- Email: [email protected]
IAEA programme in the field of radiation technology
Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B 236 (2005) 38–43 www.elsevier.com/locate/nimb
IAEA programme in the field of radiation technology Andrzej G. Chmielewski *, Mohammad Haji-Saeid Industrial Application and Chemistry Section, NAPC, NA International Atomic Energy Agency, Wagramer Straße 5, A-1400 Vienna, Austria Available online 23 May 2005
‘‘The TC Programme is a principal mechanism for implementing the IAEA’s fundamental mission: ‘Atoms for Peace’. Not only do we seek to ensure that nuclear materials and equipment are used peacefully and safely, but we are also committed to expand the contribution that nuclear technologies make to peace and development’’. IAEA Director General – Mohamed ElBaradei Abstract Radiation technologies applying gamma sources and electron accelerators for material modification are well-established processes. There are over 160 gamma industrial irradiators and 1300 electron industrial accelerators in operation worldwide. A new advancement in the field of radiation sources engineering is the development of high power direct e /X conversion sources based on electron accelerators. Technologies to be developed beside environmental applications could be nanomaterials, structure engineered materials (sorbents, composites, ordered polymers, etc.) and natural polymersÕ processing. New products based on radiationprocessed polysaccharides have already been commercialised in many countries of the East Asia and Pacific Region, especially in those being rich in natural polymers. Very important and promising applications concern environmental protection–radiation technology, being a clean and environment friendly process, helps to curb pollutantsÕ emission as well. Industrial plants for flue gas treatment have been constructed in Poland and China. The pilot plant in Bulgaria using this technology has just started its operation. The Polish plant is equipped with accelerators of over 1 MW power, a breakthrough in radiation technology application. The industrial plant for wastewater treatment is under development in Korea and a pilot plant for sewage sludge irradiation has been in operation in India for many years. Due to recent developments, the Agency has restructured its programme and organized a Technical Meeting (TM) on ‘‘Emerging Applications of Radiation Technology for the 21st Century’’ at its Headquarters in Vienna, Austria, in April 2003, to review the present situation and possible developments of radiation technology to contribute to a sustainable development. This meeting provided the basic input to launch others in the most important fields of radiation technology applications: ‘‘Advances in Radiation Chemistry of Polymers’’ (Notre Dame, USA, September 2003), ‘‘Status of Industrial Scale Radiation Treatment of Wastewater’’ (Taejon, Republic of Korea, October 2003), ‘‘Radiation Processing of Polysaccharides’’ (Takasaki, Japan, November 2003), ‘‘Emerging Applications of Radiation
*
Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (A.G. Chmielewski).
0168-583X/$ - see front matter 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.nimb.2005.03.246
A.G. Chmielewski, M. Haji-Saeid / Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Res. B 236 (2005) 38–43
39
in Nanotechnology’’ (Bologna, Italy, March 2004) and ‘‘Radiation Processing of Gaseous and Liquid Effluents’’ (Sofia, Bulgaria, September 2004). The Agency is presently supervising three Coordinated Research Projects on radiation wastewater treatment, radiation synthesis stimuli-responsive hydrogels for separation purposes and degradation effects of polymers. The role of this technology for a sustainable development is well illustrated by the fact that over 30 technical cooperation projects (including three regional ones) were accomplished in the years 2003–2004 and several new projects are being expected for the new cycle 2005–2006. Detailed analyses of the results of both, regular and TC programmes, laid the foundation for formulation of the new programme for the years 2006–2007. The emphasis will be put on nanotechnology, natural polymers, environment and health protection, including combat with hazardous bioagents. 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction The simplified IAEA organizational chart is presented in Fig. 1. Due to the recent developments in some regions of the world, safeguards, safety and security related Agency activities are widely publicized. However, two departments – Department of Nuclear Energy (NE) and Department of Nuclear Sciences & Applications (NA) – contribute to the worldwide nuclear sciences and technology development. Through NA, jointly with institutes and laboratories worldwide, the IAEA supports R&D on critical problems facing developing countries. Work targets food, health, water, environment and high tech areas where nuclear and radiation technologies can make a difference. Where they hold comparative advantages, nuclear sciences and technology have become preferred – and sometimes the only – solutions to many problems hindering development in poorer countries. Three IAEA Departments (TC, NA and NE) lead programmes in fields of nuclear science and technology. The first Technical Cooperation Department implements TC national, regional and interregional projects through workshops, training
courses, fellowships, scientific visits, expert missions and procurement of equipment. The projects from technical and scientific point of view are supervised by Technical Officers who belongs to mentioned disciplinary departments. These departments run own programmes, which are implemented through coordinated research projects, symposia and conferences, technical and consultants meetings. The important outputs of the programme are technical reports, TECDOCs and other publications. Industrial Applications and Chemistry Section, Division of Physical and Chemical Sciences is a section that deals with radiopharmaceuticals, nuclear analytical techniques, radiation technologies, radiotracers and nucleonic control systems and, finally, nondestructive testing. Among 850–900 active TC projects 130–140 are supervised by the section, 28 (including three regional) projects are devoted to the radiation technology implementation (in some periods of the present cycle number of active projects was over 30). For a new cycle 2005–2006 18 new (including four regional) TC projects related to the radiation technology implementation were proposed. Three Coordinated Research Projects (in each approximately 10 teams from developing
DIRECTOR GENERAL
Department of Technical Cooperation
Department of Nuclear Energy
Department of Management
Department of Nuclear Safety and Security
Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications
Fig. 1. Simplified organizational chart of the IAEA.
Department of Safeguards
40
A.G. Chmielewski, M. Haji-Saeid / Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Res. B 236 (2005) 38–43
and developed countries participate) cover subjects related to the synthesis of stimuli-responsive hydrogels for separation purposes, degradation of polymers and wastewater treatment.
2. Experts’ and technical meetings Regular and TC programmes are implemented in biannual cycles. Cycle 2003–2004 is implemented now and its inauguration started with the meeting on ‘‘Emerging applications of radiation technologies for 21st century’’, April 2003, Vienna, Austria [1]. The general tendency and foreseen applications of radiation technology was discussed during the meeting. The results and recommendations lead to organization and execution of the meetings on the most important issues, such as • Consultants Meeting (CT) on ‘‘Advances in Radiation Processing of Polymers’’, September 2003, Notre Dame, IN, USA. • Consultants Meeting (CT) on ‘‘Status of Industrial Scale Radiation Treatment of Wastewater’’, October 2003, Daejon, Republic of Korea. • Consultants Meeting (CT) on ‘‘Radiation Processing of Polysaccharides’’, November 2003, Takasaki, Japan. • Consultants Meeting (CT) on ‘‘Emerging Applications of Radiation in Nanotechnology’’, March 2004, Bologna, Italy. • ConsultantsÕ Meeting (CT) on ‘‘Radiation Processing of Gaseous and Liquid Effluents’’, September 2004, Sofia, Bulgaria.
3. Technology transfer IAEA plays very important role in facilitating technology transfer in the field of nuclear and radiation technology. The fact that Agency supported establishment or upgrading of 80 from approximately 160 industrial gamma irradiators being in operation all over the world demonstrates that AgencyÕs role has global dimension. Intercomparison programme IDAS established a cooperative network with a bigger
number of plants, even though situated in developed countries (which are not the recipients of TC projects). The scientific and technical content of TC projects is evaluated by NA Department and IACS is responsible for the programmes in the field of radiation and isotopes applications. Due to the number of the projects being implemented (number comes from the needs of the Member States), this is one of the most important fields regarding technology transfer. The main philosophy of the radiation technology implementation in the developing country should follow a ‘‘step by step’’ procedure. Laboratory and manpower infrastructure should be established first. We do not refer to safety and radiological protection standards, which should be in place. Beside the human resources development (through training courses, fellowships and scientific visits), an academic programme has to be implemented or some personnel hired that were educated abroad. Sterilization, irradiation of natural products is the technology that starts mostly application in any country. Therefore, irradiator (could be pilot scale – gamma or electron beam), dosimetry and microbiological laboratories are the first units to be established as the second step. The technology transfer/implementation programme always has to consider local conditions and legislation. It would be a big mistake to start with the implementation of the most exciting environment protection technologies (not necessary using radiation component) in the country where limits regarding emission of pollutants do not exist or are not foreseen to be in force in the nearest future. Implementation of the infrastructure following the scheme ‘‘laboratory – pilot – industrial irradiator’’ is the most appropriate. The implementation of radiation technology without irradiator fails. However, the country should be responsible and Agency should help in keeping irradiator in the good shape. Its activity (gamma) or beam power (accelerator) should be retained at the nominal level. Nothing hurts technology implementation more than the fact that companies that were using
A.G. Chmielewski, M. Haji-Saeid / Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Res. B 236 (2005) 38–43
the technology for sterilization or hygenization of their products have to look for other opportunities (gas, heat). Unfortunately, changes in transport regulations affect source replenishment very much [2,3]. Electron beam accelerators have to be maintained and serviced in proper way. This is the sole responsibility of the country. Regional projects, even addressed to the different subjects, should consider the infrastructure evaluation component as well as the status of infrastructure reviewed in Country Programme Framework (CPF). The strong radiation processing centers established in different countries such as JAERI, Takasaki, Japan; INCT, Warsaw, Poland [4]; MINT, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia [5]; BRIT, Mumbai, India; IPEN, Sao Paulo, Brazil; KAERI, Tajeon, ROK; YTRC, Yazd, Iran; NRCT, Cairo, Egypt [6] etc. play important role in the radiation technology development through contribution to R&D, fellowship training and providing experts. Mentioned earlier limitations regarding ‘‘step by step’’ development of nuclear or radiation technology do not impose any restrictions regarding the basic research in the field. It can be carried out in the field of national research/academic programmes and AgencyÕs Research Coordinated Projects (CRPs). CRPs serve developing countries for a platform where research contracts holders exchange information and collaborate with top rank laboratories/universities from the developed countries (research Agreement holders). The results of CRPs should form basis for further R&D and TC projects implementation. It is important to mention that in many cases scientists from the developed countries gain a lot from their colleagues representing less developed regions.
4. Training and education IAEA is supporting R&D and education in the field of radiation chemistry and technology, however, do not intend to replace academic programs in the field. Therefore, IAEA welcomes such programmes as International Master Course on Industrial Applications of the Ionizing Radiations, Radioisotope Techniques, Environmental Radiochemistry, Radioprotection, Decommissioning
41
organized in the frame of European School of Advanced Studies on Nuclear and Ionizing Radiation Technology, University of Pavia, Italy. On the other hand, Agency is providing training and scientific visits of the fellows from developing countries to the most advanced radiation chemistry and technology centers all over the world. IAEA is organizing annually at least two regional training courses in the field of radiation technology where the most prominent experts deliver the lecturers and perform practical exercises.
5. Recent developments in the field and future programmes The recent developments in the field of radiation technology are presented in the paper delivered as a plenary lecture at IMRP, Chicago, 2003 [7]. The review of activities in the Middle/ East Europe recently published in [8]. Besides, there are some well-established technologies like: • sterilization; • food irradiation (mostly spices and herbs); • polymer cross-linking (cables, thermoshrinkable materials, tires, composites, etc.). There are also new and emerging applications: • • • •
environment protection; natural polymers processing; homeland security; nanotechnology.
In the USA traditionally gamma irradiators play important role in the contract service type business [9]. Some in-house irradiators were phased out there. On the contrary, in Japan the top medical manufacturers (Terumo, Nipro, JMS and Asahi Medical) have in-house irradiators [10]. Contractors in the country (3 gamma and 3 E-Beam) treat only 10% of products sterilized by radiation. Eighty percent capacity of industrial irradiators in North America is being used to sterilize single-use medical devices amounting to 2 millions cubic meters annually. For Japan this
42
A.G. Chmielewski, M. Haji-Saeid / Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Res. B 236 (2005) 38–43
number is equal to 0.6 million cubic meters. IAEA recently published directory of industrial gamma irradiators [11], which however does not cover all existing units. Additional information can be found in MDS Nordion leaflet [12]. According to these sources, more than 160 industrial irradiators are operated in 47 counties (not a full list). The total activity of Co-60 installed is equal to 240 MCi (54 irradiators of total ca.130 MCi are operated in USA and 61 in China, where 13 new units are under construction as well – total activity of the sources operated in this country will be close to 60 MCi [13]). Required yearly replenishment is bigger than 30 MCi Co-60. An important observation [9] is that average capacity, in North America at least, rose from 1 MCi in sixties of XX century, to 3–7 MCi nowadays. However, some low cost compact size multipurpose irradiators are built in other parts of the world [14]. Regarding other ionizing radiation sources – electron beam accelerators, more than 1300 machines are in service, quite often for in house applications [14]. The biggest Japanese manufacturer of surgical gowns, Hogi-Medical, operates in-house 3 E-Beam 10 MeV accelerators. The high power accelerators equipped in e/X converters can be a new breakthrough regarding accelerators applications for high-density material irradiation, even on pallets [15]. These and other applications require new modeling and dose distribution calculation methods [16]. The progress in the field of instrumental and modeling methods may allow to achieve better control of sterility assurance level (SAL) which can allow to apply, if regulated, optimum dose leading to higher throughput, especially in the case of gamma irradiators [17,18]. Sometimes is good to recall basics concerning the dose rate calculations [19] that explain why in the on-line systems almost exclusively electron accelerators are applied. The continuous flow of material irradiators was proposed by different authors [20], were applied in the industrial scale for flue gas [21] and wastewater irradiation [22]. However, low energy accelerators were applied for on-line surface sterilization as well [23]. The new application of radiation is homeland security [24]. This subject was reviewed during
the NATO workshop held in Budapest, Hungary in March 2004. Regarding environmental application possible reduction of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) by electron beam or combined processes is being studied. Final success depends on clear demonstration of toxicity reduction [25] and economical feasibility e.g. by the hybrid processes applications [26]. The natural polymer radiation treated products [27] and nanotechnology [28] are other emerging applications.
6. Conclusions The International Atomic Energy Agency contribution to the radiation technology transfer is tremendous. Technical Cooperation Projects and Coordinated Research Projects play the most important role in the technology and science transfer to the developing countries. Through its consultants, experts, technical meetings and conferences the Agency facilitate review of recent trends in the technology development and prepare recommendation regarding their implementation. Training courses, fellowships, scientific visits and expertsÕ missions lead to the formation of the skilled manpower and form platform for international collaboration of the Member States. The programmes of IAEA follow the most recent developments in the field of radiation processing and are oriented towards healthcare improvement, environment protection and contribute to the economical development of the world.
References [1] IAEA, Emerging applications of radiation processing, TECDOC-1386, Vienna, Austria, 2004. [2] N. Bennett et al., Radiat. Phys. Chem. 71 (1–2) (2004) 557. [3] P.A. Gray, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 71 (1–2) (2004) 565. [4] Z. Zimek, H.W. Rzewuski, Migdał, Nukleonika 40 (30) (1995) 93. [5] K. Dahlan, in: IAEA, Emerging applications of radiation processing, TECDOC-1386, Vienna, Austria, 2004, p. 27. [6] R.M. Yousri, in: IAEA, Emerging applications of radiation processing, TECDOC-1386, Vienna, Austria, 2004, p. 36.
A.G. Chmielewski, M. Haji-Saeid / Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Res. B 236 (2005) 38–43 [7] A.G. Chmielewski, M. Haji-Saeid, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 71 (1–2) (2004) 17. [8] A.G. Chmielewski, Radiat. Ind. 100 (2003) 50, in Japanese. [9] J. Masefield, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 71 (1–2) (2004) 8. [10] T. Takahashi, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 70 (1–2) (2004) 539. [11] IAEA, Directory of Commercial Radiation Processing Facilities in Member States, DGPF/CD Vienna, Austria, 2003. [12] Nordion, Supplies of Contract Irradiation Services, Ottawa, Canada, 2003. [13] N. Zhu, Ch. Wang, W. Teng, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 71 (1–2) (2004) 591. [14] W.A.P. Calvo et al., Radiat. Phys. Chem. 71 (1–2) (2004) 561. [15] Z. Zimek, A.G. Chmielewski, Nukleonika 38 (2) (1993) 3. [16] Y. Jongen et al., in: IAEA, Emerging applications of radiation processing, TECDOC-1386, Vienna, Austria, 2004, p. 44. [17] J. Mittendorfer, M. Colon, F. Gratzl, in: IAEA, Emerging applications of radiation processing, TECDOC-1386, Vienna, Austria, 2004, p. 94.
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[18] J.P. Connaghan et al., Radiat. Phys. Chem. 71 (1–2) (2004). [19] C.M. Deeley, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 71 (1–2) (2004). [20] A. Berejka, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 71 (1–2) (2004). [21] A.G. Chmielewski et al., Radiat. Phys. Chem. 71 (1–2) (2004) 439. [22] I.E. Makarov, A.V. Ponomarev, B. Han, in: IAEA, Emerging applications of radiation processing, TECDOC-1386, Vienna, Austria, 2004, p. 138. [23] D. Morisseau, F. Malcom, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 71 (1–2) (2004). [24] M.F. Desrosiers, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 71 (1–2) (2004) 479. [25] A.G. Chmielewski, Y. Sun, S. Bulka, Z. Zimek, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 71 (1–2) (2004) 435. [26] J. Kim et al., Rad. Phys. Chem. 71 (1–2) (2004) 429. [27] IAEA, Radiation processing of polysaccharides, TECDOC-1422, Vienna, Austria, 2004. [28] Emerging Applications of Radiation in Nanotechnology, in: Proceedings of a CM, held in Bologna, Italy, 22–25 March 2004, IAEA, Vienna, 2004.
IAEA programme in the field of radiation technology Andrzej G. Chmielewski *, Mohammad Haji-Saeid Industrial Application and Chemistry Section, NAPC, NA International Atomic Energy Agency, Wagramer Straße 5, A-1400 Vienna, Austria Available online 23 May 2005
‘‘The TC Programme is a principal mechanism for implementing the IAEA’s fundamental mission: ‘Atoms for Peace’. Not only do we seek to ensure that nuclear materials and equipment are used peacefully and safely, but we are also committed to expand the contribution that nuclear technologies make to peace and development’’. IAEA Director General – Mohamed ElBaradei Abstract Radiation technologies applying gamma sources and electron accelerators for material modification are well-established processes. There are over 160 gamma industrial irradiators and 1300 electron industrial accelerators in operation worldwide. A new advancement in the field of radiation sources engineering is the development of high power direct e /X conversion sources based on electron accelerators. Technologies to be developed beside environmental applications could be nanomaterials, structure engineered materials (sorbents, composites, ordered polymers, etc.) and natural polymersÕ processing. New products based on radiationprocessed polysaccharides have already been commercialised in many countries of the East Asia and Pacific Region, especially in those being rich in natural polymers. Very important and promising applications concern environmental protection–radiation technology, being a clean and environment friendly process, helps to curb pollutantsÕ emission as well. Industrial plants for flue gas treatment have been constructed in Poland and China. The pilot plant in Bulgaria using this technology has just started its operation. The Polish plant is equipped with accelerators of over 1 MW power, a breakthrough in radiation technology application. The industrial plant for wastewater treatment is under development in Korea and a pilot plant for sewage sludge irradiation has been in operation in India for many years. Due to recent developments, the Agency has restructured its programme and organized a Technical Meeting (TM) on ‘‘Emerging Applications of Radiation Technology for the 21st Century’’ at its Headquarters in Vienna, Austria, in April 2003, to review the present situation and possible developments of radiation technology to contribute to a sustainable development. This meeting provided the basic input to launch others in the most important fields of radiation technology applications: ‘‘Advances in Radiation Chemistry of Polymers’’ (Notre Dame, USA, September 2003), ‘‘Status of Industrial Scale Radiation Treatment of Wastewater’’ (Taejon, Republic of Korea, October 2003), ‘‘Radiation Processing of Polysaccharides’’ (Takasaki, Japan, November 2003), ‘‘Emerging Applications of Radiation
*
Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (A.G. Chmielewski).
0168-583X/$ - see front matter 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.nimb.2005.03.246
A.G. Chmielewski, M. Haji-Saeid / Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Res. B 236 (2005) 38–43
39
in Nanotechnology’’ (Bologna, Italy, March 2004) and ‘‘Radiation Processing of Gaseous and Liquid Effluents’’ (Sofia, Bulgaria, September 2004). The Agency is presently supervising three Coordinated Research Projects on radiation wastewater treatment, radiation synthesis stimuli-responsive hydrogels for separation purposes and degradation effects of polymers. The role of this technology for a sustainable development is well illustrated by the fact that over 30 technical cooperation projects (including three regional ones) were accomplished in the years 2003–2004 and several new projects are being expected for the new cycle 2005–2006. Detailed analyses of the results of both, regular and TC programmes, laid the foundation for formulation of the new programme for the years 2006–2007. The emphasis will be put on nanotechnology, natural polymers, environment and health protection, including combat with hazardous bioagents. 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction The simplified IAEA organizational chart is presented in Fig. 1. Due to the recent developments in some regions of the world, safeguards, safety and security related Agency activities are widely publicized. However, two departments – Department of Nuclear Energy (NE) and Department of Nuclear Sciences & Applications (NA) – contribute to the worldwide nuclear sciences and technology development. Through NA, jointly with institutes and laboratories worldwide, the IAEA supports R&D on critical problems facing developing countries. Work targets food, health, water, environment and high tech areas where nuclear and radiation technologies can make a difference. Where they hold comparative advantages, nuclear sciences and technology have become preferred – and sometimes the only – solutions to many problems hindering development in poorer countries. Three IAEA Departments (TC, NA and NE) lead programmes in fields of nuclear science and technology. The first Technical Cooperation Department implements TC national, regional and interregional projects through workshops, training
courses, fellowships, scientific visits, expert missions and procurement of equipment. The projects from technical and scientific point of view are supervised by Technical Officers who belongs to mentioned disciplinary departments. These departments run own programmes, which are implemented through coordinated research projects, symposia and conferences, technical and consultants meetings. The important outputs of the programme are technical reports, TECDOCs and other publications. Industrial Applications and Chemistry Section, Division of Physical and Chemical Sciences is a section that deals with radiopharmaceuticals, nuclear analytical techniques, radiation technologies, radiotracers and nucleonic control systems and, finally, nondestructive testing. Among 850–900 active TC projects 130–140 are supervised by the section, 28 (including three regional) projects are devoted to the radiation technology implementation (in some periods of the present cycle number of active projects was over 30). For a new cycle 2005–2006 18 new (including four regional) TC projects related to the radiation technology implementation were proposed. Three Coordinated Research Projects (in each approximately 10 teams from developing
DIRECTOR GENERAL
Department of Technical Cooperation
Department of Nuclear Energy
Department of Management
Department of Nuclear Safety and Security
Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications
Fig. 1. Simplified organizational chart of the IAEA.
Department of Safeguards
40
A.G. Chmielewski, M. Haji-Saeid / Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Res. B 236 (2005) 38–43
and developed countries participate) cover subjects related to the synthesis of stimuli-responsive hydrogels for separation purposes, degradation of polymers and wastewater treatment.
2. Experts’ and technical meetings Regular and TC programmes are implemented in biannual cycles. Cycle 2003–2004 is implemented now and its inauguration started with the meeting on ‘‘Emerging applications of radiation technologies for 21st century’’, April 2003, Vienna, Austria [1]. The general tendency and foreseen applications of radiation technology was discussed during the meeting. The results and recommendations lead to organization and execution of the meetings on the most important issues, such as • Consultants Meeting (CT) on ‘‘Advances in Radiation Processing of Polymers’’, September 2003, Notre Dame, IN, USA. • Consultants Meeting (CT) on ‘‘Status of Industrial Scale Radiation Treatment of Wastewater’’, October 2003, Daejon, Republic of Korea. • Consultants Meeting (CT) on ‘‘Radiation Processing of Polysaccharides’’, November 2003, Takasaki, Japan. • Consultants Meeting (CT) on ‘‘Emerging Applications of Radiation in Nanotechnology’’, March 2004, Bologna, Italy. • ConsultantsÕ Meeting (CT) on ‘‘Radiation Processing of Gaseous and Liquid Effluents’’, September 2004, Sofia, Bulgaria.
3. Technology transfer IAEA plays very important role in facilitating technology transfer in the field of nuclear and radiation technology. The fact that Agency supported establishment or upgrading of 80 from approximately 160 industrial gamma irradiators being in operation all over the world demonstrates that AgencyÕs role has global dimension. Intercomparison programme IDAS established a cooperative network with a bigger
number of plants, even though situated in developed countries (which are not the recipients of TC projects). The scientific and technical content of TC projects is evaluated by NA Department and IACS is responsible for the programmes in the field of radiation and isotopes applications. Due to the number of the projects being implemented (number comes from the needs of the Member States), this is one of the most important fields regarding technology transfer. The main philosophy of the radiation technology implementation in the developing country should follow a ‘‘step by step’’ procedure. Laboratory and manpower infrastructure should be established first. We do not refer to safety and radiological protection standards, which should be in place. Beside the human resources development (through training courses, fellowships and scientific visits), an academic programme has to be implemented or some personnel hired that were educated abroad. Sterilization, irradiation of natural products is the technology that starts mostly application in any country. Therefore, irradiator (could be pilot scale – gamma or electron beam), dosimetry and microbiological laboratories are the first units to be established as the second step. The technology transfer/implementation programme always has to consider local conditions and legislation. It would be a big mistake to start with the implementation of the most exciting environment protection technologies (not necessary using radiation component) in the country where limits regarding emission of pollutants do not exist or are not foreseen to be in force in the nearest future. Implementation of the infrastructure following the scheme ‘‘laboratory – pilot – industrial irradiator’’ is the most appropriate. The implementation of radiation technology without irradiator fails. However, the country should be responsible and Agency should help in keeping irradiator in the good shape. Its activity (gamma) or beam power (accelerator) should be retained at the nominal level. Nothing hurts technology implementation more than the fact that companies that were using
A.G. Chmielewski, M. Haji-Saeid / Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Res. B 236 (2005) 38–43
the technology for sterilization or hygenization of their products have to look for other opportunities (gas, heat). Unfortunately, changes in transport regulations affect source replenishment very much [2,3]. Electron beam accelerators have to be maintained and serviced in proper way. This is the sole responsibility of the country. Regional projects, even addressed to the different subjects, should consider the infrastructure evaluation component as well as the status of infrastructure reviewed in Country Programme Framework (CPF). The strong radiation processing centers established in different countries such as JAERI, Takasaki, Japan; INCT, Warsaw, Poland [4]; MINT, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia [5]; BRIT, Mumbai, India; IPEN, Sao Paulo, Brazil; KAERI, Tajeon, ROK; YTRC, Yazd, Iran; NRCT, Cairo, Egypt [6] etc. play important role in the radiation technology development through contribution to R&D, fellowship training and providing experts. Mentioned earlier limitations regarding ‘‘step by step’’ development of nuclear or radiation technology do not impose any restrictions regarding the basic research in the field. It can be carried out in the field of national research/academic programmes and AgencyÕs Research Coordinated Projects (CRPs). CRPs serve developing countries for a platform where research contracts holders exchange information and collaborate with top rank laboratories/universities from the developed countries (research Agreement holders). The results of CRPs should form basis for further R&D and TC projects implementation. It is important to mention that in many cases scientists from the developed countries gain a lot from their colleagues representing less developed regions.
4. Training and education IAEA is supporting R&D and education in the field of radiation chemistry and technology, however, do not intend to replace academic programs in the field. Therefore, IAEA welcomes such programmes as International Master Course on Industrial Applications of the Ionizing Radiations, Radioisotope Techniques, Environmental Radiochemistry, Radioprotection, Decommissioning
41
organized in the frame of European School of Advanced Studies on Nuclear and Ionizing Radiation Technology, University of Pavia, Italy. On the other hand, Agency is providing training and scientific visits of the fellows from developing countries to the most advanced radiation chemistry and technology centers all over the world. IAEA is organizing annually at least two regional training courses in the field of radiation technology where the most prominent experts deliver the lecturers and perform practical exercises.
5. Recent developments in the field and future programmes The recent developments in the field of radiation technology are presented in the paper delivered as a plenary lecture at IMRP, Chicago, 2003 [7]. The review of activities in the Middle/ East Europe recently published in [8]. Besides, there are some well-established technologies like: • sterilization; • food irradiation (mostly spices and herbs); • polymer cross-linking (cables, thermoshrinkable materials, tires, composites, etc.). There are also new and emerging applications: • • • •
environment protection; natural polymers processing; homeland security; nanotechnology.
In the USA traditionally gamma irradiators play important role in the contract service type business [9]. Some in-house irradiators were phased out there. On the contrary, in Japan the top medical manufacturers (Terumo, Nipro, JMS and Asahi Medical) have in-house irradiators [10]. Contractors in the country (3 gamma and 3 E-Beam) treat only 10% of products sterilized by radiation. Eighty percent capacity of industrial irradiators in North America is being used to sterilize single-use medical devices amounting to 2 millions cubic meters annually. For Japan this
42
A.G. Chmielewski, M. Haji-Saeid / Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Res. B 236 (2005) 38–43
number is equal to 0.6 million cubic meters. IAEA recently published directory of industrial gamma irradiators [11], which however does not cover all existing units. Additional information can be found in MDS Nordion leaflet [12]. According to these sources, more than 160 industrial irradiators are operated in 47 counties (not a full list). The total activity of Co-60 installed is equal to 240 MCi (54 irradiators of total ca.130 MCi are operated in USA and 61 in China, where 13 new units are under construction as well – total activity of the sources operated in this country will be close to 60 MCi [13]). Required yearly replenishment is bigger than 30 MCi Co-60. An important observation [9] is that average capacity, in North America at least, rose from 1 MCi in sixties of XX century, to 3–7 MCi nowadays. However, some low cost compact size multipurpose irradiators are built in other parts of the world [14]. Regarding other ionizing radiation sources – electron beam accelerators, more than 1300 machines are in service, quite often for in house applications [14]. The biggest Japanese manufacturer of surgical gowns, Hogi-Medical, operates in-house 3 E-Beam 10 MeV accelerators. The high power accelerators equipped in e/X converters can be a new breakthrough regarding accelerators applications for high-density material irradiation, even on pallets [15]. These and other applications require new modeling and dose distribution calculation methods [16]. The progress in the field of instrumental and modeling methods may allow to achieve better control of sterility assurance level (SAL) which can allow to apply, if regulated, optimum dose leading to higher throughput, especially in the case of gamma irradiators [17,18]. Sometimes is good to recall basics concerning the dose rate calculations [19] that explain why in the on-line systems almost exclusively electron accelerators are applied. The continuous flow of material irradiators was proposed by different authors [20], were applied in the industrial scale for flue gas [21] and wastewater irradiation [22]. However, low energy accelerators were applied for on-line surface sterilization as well [23]. The new application of radiation is homeland security [24]. This subject was reviewed during
the NATO workshop held in Budapest, Hungary in March 2004. Regarding environmental application possible reduction of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) by electron beam or combined processes is being studied. Final success depends on clear demonstration of toxicity reduction [25] and economical feasibility e.g. by the hybrid processes applications [26]. The natural polymer radiation treated products [27] and nanotechnology [28] are other emerging applications.
6. Conclusions The International Atomic Energy Agency contribution to the radiation technology transfer is tremendous. Technical Cooperation Projects and Coordinated Research Projects play the most important role in the technology and science transfer to the developing countries. Through its consultants, experts, technical meetings and conferences the Agency facilitate review of recent trends in the technology development and prepare recommendation regarding their implementation. Training courses, fellowships, scientific visits and expertsÕ missions lead to the formation of the skilled manpower and form platform for international collaboration of the Member States. The programmes of IAEA follow the most recent developments in the field of radiation processing and are oriented towards healthcare improvement, environment protection and contribute to the economical development of the world.
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A.G. Chmielewski, M. Haji-Saeid / Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Res. B 236 (2005) 38–43 [7] A.G. Chmielewski, M. Haji-Saeid, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 71 (1–2) (2004) 17. [8] A.G. Chmielewski, Radiat. Ind. 100 (2003) 50, in Japanese. [9] J. Masefield, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 71 (1–2) (2004) 8. [10] T. Takahashi, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 70 (1–2) (2004) 539. [11] IAEA, Directory of Commercial Radiation Processing Facilities in Member States, DGPF/CD Vienna, Austria, 2003. [12] Nordion, Supplies of Contract Irradiation Services, Ottawa, Canada, 2003. [13] N. Zhu, Ch. Wang, W. Teng, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 71 (1–2) (2004) 591. [14] W.A.P. Calvo et al., Radiat. Phys. Chem. 71 (1–2) (2004) 561. [15] Z. Zimek, A.G. Chmielewski, Nukleonika 38 (2) (1993) 3. [16] Y. Jongen et al., in: IAEA, Emerging applications of radiation processing, TECDOC-1386, Vienna, Austria, 2004, p. 44. [17] J. Mittendorfer, M. Colon, F. Gratzl, in: IAEA, Emerging applications of radiation processing, TECDOC-1386, Vienna, Austria, 2004, p. 94.
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[18] J.P. Connaghan et al., Radiat. Phys. Chem. 71 (1–2) (2004). [19] C.M. Deeley, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 71 (1–2) (2004). [20] A. Berejka, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 71 (1–2) (2004). [21] A.G. Chmielewski et al., Radiat. Phys. Chem. 71 (1–2) (2004) 439. [22] I.E. Makarov, A.V. Ponomarev, B. Han, in: IAEA, Emerging applications of radiation processing, TECDOC-1386, Vienna, Austria, 2004, p. 138. [23] D. Morisseau, F. Malcom, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 71 (1–2) (2004). [24] M.F. Desrosiers, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 71 (1–2) (2004) 479. [25] A.G. Chmielewski, Y. Sun, S. Bulka, Z. Zimek, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 71 (1–2) (2004) 435. [26] J. Kim et al., Rad. Phys. Chem. 71 (1–2) (2004) 429. [27] IAEA, Radiation processing of polysaccharides, TECDOC-1422, Vienna, Austria, 2004. [28] Emerging Applications of Radiation in Nanotechnology, in: Proceedings of a CM, held in Bologna, Italy, 22–25 March 2004, IAEA, Vienna, 2004.