- Email: [email protected]
International conference — Ergonomics and transport
Conference International ConferenceErgonomics and transport University College of Swansea,8-12 September 1980 Overlooking the delightful Swansea Bay with its passing ships and encircling communications, 200 delegates from as far away as Argentina and Hong Kong settled in for a lively conference of intense interchange. Over 100 papers were presented in up to four parallel symposia ranging from aviation and mining to maritime ergonomics. Dr Ivan Brown of the MRC Applied Psychology Unit at Cambridge in the opening address stressed the great potential for ergonomics to improve the quality of transport systems in meeting the needs of society. The 1979 cost of UK road accidents was £1,730 million, with as many as many as 800 lives and 1200 casualties caused simply because front seat belt wearing was not compulsory. This terrible waste also inhibited the effectiveness of other research work. Dr Brown emphasised the need to narrow the gap between psychology and law.
described predictor equations for comfort in various vehicles, and asserted that comfort scales are the most appropriate way to measure subjective ride quality. Here motion along or about the three principal axes must be analysed simultaneously. Consisten.t individual differences exist on the causes of discomfort. William Conner followed with a general overview of the importance of passenger comfort in the factors which affect the development of a transport system. In particular reference was made to the way in which the interpretation of what is comfortable varies enormously, whilst what is 'acceptable' may remain 'constant'.
The symposium concluded with two papers which looked at research work still to be done. The first was presented by Prof Richards on behalf of Dr Kuhlthau and the second by Dr Pepler, Dunlop and Associates, on the relationship between exposure to shock and vibration and the health of American truck drivers. Both papers emphasised that future work must develop and validate methods by which the user's environment can be viewed as a totality, no longer can components Passengercomfort be considered in isolation. Kuhlthau's On the psychology of comfort, paper called for greater accuracy with Prof Richards, Virginia University, measurement of vehicle motion and characterised comfort as a psychological identification of user characteristics. state separated from purely Pepler's paper was based on a feasibility physiological concerns. He discussed study which recommended a major the influence of journey time on investigation of primarily an comfort tolerance, long term exposures epidemiological nature, including health and extreme discomfort such as jet lag and occupational details and matched and motion sickness. The interdependence groups in the general population. of activity and comfort was emphasised. Barry Myers followed by stressing how Driver behaviour time and comfort were interdependent In the analysis of driving and for most intercity travellers. His paper accidents, Alistair Risk, Newcastle was co-authored with B. Marshall at University, stated that 60% of British their Montreal Transportation accidents occur as collisions between Development Centre. They modelled vehicles. Hazard data such as vehicle cost, time, convenience and comfort positions and manoeuvres can be attributes for choices between rail, bus correlated with accident locations. and aircraft. During 'normal' driving such hazards Models of ride quality on advanced had correlated highly with accident ground transportation systems were records and road variables. assessed by Dr Pepler, E. Sussman and Dr Lewis, Birmingham University, Prof Richards. The effects of presented a useful systems case study decelerations and jerks on comfort were of 'Motorway madness'. He suggested reviewed. Dr Stark, Boeing Marine that the out-cry which follows multiple Systems, also considered ride quality rear end collisions in fog is misplaced, but for lower frequencies, especially while their frequency and severity below 1 Hz. He stressed the absolute have decreased. Exhorting drivers to necessity of a comprehensive statistical drive slower in fog is counter productive. approach to evaluate ship riding Of the three alternatives, closing motorproperties. ways, grouping vehicles in police convoys Prof Richards presented a paper or doing nothing, the latter, coupled co-authored by Ira Jacobs and Dr with better information and conspicuity, Kuhlthau, Virginia University. This was recommended.
'Accident proneness' was supported after statistical analysis of 427 bus and lorry drivers' accident data. Nevertheless, P. Henderson of Belfast's Queens University expressed concern over environmental controls and the need for training. The Negative Binomial rather than the Poisson distribution gave a better fit to observed accident distribution. Munich University's Dr Bubb showed a film of their head-up display indicating emergency braking distances. The position of a light bar on the windscreen was calculated by velocity and friction coefficient. The experimenters expected drivers to use the bar in complex traffic conditions to choose safe speeds. A knowledge test with slides of simple real-traffic situations was found to correlate higher with driver performance than the conventional Dutch test by Dr Veling, Institute for Perception. The new cognitive test required action decisions and could prevent many new driver accidents. Prof O'Hanlon, Groningen University, stated that drug users are over-represented among severely injured and killed drivers in accidents. He questioned the limited value of previous research and called for a standard, objective method to assess effects of psychoactive drugs. The 'zero risk' model was challenged by Dr Brown, MRC. Instead his thesis included the perceived probability of correcting errors to determine subjective risk. The manipulation of objective and subjective risk thresholds might change anxiety levels only. Studies had shown young drivers seriously overestimating their own abilities and hazard perceptions. Error correction depended on the probability of detection and prosecution. Prof Michon, Groningen University, overviewed the symposium by contrasting new drivers' reduced acceptance of authority with an increased feeling of shared responsibility in the egalitarian Dutch society. Ergonomic implications included more explicit task analyses stressing cognitive requirements.
Maritime ergonomics The symposium was opened by Dr Broome and L. Marshall, University College London, who reported on the assessment of ship course-keeping performance with variation in environmental disturbance. They suggested that ship's personnel should be trained to tune the autopilot to suit the operating conditions at every stage of a voyage.
Applied Ergonomics
December 1980
247
Perceptual problems of the mariner were described by J. Prince, Maritime Ergonomics Research Unit, UWlST. She surveyed the 'internal' and 'external' causes of why ship's navigation lights failed to provide sufficient information on size, bearing and relative speed of a vessel. From the same UWIST Unit, P. Reeve presented J. Smalley's paper on an evaluation of the Decca Nocturnal Ship Simulator for the Department of Industry. A group of pilots was used to compare real and simulated voyages. Relevant training purposes and programmes were considered.
aimed at evaluating a variety of car seats. An enormous quantity of information was presented which detracted from the essence of the presentation. Field interviews, laboratory studies and field studies were described which included the observations that short periods for tests can highlight significant differences in perceptions of seat comfort and simple mechanical models do not adequately reflect human responses.
Prof Grandjean, ETH Zurich, presented a general summary of ergonomic guidelines for the design of car seats as a result of recent work carried out in Zurich. The guidelines included Simulators were also used in the recommendations for appropriate angles next three papers. First, Dr Schuffel, at the major points of articulation in Dutch Institute for Perception, examined the body and also the assertion that an some effects of information presentation adjustable back rest angle is an absolute on man/ship performance. He used a necessity. Dr Dupuis, Mainz University, model ship and TV camera with and discussed the problem in ambulances of without radar display to study effects supporting patients who, for clinical on controllability. The radar performance reasons, must be insulated from the was less accurate due to suppression of transmission of vibration. He reviewed feed-forward information. Second, Dr the general issue of how the body Michard, INRIA France, discussed responds to vibration and illustrated cognitive ergonomics for a radar-based the phenomena of resonance with an maritime collision avoidance system. interesting film depicting X-ray pictures Results from 16 skilled navigators of stomach movements. His conditions confirmed the hypothesis that a included the point that when patients combination of cues, such as minimum are lying, insulating the head from closing distance, measured uncertainty vibration is the most important of future ship positions. Third, consideration. Liverpool Polytechnic's W. Cannell Dr Rebiffe, Peugeot-Renault, outlined reported on the ergonomics of radar the case for examining passenger seats and regulations in maritime collision • in cars as distinct from the driver's avoidance. Regulations were open to seat and suggested that passenger seats different interpretations. Hence changes could have very different criteria to to ensure more consistent and meet from those associated with the co-operative action were suggested. driver's seat. Whether or not the The symposium concluded with two possibility of different front seats for papers on ship collisions. P. Spurgeon, passengers and drivers would be Aston University, read Prof Kristiansen's accepted by the marketing staff is investigation of Norwegian collisions, another question. while Spurgeon and Kathryn Young, Prof Jurgens, Kiel University, Liverpool Polytechnic, focused on presented a paper on body movements work analysis of n~vigators and of the driver where he summarised a computer-based collision avoidance series of studies which investigated the systems. nature of small involuntary and voluntary body movements. His enquiries Seat and posture revealed that habitual restlessness is an Prof Andersson, Sahlgren Hospital, indicator of comfort both in terms of intensity and the sequence of movements. summarised investigations into sitting posture with particular reference to Other comments included the suggestion that there are hereditary lumbar support. The investigations factors which affect a person's tendency were primarily concerned with to fidget. physiological measures including EMG's and lumbar disc pressure. His principal conclusion was that the Environmental aspects lumbar area of the back should be Volkswagen's Dr Temming proposed supported so that the back took up the thermal conditions which gave same shape in sitting as it normally satisfaction in motor vehicles. He, like would when standing. For a car seat Fanger with his comfort equation, found this could be achieved by having an the extreme complexity of the differing inclined back rest combined with effects of environmental variables. In positive lumbar support. addition, parameters such as the vertical S. Habsburg and L. Middendorf, General Motors, followed with a description of a series of studies
248
Applied Ergonomics
temperature gradient, time dependent variations and moisture characteristics of seating materials were quoted. More
December 1980
data were required, especially on space and time factors. Although automobile air conditioning had increased many times in the USA up to five years ago, the recent change to smaller compact cars had been studied by comparing their hotter and noisier climates with more moderate conditions. Dr Neumann presented a West Virginian paper on this comparative laboratory study, coauthored by M. Romansky and R. Hummer. Task performance, physiological and subjective responses all suffered in the more severe climate. TRRL's D. Cooper and J. Young showed the results from various travellers' assessment of riding comfort over a wide range of road surfaces. A 'comfort charactistic' curve was used to predict acceptance of different vertical accelerations. Some commercial vehicle drivers were found whose exposures to continuous vibration approached ISO limits with possible 'fatigue-decreased proficiency'. Julie Williams and Dylan Jones of UWIST showed that 85dB continuous noise may have detrimental effects on driving skills, especially those using short-term storage. They concluded from recent studies that the magnitude of noise disruption depended upon the driver's control of the noise. Mr Young read B. Rao's, Birmingham University, paper entitled 'Evaluation of visual blur contours of subjects when subjected to whole-body vibration conditions in different postures'. Previous studies had shown considerable disagreement on the extent of visual loss, with Griffin's data quoted as the only general purpose guide. Experiments to correlate subjective judgements of vehicle ride with vibration measurements were described by John Levis in his paper with W. McKinlay, both of Leyland Vehicles. Subjective appraisals were the main data required to set design parameters for vehicle ride. Such data, obtained from rides in six trucks, were validated in the laboratory by John Levis with Colin Carbridge and Michael Griffin of Southampton University. Some bias effects from overall vehicle quality and other characteristics were thus controlled to give similar rank orders of vehicle discomfort. Dr Griffin also measured vibration in passenger cars with K. Parsons, and on board ship with A. Lawther, all from their Southampton ISVR. Equivalent comfort contours obtained previously in the laboratory were used to provide a single weighted value for each of 12 inputs. By comparing the relative effect of each input for each car the causes of vibration discomfort were indicated. In addition, the ship studies have given satisfactory measurements to calculate translational
speed control system, enabled the driver to maintain constant speed using neither throttle nor brake. In b o t h Dr Guignard presented the joint paper cases driver acceptance was reported 'Determining thresholds of human as being high. response to vibration using acceleration sweeps at constant frequency' with P. Pedestrian behaviour Majewski and W. Muzzy, Naval Ivan Brown, MRC, opened the Biodynamics Laboratory, New Orleans. symposium by asking 'Are pedestrians Trials have been conducted up to twice and drivers really compatible?' His paper the ISO 2631 exposure limits. Finally, concluded that certain groups of drivers this standard and the considerable and pedestrians are actually incompatible amount of related laboratory and field and that accidents are an inevitable work were examined by Mike Clarke outcome of their attempts to exist of Swansea University. together. Finally he asked "Can we therefore afford not to segregate?"
m o t i o n s so that passenger surveys may
be related.
Instrumentation and controls Texas Instruments' much publicised speech synthesisers were described by J. Priest and P. Michaelis. The system has the advantage that a great variety of messages can be created more or less instantaneously. However, as was pointed out, there is little ergonomics research into the use of synthesised speech and the application of it will have to be treated with great care.
The approach; methods and measures taken during observation of behaviour at road crpssings were discussed by Anne Rennie, Institute for Consumer Ergonomics, and John Wilson, Birmingham University. The difficulties, especially data analysis, of video and film were stressed, together with their use to develop scoring procedure before direct hand recording.
knowledge and actions about the major problem of pedestrian accidents and whether anything really changes. The elderly pedestrian, with his high proportional casualty rate, is still traffic safety's mystery man. Previous theoretical explanations had seemed so plausible that they discouraged effective data collection. This complex situation required careful definition and a more rigorous methodology. Pedestrian/driver interactions had shown pedestrians taking far more effective actions to prevent conflicts. Prof Howarth apportioned 'heedless' behaviour mainly to the driver rather than the child.
Transport for the elderly and handicapped Dr Richards opened the symposium. His paper, co-authored by L. Hoel and E. Foulke, was concerned with the problems that the visually and auditorily impaired encounter when gaining access to public transport, particularly at large termini. The paper outlined some of the general problems and highlighted the need for specific research into the area. Mr Conner followed with an interesting example of how the development of a technical specification by ill-advised persons can lead to almost irresolvable conflicts. In this case it was the US Government's outline specification for an urban bus which could accommodate those with physical disabilities. A clear case was made for the application of sound ergonomics principles at an early stage in order to resolve the discrepancies.
The next three papers examined children's road safety education. First, Stephen Barbour, UWlST, looked at opinions; second, Barbara Preston, Manchester Polytechnic, its effectiveness; and third, David Sheppard, TRRL, the development of methods. Mr Barbour reported general dissatisfaction from teachers with no real improvements. Road safety occupied less than 15 min weekly with half of these lessons on the Green Cross Code. Usually the one annual speaker was a policeman and not a road safety officer, who should instead guide parents and teachers directly. Mrs Dr Heron, Queen's University, Dr Jensen, Ohio University, described Preston also stressed the ineffectiveness Edmonton, then presented a report an aircraft analogue display during of child education, particularly the on development work carried out in landing. A predictor was incorporated Green Cross Code. She recommended Canada on a user hdministered wheelwhich gave the aircraft position 8 s into rewording to stop children at the kerb, chair restraint system for railway the future. A video recording of the but generally more responsibility to be carriages. The development included placed on drivers and safer environments. display was used to good effect to Again, Dr Sheppard was unhappy with the a user evaluation which demonstrated illustrate the dynamic characteristics the viability of the system but also Code and also artificial training areas. of the display. Pilots were reported revealed certain shortcomings in the Real roads, playgrounds and classrooms as being well satisfied with the system design which are now the subject of were preferred to develop safe and and had little or no difficulty adapting further work. It also confirmed yet effective attitudes. to it during simulated flights. again the wisdom of conducting such Away from the school, Tony Chapman, studies before designs are finaIised. Vision through vehicle windscreens Frances Wade and Hugh F o o t , UWlST, Mr P. Pilgram, representing the was discussed by Dr Benel, UrbanaNetherlands Government, described Champaign University. He was concerned had observed doubled exposure to traffic for boys than girls and hence increased the general provisions for the disabled that drivers might tend to focus on accident rates. The heedless and traveller in the Netherlands in terms of small objects on their windscreens adventurous running male stereotype legislation, financial assistance and rather than distant objects. However, had not been proven. Once again parental various government schemes. Mrs Galer this is likely to be a problem only when education was recommended, especially presented a paper on behalf of Mrs the general view lacks definition. When for playing just outside the home. Morris and Mr Feeney which described the view includes detail which allows drivers to perceive relative sizes In the final section, Dr Grayson, TRRL, a study of the problems that the handicapped actually experience when accurately, there appears to be little to read Diane Firth's paper on the using public transport. worry about. methodological problems in pedestrian research and his own paper on the Dr Schulze, Volkswagen, described elderly pedestrian, while Prof Howarth Aviation ergonomics two recent developments - one for steering and the other for speed control. and Angela Lightburn, Nottingham Dr Chorley, Smiths Industries, The first was related to the car's velocity University, explained h o w pedestrians showed recent developments in airborne to allow sensitive steering throughout respond more to drivers than vice versa. displays. Flight trials with CRTs and the speed range. The second, a remote Ms Firth, Windsor, questioned our associated ergonomics problems were
Mrs Galer, Institute for Consumer Ergonomics, presented a paper, coa u t h o r e d by A. Baines and G. Simmonds, which described studies into the use of electronic instrument displays in cars. Simulated instrument displays were presented to establish in broad terms what type of display would be best suited for drivers. The principal conclusion was that a digital display was the best form since it was read more accurately and more easily, and was preferred over any of the others presented.
Applied Ergonomics
December 1980
249
discussed, with work on light emitting diodes and liquid crystal devices. Ergonomics for the pilot at his mental and physiological limits in an advanced fighter cockpit was considered by G. Roe, British Aerospace. Aircrew anthropometrics, data display/control to 'reduce' pilot workload, and the impact of the physical environment were all included. Mr Martin, British Aerospace, followed with the difficult compromise necessary under the influence of extreme ambient illuminations on cockpit displays. New techniques have helped and hindered the situation in combat aircraft where the crew needs to see the outside world at all times.
Improvements in the design of children's tricycles by increasing stability and safety were described. The only paper at the conference dealing with the vulnerable twowheeled vehicles was presented by Dr Watts, TRRL. He reviewed test methods to evaluate conspicuity aids for cyclists and motor cyclists. A nonfluorescent yellow jacket was found to facilitate detection against dark backgrounds.
tyre/road surface relationships. A resurfaced Hammersmith Flyover had shown a big decrease in accidents. The Wisconsin forklift study highlighted the major problem up to 45% of all industrial accidents from handling. Solution areas included traffic flow, replacement and maintenance, pay and training.
Commercial vehicle accidents, seat belts in heavy trucks and professional drivers' environment were considered respectively by J. Zlotnicki and T. Hutchinson, MIRA; K. H~Sgstrbm, Dr Hiba, Rosario University, Volvo Sweden; B. Moren and K. Rumar, Argentina, reported an investigation to NRTRI Sweden. Various HGV accidents ascertain the preferred angle of a were shown to be due to poor conspicuity, headrest using a passenger seat for mirror blind spots, and loss of control coaches. Angles between 4 ° and 12 ° with locked steering columns. were chosen as more comfortable. Mr H~igstrbm stated that a three point Dr Wheale, RAF, IAM, warned of A joint paper with I. Hindmarch safety belt could decrease severe injuries the implications of pilot opinion on was presented by A. Gudgeon, Leeds in 74% of Volvo truck accidents. The flight deck warning systems. The University, on the effects of two drugs steering wheel was the single item which responses from commercial pilots to on car driving behaviour. Lorazepam, had caused most injuries. The large questionnaires, with semantic differential scale Swedish environmental project a 1,4 benzodiazepine produced impairscales, on types of warnings were also ment of tasks and of subjective alertness, is investigating minimum acceptable reported. while clobazam, a 1,5 derivative produced limits for climate, noise, infrasound, Helmet mounted displays in neither impairment. vibration, lighting, visibility, instruments helicopters were described by A. Harding, and controls. Westland Helicopters. Generally, pilots Heavy goods vehicles Mr Brennan presented a paper cohad approved an LED matrix display Dr Fuller, Trinity College, Dublin, authored.with M. Tait, University because it had reduced instrument reported on the effects of different College London, on medium sized monitoring time and hence increased HGV work demands. Field results goods vehicle accidents. About one external viewing. showed that prolonged driving is not third had occurred in yards and delivery In the final two papers, A. Hulme, necessarily unsafe and that fatigue areas, while much damage had resulted Redifon Simulation, dealt with civil effects may not follow~a simple from collisions with low bridges and flight simulation, and David Hopkin, incremental progression. Nevertheless, beams. RAF, IAM, covered air traffic control, road haulage is more than twice as Finally, Mr John, Cranfield including very accurate simulations. dangerous as manufacturing industry, Institute of Technology, reported Pressure from airlines had preceded stated Dr McDonald, Trinity College. attempts to use road haulage vehicle an American proposal to introduce a He noted increased shiftworking, often weights to disaggregate national accident total simulation plan. Implications of 16 h per day, and also truck drivers figures.. more at risk from single vehicle accidents, automation which tend to cause man especially at night. to become more passive and isolated, hence reducipg knowledge and recall, Prof O'Hanlon, Groningen University, Anthropometry in transport were raised. This symposium commenced with presented his paper on critical tracking Mr J. Levis, Leyland Vehicles, task (CTT) sensitivity and read R. describing the advantages and potential Mackie's joint paper with J. Miller, pitfalls which users of computer aided California, entitled 'Driver fatigue as a 'Motoring Which' car testing design systems can encounter. He function of driving times, regularity The contributors to this symposium stressed the importance of sound schedules and participation in cargowere, in order of presentation, Mr J. management in the use of such systems. load'. Jex's CTT lowest frequency Reynolds of Motoring Which, Prof B. correlated with greatest subjective Shackel, Loughborough University, Ms C. Haslegrave, MIRA, described fatigue ratings for irregular schedules, and Mr F. Brigham, TUV Koln. The an example of using computer aided particularly during early morning hours. contributors discussed the current car design techniques in identifying the Similar responses to irregular schedules testing programme, the setting up of appropriate position for a car seat belt. were stressed in the American paper. the Human Factors Questionnaire, and Mr M. Porter, Loughborough University, the problems involved in handling the followed with a description of the data, respectively. The session clearly SAMMIE computer aided design system Vehicle safety illustrated the problems involved in developed at Nottingham University. The first three papers in this accumulating and analysing large He outlined several projects carried symposium dealt with: commercial quantities of data, as well as the vehicle spray protectors by Dr Sandberg, out using the system, which in essence considerable benefit derived from the were concerned with 'fitting the user' NRTRI Sweden; tyre/road properties questionnaire when vehicles as a whole into a workspace and identifying by Dr A. Williams, Dunlop; and have to be assessed. discrepancies and conflicts. It was powered industrial truck hazards by stressed that such a system relies J. McPeek, Wisconsin Workers' heavily on two extremely important Miscellaneous Compensation. New protectors had considerations. Firstly, that the base Ruth Germain presented her paper, reduced spray intensity by 30%, with anthropometric data must be of high further potential to improve visibility co-authored with Ann Irving, quality and secondly, that the person A. Antoniou, all Birmingham University, and hence conspicuity of vehicles and who is manipulating the data is skilled and Prof Corlett, Nottingham University, road signs. Dr Williams stated that in its application. £30 million could be saved by improved entitled 'Transport for the under fives'.
250
Applied Ergonomics
December 1980
Mr E. Weaver, Ford, followed with a paper describing the truck cab as a working environment and outlined the main considerations that a manufacturer must take into account. Finally, Mr J. GuiUien, PeugeotRenault, described a large anthropometric survey of French bus drivers which included predictions of body size 15 years hence. The survey was intended to provide data to aid bus design. V e h i c l e noise
Noise levels for rail passengers have decreased steadily since 1950, but the overall level may now be too low in some respects. Mr C. Stanworth, British Rail, Derby, suggested a criterion to set the desirable sound level. Dr Tempest, in a joint paper with M. Bryan, Salford University, used BS 5330 to stress the extreme likehhood of damaging effects from vehicle noise but stated that the associated infrasonic noise was not yet a proven hazard. Considerable low frequency sound in private motor cars was measured by D. Williams, Stockport College of Technology. His subjects tolerated noise far better when travelling than in the laboratory. Mr G. Callow, MIRA, also emphasised the difference between outdoor and indoor traffic noise. He blamed this on the additional 40 to 60 Hz noise response from indoor windows and rooms. Finally, the different effects for car speed, size and type, seating position and road surface on internal sound levels were examined by Dr Bryan and Dr Tempest, Salford University.
Transport terminals The final symposium was opened by Mr H. Pageot, British Airports Authority, on air passenger terminals. His presentation discussed energy expenditure in general and focused particularly on anxiety, frustration, comfort and working conditions. Mr J. Bartlett, London Transport, considered the design of underground railway stations for both use and misuse. He covered the functional and environmental design for staff and passengers, as well as the constraints due to subterranean engineering works and vandalism. Dr Hoel's paper on transit terminal design was read by Dr Richards, who also presented his own on passenger security, co-authored with J. Jacobsen and L. Hoe1, Virginia University. Alternative layouts for the Philadelphia transit station were developed to reduce conflicts, trip time and level changes, accounting for different performance measures and interest groups. Dr Richards' joint paper described security factors enhancing both the security and perceived security for transit users. Because passengers fear crime and vandalism, their use of public transport is restricted. Transit environments were compared with situations conducive to crime, hence transit design and operational implications were discussed. 'Passenger movement within airport terminals' was presented by H. Pageot on behalf of H. Stanton, Air Transport Travel Industry Training Board. Aspects such as baggage handing and information systems were analysed. The paper concluded by encouraging new research
and development opportunities for ergonomists in airport terminals.
Concluding statement 'Ergonomics and Transport' was a well organised conference for which the convenors, Dave Oborne and John Levis, should be congratulated. They succeeded with a tremendous organisational achievement. It is unfortunate that not more representatives from operators, manufacturers, and those employed in the transport industry were present to put their points of view about the value of using ergonomics. There were several cases reported in the conference where ergonomics had been applied by specialists to very good effect. It is hoped that this trend will continue and that participants at the next conference will reflect a growing interest in the use of ergonomists by operators, manufacturers and employees. Two criticisms that were made by several participants which are worth making are that (1) there were too many papers convened with very similar issues within sessions and in different sessions, (2) a series of 'workshop' sessions on particular topics would have enabled a fuller discussion to have taken place. However, these criticisms are minor compared with the general degree of satisfaction registered by most participants. Neil Thomas and 1an McClelland
Applied Ergonomics
December 1980
251
described predictor equations for comfort in various vehicles, and asserted that comfort scales are the most appropriate way to measure subjective ride quality. Here motion along or about the three principal axes must be analysed simultaneously. Consisten.t individual differences exist on the causes of discomfort. William Conner followed with a general overview of the importance of passenger comfort in the factors which affect the development of a transport system. In particular reference was made to the way in which the interpretation of what is comfortable varies enormously, whilst what is 'acceptable' may remain 'constant'.
The symposium concluded with two papers which looked at research work still to be done. The first was presented by Prof Richards on behalf of Dr Kuhlthau and the second by Dr Pepler, Dunlop and Associates, on the relationship between exposure to shock and vibration and the health of American truck drivers. Both papers emphasised that future work must develop and validate methods by which the user's environment can be viewed as a totality, no longer can components Passengercomfort be considered in isolation. Kuhlthau's On the psychology of comfort, paper called for greater accuracy with Prof Richards, Virginia University, measurement of vehicle motion and characterised comfort as a psychological identification of user characteristics. state separated from purely Pepler's paper was based on a feasibility physiological concerns. He discussed study which recommended a major the influence of journey time on investigation of primarily an comfort tolerance, long term exposures epidemiological nature, including health and extreme discomfort such as jet lag and occupational details and matched and motion sickness. The interdependence groups in the general population. of activity and comfort was emphasised. Barry Myers followed by stressing how Driver behaviour time and comfort were interdependent In the analysis of driving and for most intercity travellers. His paper accidents, Alistair Risk, Newcastle was co-authored with B. Marshall at University, stated that 60% of British their Montreal Transportation accidents occur as collisions between Development Centre. They modelled vehicles. Hazard data such as vehicle cost, time, convenience and comfort positions and manoeuvres can be attributes for choices between rail, bus correlated with accident locations. and aircraft. During 'normal' driving such hazards Models of ride quality on advanced had correlated highly with accident ground transportation systems were records and road variables. assessed by Dr Pepler, E. Sussman and Dr Lewis, Birmingham University, Prof Richards. The effects of presented a useful systems case study decelerations and jerks on comfort were of 'Motorway madness'. He suggested reviewed. Dr Stark, Boeing Marine that the out-cry which follows multiple Systems, also considered ride quality rear end collisions in fog is misplaced, but for lower frequencies, especially while their frequency and severity below 1 Hz. He stressed the absolute have decreased. Exhorting drivers to necessity of a comprehensive statistical drive slower in fog is counter productive. approach to evaluate ship riding Of the three alternatives, closing motorproperties. ways, grouping vehicles in police convoys Prof Richards presented a paper or doing nothing, the latter, coupled co-authored by Ira Jacobs and Dr with better information and conspicuity, Kuhlthau, Virginia University. This was recommended.
'Accident proneness' was supported after statistical analysis of 427 bus and lorry drivers' accident data. Nevertheless, P. Henderson of Belfast's Queens University expressed concern over environmental controls and the need for training. The Negative Binomial rather than the Poisson distribution gave a better fit to observed accident distribution. Munich University's Dr Bubb showed a film of their head-up display indicating emergency braking distances. The position of a light bar on the windscreen was calculated by velocity and friction coefficient. The experimenters expected drivers to use the bar in complex traffic conditions to choose safe speeds. A knowledge test with slides of simple real-traffic situations was found to correlate higher with driver performance than the conventional Dutch test by Dr Veling, Institute for Perception. The new cognitive test required action decisions and could prevent many new driver accidents. Prof O'Hanlon, Groningen University, stated that drug users are over-represented among severely injured and killed drivers in accidents. He questioned the limited value of previous research and called for a standard, objective method to assess effects of psychoactive drugs. The 'zero risk' model was challenged by Dr Brown, MRC. Instead his thesis included the perceived probability of correcting errors to determine subjective risk. The manipulation of objective and subjective risk thresholds might change anxiety levels only. Studies had shown young drivers seriously overestimating their own abilities and hazard perceptions. Error correction depended on the probability of detection and prosecution. Prof Michon, Groningen University, overviewed the symposium by contrasting new drivers' reduced acceptance of authority with an increased feeling of shared responsibility in the egalitarian Dutch society. Ergonomic implications included more explicit task analyses stressing cognitive requirements.
Maritime ergonomics The symposium was opened by Dr Broome and L. Marshall, University College London, who reported on the assessment of ship course-keeping performance with variation in environmental disturbance. They suggested that ship's personnel should be trained to tune the autopilot to suit the operating conditions at every stage of a voyage.
Applied Ergonomics
December 1980
247
Perceptual problems of the mariner were described by J. Prince, Maritime Ergonomics Research Unit, UWlST. She surveyed the 'internal' and 'external' causes of why ship's navigation lights failed to provide sufficient information on size, bearing and relative speed of a vessel. From the same UWIST Unit, P. Reeve presented J. Smalley's paper on an evaluation of the Decca Nocturnal Ship Simulator for the Department of Industry. A group of pilots was used to compare real and simulated voyages. Relevant training purposes and programmes were considered.
aimed at evaluating a variety of car seats. An enormous quantity of information was presented which detracted from the essence of the presentation. Field interviews, laboratory studies and field studies were described which included the observations that short periods for tests can highlight significant differences in perceptions of seat comfort and simple mechanical models do not adequately reflect human responses.
Prof Grandjean, ETH Zurich, presented a general summary of ergonomic guidelines for the design of car seats as a result of recent work carried out in Zurich. The guidelines included Simulators were also used in the recommendations for appropriate angles next three papers. First, Dr Schuffel, at the major points of articulation in Dutch Institute for Perception, examined the body and also the assertion that an some effects of information presentation adjustable back rest angle is an absolute on man/ship performance. He used a necessity. Dr Dupuis, Mainz University, model ship and TV camera with and discussed the problem in ambulances of without radar display to study effects supporting patients who, for clinical on controllability. The radar performance reasons, must be insulated from the was less accurate due to suppression of transmission of vibration. He reviewed feed-forward information. Second, Dr the general issue of how the body Michard, INRIA France, discussed responds to vibration and illustrated cognitive ergonomics for a radar-based the phenomena of resonance with an maritime collision avoidance system. interesting film depicting X-ray pictures Results from 16 skilled navigators of stomach movements. His conditions confirmed the hypothesis that a included the point that when patients combination of cues, such as minimum are lying, insulating the head from closing distance, measured uncertainty vibration is the most important of future ship positions. Third, consideration. Liverpool Polytechnic's W. Cannell Dr Rebiffe, Peugeot-Renault, outlined reported on the ergonomics of radar the case for examining passenger seats and regulations in maritime collision • in cars as distinct from the driver's avoidance. Regulations were open to seat and suggested that passenger seats different interpretations. Hence changes could have very different criteria to to ensure more consistent and meet from those associated with the co-operative action were suggested. driver's seat. Whether or not the The symposium concluded with two possibility of different front seats for papers on ship collisions. P. Spurgeon, passengers and drivers would be Aston University, read Prof Kristiansen's accepted by the marketing staff is investigation of Norwegian collisions, another question. while Spurgeon and Kathryn Young, Prof Jurgens, Kiel University, Liverpool Polytechnic, focused on presented a paper on body movements work analysis of n~vigators and of the driver where he summarised a computer-based collision avoidance series of studies which investigated the systems. nature of small involuntary and voluntary body movements. His enquiries Seat and posture revealed that habitual restlessness is an Prof Andersson, Sahlgren Hospital, indicator of comfort both in terms of intensity and the sequence of movements. summarised investigations into sitting posture with particular reference to Other comments included the suggestion that there are hereditary lumbar support. The investigations factors which affect a person's tendency were primarily concerned with to fidget. physiological measures including EMG's and lumbar disc pressure. His principal conclusion was that the Environmental aspects lumbar area of the back should be Volkswagen's Dr Temming proposed supported so that the back took up the thermal conditions which gave same shape in sitting as it normally satisfaction in motor vehicles. He, like would when standing. For a car seat Fanger with his comfort equation, found this could be achieved by having an the extreme complexity of the differing inclined back rest combined with effects of environmental variables. In positive lumbar support. addition, parameters such as the vertical S. Habsburg and L. Middendorf, General Motors, followed with a description of a series of studies
248
Applied Ergonomics
temperature gradient, time dependent variations and moisture characteristics of seating materials were quoted. More
December 1980
data were required, especially on space and time factors. Although automobile air conditioning had increased many times in the USA up to five years ago, the recent change to smaller compact cars had been studied by comparing their hotter and noisier climates with more moderate conditions. Dr Neumann presented a West Virginian paper on this comparative laboratory study, coauthored by M. Romansky and R. Hummer. Task performance, physiological and subjective responses all suffered in the more severe climate. TRRL's D. Cooper and J. Young showed the results from various travellers' assessment of riding comfort over a wide range of road surfaces. A 'comfort charactistic' curve was used to predict acceptance of different vertical accelerations. Some commercial vehicle drivers were found whose exposures to continuous vibration approached ISO limits with possible 'fatigue-decreased proficiency'. Julie Williams and Dylan Jones of UWIST showed that 85dB continuous noise may have detrimental effects on driving skills, especially those using short-term storage. They concluded from recent studies that the magnitude of noise disruption depended upon the driver's control of the noise. Mr Young read B. Rao's, Birmingham University, paper entitled 'Evaluation of visual blur contours of subjects when subjected to whole-body vibration conditions in different postures'. Previous studies had shown considerable disagreement on the extent of visual loss, with Griffin's data quoted as the only general purpose guide. Experiments to correlate subjective judgements of vehicle ride with vibration measurements were described by John Levis in his paper with W. McKinlay, both of Leyland Vehicles. Subjective appraisals were the main data required to set design parameters for vehicle ride. Such data, obtained from rides in six trucks, were validated in the laboratory by John Levis with Colin Carbridge and Michael Griffin of Southampton University. Some bias effects from overall vehicle quality and other characteristics were thus controlled to give similar rank orders of vehicle discomfort. Dr Griffin also measured vibration in passenger cars with K. Parsons, and on board ship with A. Lawther, all from their Southampton ISVR. Equivalent comfort contours obtained previously in the laboratory were used to provide a single weighted value for each of 12 inputs. By comparing the relative effect of each input for each car the causes of vibration discomfort were indicated. In addition, the ship studies have given satisfactory measurements to calculate translational
speed control system, enabled the driver to maintain constant speed using neither throttle nor brake. In b o t h Dr Guignard presented the joint paper cases driver acceptance was reported 'Determining thresholds of human as being high. response to vibration using acceleration sweeps at constant frequency' with P. Pedestrian behaviour Majewski and W. Muzzy, Naval Ivan Brown, MRC, opened the Biodynamics Laboratory, New Orleans. symposium by asking 'Are pedestrians Trials have been conducted up to twice and drivers really compatible?' His paper the ISO 2631 exposure limits. Finally, concluded that certain groups of drivers this standard and the considerable and pedestrians are actually incompatible amount of related laboratory and field and that accidents are an inevitable work were examined by Mike Clarke outcome of their attempts to exist of Swansea University. together. Finally he asked "Can we therefore afford not to segregate?"
m o t i o n s so that passenger surveys may
be related.
Instrumentation and controls Texas Instruments' much publicised speech synthesisers were described by J. Priest and P. Michaelis. The system has the advantage that a great variety of messages can be created more or less instantaneously. However, as was pointed out, there is little ergonomics research into the use of synthesised speech and the application of it will have to be treated with great care.
The approach; methods and measures taken during observation of behaviour at road crpssings were discussed by Anne Rennie, Institute for Consumer Ergonomics, and John Wilson, Birmingham University. The difficulties, especially data analysis, of video and film were stressed, together with their use to develop scoring procedure before direct hand recording.
knowledge and actions about the major problem of pedestrian accidents and whether anything really changes. The elderly pedestrian, with his high proportional casualty rate, is still traffic safety's mystery man. Previous theoretical explanations had seemed so plausible that they discouraged effective data collection. This complex situation required careful definition and a more rigorous methodology. Pedestrian/driver interactions had shown pedestrians taking far more effective actions to prevent conflicts. Prof Howarth apportioned 'heedless' behaviour mainly to the driver rather than the child.
Transport for the elderly and handicapped Dr Richards opened the symposium. His paper, co-authored by L. Hoel and E. Foulke, was concerned with the problems that the visually and auditorily impaired encounter when gaining access to public transport, particularly at large termini. The paper outlined some of the general problems and highlighted the need for specific research into the area. Mr Conner followed with an interesting example of how the development of a technical specification by ill-advised persons can lead to almost irresolvable conflicts. In this case it was the US Government's outline specification for an urban bus which could accommodate those with physical disabilities. A clear case was made for the application of sound ergonomics principles at an early stage in order to resolve the discrepancies.
The next three papers examined children's road safety education. First, Stephen Barbour, UWlST, looked at opinions; second, Barbara Preston, Manchester Polytechnic, its effectiveness; and third, David Sheppard, TRRL, the development of methods. Mr Barbour reported general dissatisfaction from teachers with no real improvements. Road safety occupied less than 15 min weekly with half of these lessons on the Green Cross Code. Usually the one annual speaker was a policeman and not a road safety officer, who should instead guide parents and teachers directly. Mrs Dr Heron, Queen's University, Dr Jensen, Ohio University, described Preston also stressed the ineffectiveness Edmonton, then presented a report an aircraft analogue display during of child education, particularly the on development work carried out in landing. A predictor was incorporated Green Cross Code. She recommended Canada on a user hdministered wheelwhich gave the aircraft position 8 s into rewording to stop children at the kerb, chair restraint system for railway the future. A video recording of the but generally more responsibility to be carriages. The development included placed on drivers and safer environments. display was used to good effect to Again, Dr Sheppard was unhappy with the a user evaluation which demonstrated illustrate the dynamic characteristics the viability of the system but also Code and also artificial training areas. of the display. Pilots were reported revealed certain shortcomings in the Real roads, playgrounds and classrooms as being well satisfied with the system design which are now the subject of were preferred to develop safe and and had little or no difficulty adapting further work. It also confirmed yet effective attitudes. to it during simulated flights. again the wisdom of conducting such Away from the school, Tony Chapman, studies before designs are finaIised. Vision through vehicle windscreens Frances Wade and Hugh F o o t , UWlST, Mr P. Pilgram, representing the was discussed by Dr Benel, UrbanaNetherlands Government, described Champaign University. He was concerned had observed doubled exposure to traffic for boys than girls and hence increased the general provisions for the disabled that drivers might tend to focus on accident rates. The heedless and traveller in the Netherlands in terms of small objects on their windscreens adventurous running male stereotype legislation, financial assistance and rather than distant objects. However, had not been proven. Once again parental various government schemes. Mrs Galer this is likely to be a problem only when education was recommended, especially presented a paper on behalf of Mrs the general view lacks definition. When for playing just outside the home. Morris and Mr Feeney which described the view includes detail which allows drivers to perceive relative sizes In the final section, Dr Grayson, TRRL, a study of the problems that the handicapped actually experience when accurately, there appears to be little to read Diane Firth's paper on the using public transport. worry about. methodological problems in pedestrian research and his own paper on the Dr Schulze, Volkswagen, described elderly pedestrian, while Prof Howarth Aviation ergonomics two recent developments - one for steering and the other for speed control. and Angela Lightburn, Nottingham Dr Chorley, Smiths Industries, The first was related to the car's velocity University, explained h o w pedestrians showed recent developments in airborne to allow sensitive steering throughout respond more to drivers than vice versa. displays. Flight trials with CRTs and the speed range. The second, a remote Ms Firth, Windsor, questioned our associated ergonomics problems were
Mrs Galer, Institute for Consumer Ergonomics, presented a paper, coa u t h o r e d by A. Baines and G. Simmonds, which described studies into the use of electronic instrument displays in cars. Simulated instrument displays were presented to establish in broad terms what type of display would be best suited for drivers. The principal conclusion was that a digital display was the best form since it was read more accurately and more easily, and was preferred over any of the others presented.
Applied Ergonomics
December 1980
249
discussed, with work on light emitting diodes and liquid crystal devices. Ergonomics for the pilot at his mental and physiological limits in an advanced fighter cockpit was considered by G. Roe, British Aerospace. Aircrew anthropometrics, data display/control to 'reduce' pilot workload, and the impact of the physical environment were all included. Mr Martin, British Aerospace, followed with the difficult compromise necessary under the influence of extreme ambient illuminations on cockpit displays. New techniques have helped and hindered the situation in combat aircraft where the crew needs to see the outside world at all times.
Improvements in the design of children's tricycles by increasing stability and safety were described. The only paper at the conference dealing with the vulnerable twowheeled vehicles was presented by Dr Watts, TRRL. He reviewed test methods to evaluate conspicuity aids for cyclists and motor cyclists. A nonfluorescent yellow jacket was found to facilitate detection against dark backgrounds.
tyre/road surface relationships. A resurfaced Hammersmith Flyover had shown a big decrease in accidents. The Wisconsin forklift study highlighted the major problem up to 45% of all industrial accidents from handling. Solution areas included traffic flow, replacement and maintenance, pay and training.
Commercial vehicle accidents, seat belts in heavy trucks and professional drivers' environment were considered respectively by J. Zlotnicki and T. Hutchinson, MIRA; K. H~Sgstrbm, Dr Hiba, Rosario University, Volvo Sweden; B. Moren and K. Rumar, Argentina, reported an investigation to NRTRI Sweden. Various HGV accidents ascertain the preferred angle of a were shown to be due to poor conspicuity, headrest using a passenger seat for mirror blind spots, and loss of control coaches. Angles between 4 ° and 12 ° with locked steering columns. were chosen as more comfortable. Mr H~igstrbm stated that a three point Dr Wheale, RAF, IAM, warned of A joint paper with I. Hindmarch safety belt could decrease severe injuries the implications of pilot opinion on was presented by A. Gudgeon, Leeds in 74% of Volvo truck accidents. The flight deck warning systems. The University, on the effects of two drugs steering wheel was the single item which responses from commercial pilots to on car driving behaviour. Lorazepam, had caused most injuries. The large questionnaires, with semantic differential scale Swedish environmental project a 1,4 benzodiazepine produced impairscales, on types of warnings were also ment of tasks and of subjective alertness, is investigating minimum acceptable reported. while clobazam, a 1,5 derivative produced limits for climate, noise, infrasound, Helmet mounted displays in neither impairment. vibration, lighting, visibility, instruments helicopters were described by A. Harding, and controls. Westland Helicopters. Generally, pilots Heavy goods vehicles Mr Brennan presented a paper cohad approved an LED matrix display Dr Fuller, Trinity College, Dublin, authored.with M. Tait, University because it had reduced instrument reported on the effects of different College London, on medium sized monitoring time and hence increased HGV work demands. Field results goods vehicle accidents. About one external viewing. showed that prolonged driving is not third had occurred in yards and delivery In the final two papers, A. Hulme, necessarily unsafe and that fatigue areas, while much damage had resulted Redifon Simulation, dealt with civil effects may not follow~a simple from collisions with low bridges and flight simulation, and David Hopkin, incremental progression. Nevertheless, beams. RAF, IAM, covered air traffic control, road haulage is more than twice as Finally, Mr John, Cranfield including very accurate simulations. dangerous as manufacturing industry, Institute of Technology, reported Pressure from airlines had preceded stated Dr McDonald, Trinity College. attempts to use road haulage vehicle an American proposal to introduce a He noted increased shiftworking, often weights to disaggregate national accident total simulation plan. Implications of 16 h per day, and also truck drivers figures.. more at risk from single vehicle accidents, automation which tend to cause man especially at night. to become more passive and isolated, hence reducipg knowledge and recall, Prof O'Hanlon, Groningen University, Anthropometry in transport were raised. This symposium commenced with presented his paper on critical tracking Mr J. Levis, Leyland Vehicles, task (CTT) sensitivity and read R. describing the advantages and potential Mackie's joint paper with J. Miller, pitfalls which users of computer aided California, entitled 'Driver fatigue as a 'Motoring Which' car testing design systems can encounter. He function of driving times, regularity The contributors to this symposium stressed the importance of sound schedules and participation in cargowere, in order of presentation, Mr J. management in the use of such systems. load'. Jex's CTT lowest frequency Reynolds of Motoring Which, Prof B. correlated with greatest subjective Shackel, Loughborough University, Ms C. Haslegrave, MIRA, described fatigue ratings for irregular schedules, and Mr F. Brigham, TUV Koln. The an example of using computer aided particularly during early morning hours. contributors discussed the current car design techniques in identifying the Similar responses to irregular schedules testing programme, the setting up of appropriate position for a car seat belt. were stressed in the American paper. the Human Factors Questionnaire, and Mr M. Porter, Loughborough University, the problems involved in handling the followed with a description of the data, respectively. The session clearly SAMMIE computer aided design system Vehicle safety illustrated the problems involved in developed at Nottingham University. The first three papers in this accumulating and analysing large He outlined several projects carried symposium dealt with: commercial quantities of data, as well as the vehicle spray protectors by Dr Sandberg, out using the system, which in essence considerable benefit derived from the were concerned with 'fitting the user' NRTRI Sweden; tyre/road properties questionnaire when vehicles as a whole into a workspace and identifying by Dr A. Williams, Dunlop; and have to be assessed. discrepancies and conflicts. It was powered industrial truck hazards by stressed that such a system relies J. McPeek, Wisconsin Workers' heavily on two extremely important Miscellaneous Compensation. New protectors had considerations. Firstly, that the base Ruth Germain presented her paper, reduced spray intensity by 30%, with anthropometric data must be of high further potential to improve visibility co-authored with Ann Irving, quality and secondly, that the person A. Antoniou, all Birmingham University, and hence conspicuity of vehicles and who is manipulating the data is skilled and Prof Corlett, Nottingham University, road signs. Dr Williams stated that in its application. £30 million could be saved by improved entitled 'Transport for the under fives'.
250
Applied Ergonomics
December 1980
Mr E. Weaver, Ford, followed with a paper describing the truck cab as a working environment and outlined the main considerations that a manufacturer must take into account. Finally, Mr J. GuiUien, PeugeotRenault, described a large anthropometric survey of French bus drivers which included predictions of body size 15 years hence. The survey was intended to provide data to aid bus design. V e h i c l e noise
Noise levels for rail passengers have decreased steadily since 1950, but the overall level may now be too low in some respects. Mr C. Stanworth, British Rail, Derby, suggested a criterion to set the desirable sound level. Dr Tempest, in a joint paper with M. Bryan, Salford University, used BS 5330 to stress the extreme likehhood of damaging effects from vehicle noise but stated that the associated infrasonic noise was not yet a proven hazard. Considerable low frequency sound in private motor cars was measured by D. Williams, Stockport College of Technology. His subjects tolerated noise far better when travelling than in the laboratory. Mr G. Callow, MIRA, also emphasised the difference between outdoor and indoor traffic noise. He blamed this on the additional 40 to 60 Hz noise response from indoor windows and rooms. Finally, the different effects for car speed, size and type, seating position and road surface on internal sound levels were examined by Dr Bryan and Dr Tempest, Salford University.
Transport terminals The final symposium was opened by Mr H. Pageot, British Airports Authority, on air passenger terminals. His presentation discussed energy expenditure in general and focused particularly on anxiety, frustration, comfort and working conditions. Mr J. Bartlett, London Transport, considered the design of underground railway stations for both use and misuse. He covered the functional and environmental design for staff and passengers, as well as the constraints due to subterranean engineering works and vandalism. Dr Hoel's paper on transit terminal design was read by Dr Richards, who also presented his own on passenger security, co-authored with J. Jacobsen and L. Hoe1, Virginia University. Alternative layouts for the Philadelphia transit station were developed to reduce conflicts, trip time and level changes, accounting for different performance measures and interest groups. Dr Richards' joint paper described security factors enhancing both the security and perceived security for transit users. Because passengers fear crime and vandalism, their use of public transport is restricted. Transit environments were compared with situations conducive to crime, hence transit design and operational implications were discussed. 'Passenger movement within airport terminals' was presented by H. Pageot on behalf of H. Stanton, Air Transport Travel Industry Training Board. Aspects such as baggage handing and information systems were analysed. The paper concluded by encouraging new research
and development opportunities for ergonomists in airport terminals.
Concluding statement 'Ergonomics and Transport' was a well organised conference for which the convenors, Dave Oborne and John Levis, should be congratulated. They succeeded with a tremendous organisational achievement. It is unfortunate that not more representatives from operators, manufacturers, and those employed in the transport industry were present to put their points of view about the value of using ergonomics. There were several cases reported in the conference where ergonomics had been applied by specialists to very good effect. It is hoped that this trend will continue and that participants at the next conference will reflect a growing interest in the use of ergonomists by operators, manufacturers and employees. Two criticisms that were made by several participants which are worth making are that (1) there were too many papers convened with very similar issues within sessions and in different sessions, (2) a series of 'workshop' sessions on particular topics would have enabled a fuller discussion to have taken place. However, these criticisms are minor compared with the general degree of satisfaction registered by most participants. Neil Thomas and 1an McClelland
Applied Ergonomics
December 1980
251