person relationships but may also help to gain a less ‘‘primatocentric’’ view on the evolution of complex conflict resolution mechanisms in social mammals. Thanks are due to all my colleagues and co-workers sharing data and insights in this project, among them G. Bloch, S. Fischer, P. Laurilla, M. Meyer, M. Reimer, J. Seitz, V. Sto¨hr, V. Warstat, and E. Wieloch. Key words: submissive signaling; appeasement; reconciliation; cut-off/dominance signaling
Reference:
97
Wells, D.L., 2007. Domestic dogs and human health. Br. J. Health Psychol. 12, 145–156.
96 DYNAMICS OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT IN CANINES: PRELIMINARY RESULTS Udo Gansloßer* Zool. Inst. and Museum, University of Greifswald, Germany *Corresponding author: [email protected] Canine social organization tends to create social conditions that in other taxa often lead to the evolutionary development of patterns of conflict management and conflict resolution. Canines have, at least at certain times of the year, a high potential for intragroup aggression (and the weapons to enforce it), and they have a selective pressure on strong, longer-lasting bonds, also between generations. Similar to the pressures in primates, these evolutionary pressures should also lead to the development of intensive signaling and interacting to prevent conflicts getting out of hand and thus loss of group cohesion. Behavioral mechanisms for regulating conflict situations, both pre- and postconflict are, among others, signals for appeasement/ submission, resource allocation, and postconflict reconciliation. Behavioral observations of feral dogs in Italy have
EXPLORING BREED DIVERSITY IN BEHAVIOR IN THE DOMESTIC DOG (CANIS FAMILIARIS) Tracey Clarke* Biological Science, Lincoln University, United Kingdom *Address for reprint requests and correspondence: [email protected] ‘‘There are important breed differences in almost every aspect of behavior and physique, and even in the development of social relationships’’ (Scott and Fuller, 1965). Despite Scott and Fuller’s findings, a review of the literature in the area of canine behavior reveals that a substantial number of studies have neglected to report breed information, and there is a lamentable lack of research focusing on differences in behavior between breeds. Behavioral differences among breeds have often been regarded as remnants from past selection during the breed’s origin. Therefore, the explanatory value of the traditional breed classifications as defined by the Kennel Club were first addressed before considering whether less parsimonious classification sensitive to evolutionary changes might have greater explanatory value in illuminating and understanding breed differences in behavior and anomalies. The selection in many breeds has, during the past decades, gone through great changes, which could have influenced breed-typical behavior. The most obvious change has been the selection for physical appearance over function.