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Job-seeking behavior: A segment of vocational development
Journdi of Vocational Behavior, 3, 209-219 (1973)
Job-Seeking Behavior: A Segment of Vocational Development’ NANCY D. STEVENS Hunter College, City University of New York This paper reports two companion studies which establish that there is a significant relationship between an individual’s personality characteristics and his pattern of job-seeking behavior. Individuals who are tough-minded, independent and nonneurotic had specified job goals and self-actualized behavior. They were highly successful in obtaining jobs. Individuals who were sensitive, dependent and neurotic had vague goals and passive behavior. They failed to get jobs. Individuals who exhibited a mixture of the cited characteristics and behavior were also exploring career options. They had a modicum of success in obtaining jobs. Job-seeking behavior as a process of vocational development is discussed.
For the past three decades, vocational research has focused primarily on the behavior exhibited in occupational choice and on work adjustment, SO that we have some understanding of the processes involved in choosing a job goal and in adjusting to work. Super (1956) has indicated that an occupational choice which is made during the Exploration Stage of an individual’s vocational development is an implementation of his self-concept. When the individual has made such a choice, he is ready to enter the Establishment Stage by taking a job in his chosen field. Research on the vocational behavior exhibited in seeking a job has been neglected, so that we do not understand the process involved in how an individual’s self-concept may be implemented by his behavior in the job-seeking process. This report describes two research studies concerned with job-seeking behavior, that small segment of vocational behavior exhibited in the process of vocational development prior to work adjustment and contingent on occupational choice. The first study (Stevens, 1960) identified three job-seeking behavior patterns and their effect on success in obtaining a desired job goal. The second study (Schneider and Stevens, 1971) established the relationship between critical personality characteristics and the operational behavior in each job-seeking behavior pattern.
lRequests for reprints should be directed to Prof. Nancy D. Stevens, Associate Director of Career Counseling and Placement, Hunter College, 695 Park Avenue, New York NY 10021.
209 Copyright @ 1973 by Academic Press, Inc. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
210
STEVENS
IDENTIFICATION
OF JOB-SEEKING BEHAVIOR PATTERNS
The general problem involved identification of the differences in behavior of individuals seeking a desired job. From the observations of experienced placement interviewers, it was noted that an individual’s ability to mobilize his personal resources in order to attain his vocational goal is a critical factor in the successful job-getting process. Therefore, the individual whom placement interviewers evaluated as being “ready” for job placement have crystallized job goals, and exhibit more direct action toward these job goals than would individuals who do not have specified goals. It was hypothesized, therefore, that the characteristics of levels of placement readiness, as rated by experienced interviewers on the basis of the initial interview, have a significant relationship with success in obtaining a job, when placement success is evaluated in terms of obtaining a job on a desired level, in a desired geographical location, at a desired salary, and within a specified period of time. In order to test the hypothesis, it was necessary to identify differences in the behavioral characteristics of individuals seeking employment and to construct an instrument which could objectively measure levels of placement readiness, or the differences in job-seeking behavior. It also required the construction of scales which could critically determine the individual’s level of successin obtaining the job he desired.
METHOD Pilot Study A pilot study to identify characteristic differences in the behavior of job applicants was conducted at the education division of the New York University Placement Services. Twenty-four interviews of applicants seeking positions in the field of education were taped by two experienced placement interviewers. These interviews were sorted out into three groups composed of those registrants whose interview responses gave conclusive evidence of (A) being ready to take a specific job, (B) not being ready to take a specific job, and (C) being neither ready, nor unready to take a specific job. Registrant responses and questions were abstracted and analyzed for characteristics basic to each of these groups: A,B,C. Group A. Group A was composed of individuals who gave evidence of being ready for placement and having crystallized their job goals. A typical response was: “I want to be an English teacher. . .preferably on the North Shore of Long Island.” Their responses also indicated that they could select realistic goals by evaluating their skills and abilities in relation to job
JOB-SEEKING
BEHAVIOR
211
requirements. They gave evidence of being actively involved in seeking out prospective emplcyers who might hire them. This was illustrated by the comment: “Well, I’ve already communicated with all superintendents of schools within a radius of 30 miles.” Their job-seeking behavior was purposeful and goal-oriented. Crystallization and specification of goals, with independent self-actualized behavior seemed to be the characteristics of this group. Group B. Individuals in Group B gave evidence of being unready for placement, and appeared to be vague and confused about their job goals. Typical responses were: “I don’t know. I want a job . . . any job will do that you think I’m qualified for.“; and also, “I want to work with children in some way. I don’t know just how”; and again, “Get me a job, and I’ll take it.” They were passive to the point of seeking others to make decisions for them. Vagueness and passivity were their basic characteristics. Group C. Individuals in Group C seemed to be neither ready, nor unready for job placement. They indicated a mixture of responses which reflected the characteristics of individuals in groups A and B, in that they were often specific on some details concerning their job goals, but vague about others. They were passive in some of their job-seeking responsibilities, and yet self-actualized in others. They tended to ask 8% more questions than did individuals in Group A who had specified choices, and 15% more questions than did individuals in Group B who were vague and undecided. Group C seemed to be exploring tentative career choices with some conflict exhibited in their behavior. Reliability of Identifications Reliability of the evaluation made of the characteristic differences in the interview behavior of the 24 job-seeking applicants were tested by both an interrater agreement test and also by a test-retest. Two years after the initial evaluation, the interviews were reevaluated, and the Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation was used as the statistical measure for a test-retest. An r of .87 was obtained, indicating a high correlation between the initial and later evaluations. In the interrater judgment test, three judges evaluated 12 interviews which consisted of four interviews each from groups A, R, and C. There was a two out of three agreement in five cases and three out of three agreement in seven cases. The results of this test were better than the criterion of two out of three rater agreement considered necessary to establish the reliability of these identifications. As a result of both tests, the reliability of the evaluations determining the identification of three job-seeking behavior patterns was established. Subjects. One hundred subjects (male and female combined) who ap-
212
STEVENS
peared to be of the white race were selected from a population of graduating seniors, graduate students and alumni voluntarily registered with the New York University Placement Services. The criterion of racial identification by appearance was introduced solely to avoid overtly recognizable and possible ethnic prejudicial factors which might affect the test of the hypothesis. The fact that this method of identification might have been unreliable did not affect the study, because the investigator sought only to exclude those job applicants who might obviously have been subjected to a particular employer’s prejudice. Because religious faith was unobservable, unless a symbolic emblem was worn, there was no attempt to restrict the population by religious faith. In order to adequately test the hypothesis, applicants were selected who were seeking full-time jobs in educational fields which were known to have many vacancies. The subjects ranged in age from 22 to 61, and exhibited a wide range of experience and educational achievement in their chosen fields. Twenty-one percent were seeking their first teaching jobs. The others were seeking jobs which would aid their career advancement.
ResearchInstruments It was necessary to develop appropriate instruments to measure placement readiness and placement success. The Placement Readiness Scale is a lo-dimensional, 5-point scale based on the pilot study and the Ginzberg et al. (1951) developmental theory of occupational choice. Ginzberg postulated that an individual making an occupational choice goes through periods of (1) fantasy, (2) tentative choices, and (3) realistic choices, which consists of the exploration, crystallization and specification stages. Because the Realistic Period is the time when the individual specifies his vocational choice, and therefore, would be looking for a specified job in his crystallized field, the descriptive subheadings in the Realistic Period were selected to denote the three highest points on the Placement Readiness Scale. “Specification” was used for point 5, and denotes those individuals who are able to specify a definite job goal. “Crystallization” was used for point 4, and denotes those individuals who are able to crystallize an occupational field, although not necessarily able to specify a chosen job within the chosen field; and “Exploration” was used for point 3, and denotes those who are exploring possible vocational options. The first two of these descriptive stage classifications describes the characteristics of individuals in group A of the pilot study and denotes high placement readiness. The third descriptive classification describes the characteristics of group C in the pilot study and denotes moderate placement readiness. Ginzberg also described different individuals attempting to make a vocational choice. He found that some were passive and appeared to be floundering and confused. This described the characteristics of individuals in
JOB-SEEKING
213
BEHAVIOR
group B who were unready for placement. Therefore, the terms “Confusion” and “Passivity” were used for points 2 and 1, the lowest points on the scale, These descriptive classifications denote low placement readiness. The Placement Success Scale was constructed to measure the level of success in obtaining a job. It is a 7-dimensional scale which evaluates the individual’s placement success in terms of whether he (1) obtained a job; and if he did, whether it was in an (2) unpreferred setting (business, government), or in a preferred setting (education), (3) on a desired level, (4) in a desired field, (5) in a desired geographic location, (6) at a desired salary, and (7) within a specified period of time. The job that each individual obtained was evaluated by the scale so that levels of high, moderate and low placement success could be ascertained for every subject. The following null hypothesis was tested: the probability of a high level of placement success is the same for all applicants regardless of their level of placement success. It was tested at the .OS level of significance at (n-l), or 2 G’JYIndividuals with identified levels of high, moderate and low placement readiness were sorted out according to their measured level of placement success so that the null hypothesis could be tested. Results Highly significant results were obtained. Since the obtained X2 were clearly greater than the tabled X2 at the .05 level at 2 df (5.991), the null hypothesis was rejected in each of the three cases. The results clearly established the validity of the Placement Readiness Scale as an instrument capable of identifying characteristic differences in job-seeking behavior. It also established that the behavior exhibited in seeking a job has an effect on the individual’s ability to implement his self-concept by obtaining a job.
TABLE Relationship Placement readiness
High Moderate LOW
1
of Placement Readiness and Placement SuccessQ Placement Success HML 28 12 9
4 17 4
0 0 16
42.872 15.739 1.487
**p < .OOl **p < .OOl
**p < .os
aNote; Frequencies will not add up to the 100 subjects selected, because 10 subjects were “lost” before the study was concluded.
214
STEVENS ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS IN JOB-SEEKING BEHAVIOR PATTERNS
Because personality characteristics were observed to affect job-seeking behavior, further research (Schneider & Stevens, 1971) was conducted for the purpose of measuring the relationship of personality dimensions to the three patterns of job-seeking behavior. The qualities of self-actualization in some job-seekers who successfully obtained jobs indicated effective coping behavior and suggested personal adjustment. Others who gave evidence of being unable to function effectively in trying to obtain a job because of their passivity suggested possible neurotic manifestations in their personality development. This raised a question concerning the identification of personality dynamics involved in each style of behavior exhibited when a person seeks a job. The basic hypothesis of this study was that individuals with the characteristics of high placement readiness would be assertive, independent and tough-minded and nonneurotic with low levels of depression and anxiety; whereas, individuals with low placement readiness would be passive, dependent, sensitive and neurotic with high levels of depression and anxiety. Because individuals with moderate placement readiness exhibit a mixture of high and low placement readiness behaviors, it was hypothesized that these individuals would dynamically move through a counterdependent process.
METHOD
Subjects. One hundred and sixty-one (50 males and 101 females) subjects were selected randomly from a population of graduating seniors voluntarily registered with the Career Counseling and Placement office at Hunter College of the City University of New York. The sample appeared to be interracial and interfaith. They were seeking full-time jobs in business, government and non-profit social agencies. Insfruments. The Stevens Placement Readiness Scale (Stevens, 1960) was used to identify the level of the subjects’ placement readiness, inasmuch as the earlier study had established its validity and reliability in identifying the characteristics of three different patterns of job-seeking behavior. Sheier and Cattell’s Neurotic Scale Questionnaire was selected as a measure of personality characteristics, because its five scales give measures of sensitivitytough-mindedness, depression-cheerfulness, dominance-submissiveness, anxietynonanxiety, and a total composite neuroticism score. Because this was a pioneer exploration, scores were cut into discrete classes of extremes with high placement readiness (scores 4-5.99), low placement readiness (scores l-2.99), and moderate placement readiness (scores 3-3.99); high sensitivity, depression, anxiety and neuroticism (NSQ 8-lo), and
JOB-SEEKING
BEHAVIOR
215
tough-mindedness, cheerfulness, low depression and anxiety and low neuroticism (scores l-3). In addition, dominance-submissiveness, as measured by the NSQ, was divided into three groupings: dependent, submissive (scores 8-10) truly independent (scores 4-7) and counterdependent (scores l-3). The NSQ yields weighted Sten scores for men, women, and men and women combined. Only the results of the combined scores are presented here because these two studies are being presented as a unit, and the initial study identified its job-seeking patterns on a population of men and women combined, when it was found from the pilot study that the characteristics identified for each job-seeking behavior pattern were the same for both sexes. The chi-square test at 1 df and at t-he .05 level of significance was used. The statistical null hypothesis tested states that there would be no observable difference in the frequencies when comparing individuals with high placement readiness (PR 4-5.99) and (1) tough-mindedness (NSQ l-3) with low placement readiness (PR l-2.99) and sensitivity (NSQ 8-10); (2) cheerfulness (NSQ l-3) with low placement readiness (PR l-2.99) and depression (NSQ S-10); (3) low anxiety (NSQ l-3) with low placement readiness (PR l-2.99) and high anxiety (NSQ 8-10); (4) low neuroticism (NSQ l-3) with low placement readiness (PR l-2.99) and high depression (NSQ 8-10); (5) “truly independent” behavior (NSQ 4-7) with moderate placement readiness (PR 3-3.99) and “counter-dependent” behavior (NSQ l-3). Results Highly significant results were obtained which clearly indicated that the job-seeking behavior pattern with the characteristics of high placement readiness was associated with dominance, tough-mindedness and low neuroticism; whereas, the job-seeking behavior pattern with the characteristics of low placement readiness was related to submissiveness, sensitivity and high neuroticism. Since the obtained X2 were greater than the tabled X2 (3.841) at the .OS level and 1 df, the null hypotheses were rejected in each case. The characteristic personality dimensions of individuals with the jobseeking behavior pattern of moderate placement readiness were behaviorally and dynamically similar to those identified in both high and low placement readiness patterns. However, these individuals tended to resemble the individuals with high placement readiness patterns more than they did those with low placement readiness, which may account for their modicum of success in obtaining a job. A X2 = 3.69 was obtained in testing the basic hypothesis that they were in a counterdependent process. Inasmuch as this was significant at the .lO level of significance, but not at the .05 level, the basic hypothesis was accepted. However, the results indicated a strong direction toward counter-dependence inasmuch as the obtained X2 was approaching significance at the .05 level.
216
STEVENS TABLE 2 Relationship of Personality Characteristics to Levels of Placement Readiness
Personality characteristics
Placement readiness H L
Submissivenessdominance
1 55
12 22
19.221
***p < ,001
Sensitivitytough-mindedness
11 17
17 3
10.031
**p < ,005
Neuroticismnonneuroticism
6 17
17 5
7.163
*p< .Ol
Anxietynon-ankty
12 19
8 6
1.327
N.S.
Depressioncheerfulness
6 20
11 4
.006
N.S.
Although the emotions of anxiety and depression may be present in any given individual, they do not seem to be a component affecting the development of coping behavior in the job-seeking process for the sample studied. Discussion These companion studies have established that there is a significant relationship between the individual’s personality characteristics and his style of coping behavior in seeking a chosen job, which determines how successful he is going to be in implementing his self-concept. The dynamic process of job-seeking behavior can be viewed as a developmental one which reflects the individual’s stage of vocational development. The behavior expressed in all three job-seeking patterns does relate to different stages in both Ginzberg’s (1951) and Super’s (1956) theories on the process of vocational development (see Figure 1). The three different periods in Ginzberg’s theory are parallel to the substages defined by Super, and job-seeking behavior corresponds to these periods. That is, individuals with the characteristics of low placement readiness exhibited in their job-seeking behavior express confused, vague goals untempered by reality considerations, which are expressions of wish fulfillment. In effect, such individuals would be in the Fantasy Stage of vocational development as defined by Ginzberg; and they would be in the Fantasy substage of Super’s Exploration Stage. The age range of the subjects in the first study who had low placement readiness was from 25 to 61; whereas, both Ginzberg and Super identify the fantasy stage as occurring roughly from ages 6 to 11. It suggests that the process of vocational development for these individuals was stunted.
JOB-SEEKING
BEHAVIOR
217
Individuals whith the characteristics of moderate placement readiness exhibited in their job-seeking behavior, express a blending of vague and semicrystallized goals and a tendency to explore career options. These individuals would be at Ginzberg’s Tentative Stage, and they could be in any one subperiod of that Stage: Interests, Capacities, Values, or Transitional. Depending on the progress of their vocational development, some subjects could be in the Exploration substage of Ginzberg’s Realistic Period. According to Super, they would be at the Tentative substage of the Exploration Stage. Individuals with the characteristics of high placement readiness exhibited in their job-seeking behavior, express crystallized and specific job goals. These individuals would be in Ginzberg’s Realistic Stage at either the Crystallized or Specification periods as well as in Super’s Realistic substage of the Exploration Stage. Individuals with specific goals and self-actualized behavior exhibit the most effective job-seeking behavior that results in obtaining a job. When this occurs, they enter the Establishment Stage defined by Super. See Figure 1. Job-seeking behavior as a developmental process meets some of Beilin’s (1955) criteria of general developmental principles, applied to the vocational area. Job-seeking behavior is differentiated into three patterns, each of which has its own characteristic behavior identifiable as levels of placement readiness. The characteristics of high placement readiness are self-actualized, independent behavior with crystallization and specificity of job goals; whereas, the characteristics of low placement readiness are passive, dependent behavior with vaguely defined goals. The characteristics of moderate placement readiness are a mixture of behavior exhibited in each of the other two patterns with a tendency toward exploration. The characteristic differences of these three patterns reflect the dynamics of different personality development. For the psychologically healthy individual, development is in the direction of greater differentiation; so that there is movement from vaguely defined fantasy goals toward specification of job goals with ever increasing consideration of reality factors. Job-seeking behavior also tends to move in the direction of independence, becoming increasingly influenced by the individual’s own preferences, rather than by the preferences of others. This direction of movement reflects the normal developing process of increasing maturation and integration of self, and is an expression of self-actualization. When job-seeking behavior is viewed as a continuous process, it gives evidence of occurring at a developmental pace. For the maturing individual who exhibits moderate placement readiness, the pace of development tends to be rapid at first and then begins to slow as an evaluative process is in operation, and the vast number of career options begins to be sorted out. For the mature individual with independent behavior who exhibits high placement readiness, the pace of development has slowed with time, because the range of career possibilities has been sorted out and reality factors have been increasingly considered in this process. Over a period of time, many options
Stevens:
Ginzberg:
Super:
I
I I Interest 1period
Fig. 1. Relationship
I I Vague goals I Untempered by reality. I Products of wish fulfillment ( Dependent behavior (Low Placement Readiness) 1
Fantasy stage
I
I Fantasy’substage
stage
I Transition period
stage
of job-seeking behavior development
I Exploration period
I
I
I
-r
I Specification of job goal within chosen field, or job goal which defines preferred job activity focus. Independent behavior. (High Placement Readiness)
I Specification period
development.
I Crystallization of field of work and job activity focus. Independent Behavior. (High Placement Readiness)
Realistic stage I Crystallization period
Realistic substage
to Ginzberg’s and Super’s theories of vocational
I Exploring job goals in context of realities of job market. Behavior becomes more independent than dependent (Moderate Placement Readiness)
Job seeking behavior development
Tentative I Values period
I Exploring identification of interests, abilities, values and related job fields. Dependent-Independent behavior. (Moderate Placement Readiness)
I Capabilities period
Exploration Tentative’substage
JOB-SEEKING BEHAVIOR
219
have been eliminated so that the range of possibilities is continuously narrowed and a choice of field and job have been selected. For the dependent, immature individual, who exhibits low placement readiness characteristics, the pace of development appears to be stunted. Despite periods of career exploration over a length of time, an evaluative process is not in operation, and the range of possible choices is not sorted out and narrowed down. A career choice remains uncrystallized and the individual continues to be unfocused and confused. In evaluating the vocational maturity of an individual, it is not only necessary to understand how an individual makes a career choice and how he adjusts to work, but it is also necessary to understand his style of job-seeking behavior. Job-seeking behavior is the bridge linking job choice to the desired job. Without effective job-seeking behavior, a job is not successfully obtained, and the task of adjusting to work cannot be experienced by the individual. When job-seeking behavior is also understood as a segment of vocational development, we have the chance to construct a theory of vocational development which can totally embrace all the vocational behaviors involved in the vocational aspects of life.
REFERENCES Beilin, H. Applications of general developmental principles to the vocational area. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1955, 2, 55-57. Ginzberg, E., Ginsburg, S., Axelrad, S., and Herma, J. Occupational choice. New York: Columbia University Press, 195 1. Schneider, L. R. and Stevens, N. D. Personality characteristics associated with job-seeking behavior patterns. Vocational Guidance Quarterly, 197 1, 3, 194-200. Stevens, N. D. The relationship of placement readiness and placement success. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. New York University, 1960. Super, D. E. Psychology of careers. New York: Harper, 1956. Received: April 20, 1972.
Job-Seeking Behavior: A Segment of Vocational Development’ NANCY D. STEVENS Hunter College, City University of New York This paper reports two companion studies which establish that there is a significant relationship between an individual’s personality characteristics and his pattern of job-seeking behavior. Individuals who are tough-minded, independent and nonneurotic had specified job goals and self-actualized behavior. They were highly successful in obtaining jobs. Individuals who were sensitive, dependent and neurotic had vague goals and passive behavior. They failed to get jobs. Individuals who exhibited a mixture of the cited characteristics and behavior were also exploring career options. They had a modicum of success in obtaining jobs. Job-seeking behavior as a process of vocational development is discussed.
For the past three decades, vocational research has focused primarily on the behavior exhibited in occupational choice and on work adjustment, SO that we have some understanding of the processes involved in choosing a job goal and in adjusting to work. Super (1956) has indicated that an occupational choice which is made during the Exploration Stage of an individual’s vocational development is an implementation of his self-concept. When the individual has made such a choice, he is ready to enter the Establishment Stage by taking a job in his chosen field. Research on the vocational behavior exhibited in seeking a job has been neglected, so that we do not understand the process involved in how an individual’s self-concept may be implemented by his behavior in the job-seeking process. This report describes two research studies concerned with job-seeking behavior, that small segment of vocational behavior exhibited in the process of vocational development prior to work adjustment and contingent on occupational choice. The first study (Stevens, 1960) identified three job-seeking behavior patterns and their effect on success in obtaining a desired job goal. The second study (Schneider and Stevens, 1971) established the relationship between critical personality characteristics and the operational behavior in each job-seeking behavior pattern.
lRequests for reprints should be directed to Prof. Nancy D. Stevens, Associate Director of Career Counseling and Placement, Hunter College, 695 Park Avenue, New York NY 10021.
209 Copyright @ 1973 by Academic Press, Inc. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
210
STEVENS
IDENTIFICATION
OF JOB-SEEKING BEHAVIOR PATTERNS
The general problem involved identification of the differences in behavior of individuals seeking a desired job. From the observations of experienced placement interviewers, it was noted that an individual’s ability to mobilize his personal resources in order to attain his vocational goal is a critical factor in the successful job-getting process. Therefore, the individual whom placement interviewers evaluated as being “ready” for job placement have crystallized job goals, and exhibit more direct action toward these job goals than would individuals who do not have specified goals. It was hypothesized, therefore, that the characteristics of levels of placement readiness, as rated by experienced interviewers on the basis of the initial interview, have a significant relationship with success in obtaining a job, when placement success is evaluated in terms of obtaining a job on a desired level, in a desired geographical location, at a desired salary, and within a specified period of time. In order to test the hypothesis, it was necessary to identify differences in the behavioral characteristics of individuals seeking employment and to construct an instrument which could objectively measure levels of placement readiness, or the differences in job-seeking behavior. It also required the construction of scales which could critically determine the individual’s level of successin obtaining the job he desired.
METHOD Pilot Study A pilot study to identify characteristic differences in the behavior of job applicants was conducted at the education division of the New York University Placement Services. Twenty-four interviews of applicants seeking positions in the field of education were taped by two experienced placement interviewers. These interviews were sorted out into three groups composed of those registrants whose interview responses gave conclusive evidence of (A) being ready to take a specific job, (B) not being ready to take a specific job, and (C) being neither ready, nor unready to take a specific job. Registrant responses and questions were abstracted and analyzed for characteristics basic to each of these groups: A,B,C. Group A. Group A was composed of individuals who gave evidence of being ready for placement and having crystallized their job goals. A typical response was: “I want to be an English teacher. . .preferably on the North Shore of Long Island.” Their responses also indicated that they could select realistic goals by evaluating their skills and abilities in relation to job
JOB-SEEKING
BEHAVIOR
211
requirements. They gave evidence of being actively involved in seeking out prospective emplcyers who might hire them. This was illustrated by the comment: “Well, I’ve already communicated with all superintendents of schools within a radius of 30 miles.” Their job-seeking behavior was purposeful and goal-oriented. Crystallization and specification of goals, with independent self-actualized behavior seemed to be the characteristics of this group. Group B. Individuals in Group B gave evidence of being unready for placement, and appeared to be vague and confused about their job goals. Typical responses were: “I don’t know. I want a job . . . any job will do that you think I’m qualified for.“; and also, “I want to work with children in some way. I don’t know just how”; and again, “Get me a job, and I’ll take it.” They were passive to the point of seeking others to make decisions for them. Vagueness and passivity were their basic characteristics. Group C. Individuals in Group C seemed to be neither ready, nor unready for job placement. They indicated a mixture of responses which reflected the characteristics of individuals in groups A and B, in that they were often specific on some details concerning their job goals, but vague about others. They were passive in some of their job-seeking responsibilities, and yet self-actualized in others. They tended to ask 8% more questions than did individuals in Group A who had specified choices, and 15% more questions than did individuals in Group B who were vague and undecided. Group C seemed to be exploring tentative career choices with some conflict exhibited in their behavior. Reliability of Identifications Reliability of the evaluation made of the characteristic differences in the interview behavior of the 24 job-seeking applicants were tested by both an interrater agreement test and also by a test-retest. Two years after the initial evaluation, the interviews were reevaluated, and the Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation was used as the statistical measure for a test-retest. An r of .87 was obtained, indicating a high correlation between the initial and later evaluations. In the interrater judgment test, three judges evaluated 12 interviews which consisted of four interviews each from groups A, R, and C. There was a two out of three agreement in five cases and three out of three agreement in seven cases. The results of this test were better than the criterion of two out of three rater agreement considered necessary to establish the reliability of these identifications. As a result of both tests, the reliability of the evaluations determining the identification of three job-seeking behavior patterns was established. Subjects. One hundred subjects (male and female combined) who ap-
212
STEVENS
peared to be of the white race were selected from a population of graduating seniors, graduate students and alumni voluntarily registered with the New York University Placement Services. The criterion of racial identification by appearance was introduced solely to avoid overtly recognizable and possible ethnic prejudicial factors which might affect the test of the hypothesis. The fact that this method of identification might have been unreliable did not affect the study, because the investigator sought only to exclude those job applicants who might obviously have been subjected to a particular employer’s prejudice. Because religious faith was unobservable, unless a symbolic emblem was worn, there was no attempt to restrict the population by religious faith. In order to adequately test the hypothesis, applicants were selected who were seeking full-time jobs in educational fields which were known to have many vacancies. The subjects ranged in age from 22 to 61, and exhibited a wide range of experience and educational achievement in their chosen fields. Twenty-one percent were seeking their first teaching jobs. The others were seeking jobs which would aid their career advancement.
ResearchInstruments It was necessary to develop appropriate instruments to measure placement readiness and placement success. The Placement Readiness Scale is a lo-dimensional, 5-point scale based on the pilot study and the Ginzberg et al. (1951) developmental theory of occupational choice. Ginzberg postulated that an individual making an occupational choice goes through periods of (1) fantasy, (2) tentative choices, and (3) realistic choices, which consists of the exploration, crystallization and specification stages. Because the Realistic Period is the time when the individual specifies his vocational choice, and therefore, would be looking for a specified job in his crystallized field, the descriptive subheadings in the Realistic Period were selected to denote the three highest points on the Placement Readiness Scale. “Specification” was used for point 5, and denotes those individuals who are able to specify a definite job goal. “Crystallization” was used for point 4, and denotes those individuals who are able to crystallize an occupational field, although not necessarily able to specify a chosen job within the chosen field; and “Exploration” was used for point 3, and denotes those who are exploring possible vocational options. The first two of these descriptive stage classifications describes the characteristics of individuals in group A of the pilot study and denotes high placement readiness. The third descriptive classification describes the characteristics of group C in the pilot study and denotes moderate placement readiness. Ginzberg also described different individuals attempting to make a vocational choice. He found that some were passive and appeared to be floundering and confused. This described the characteristics of individuals in
JOB-SEEKING
213
BEHAVIOR
group B who were unready for placement. Therefore, the terms “Confusion” and “Passivity” were used for points 2 and 1, the lowest points on the scale, These descriptive classifications denote low placement readiness. The Placement Success Scale was constructed to measure the level of success in obtaining a job. It is a 7-dimensional scale which evaluates the individual’s placement success in terms of whether he (1) obtained a job; and if he did, whether it was in an (2) unpreferred setting (business, government), or in a preferred setting (education), (3) on a desired level, (4) in a desired field, (5) in a desired geographic location, (6) at a desired salary, and (7) within a specified period of time. The job that each individual obtained was evaluated by the scale so that levels of high, moderate and low placement success could be ascertained for every subject. The following null hypothesis was tested: the probability of a high level of placement success is the same for all applicants regardless of their level of placement success. It was tested at the .OS level of significance at (n-l), or 2 G’JYIndividuals with identified levels of high, moderate and low placement readiness were sorted out according to their measured level of placement success so that the null hypothesis could be tested. Results Highly significant results were obtained. Since the obtained X2 were clearly greater than the tabled X2 at the .05 level at 2 df (5.991), the null hypothesis was rejected in each of the three cases. The results clearly established the validity of the Placement Readiness Scale as an instrument capable of identifying characteristic differences in job-seeking behavior. It also established that the behavior exhibited in seeking a job has an effect on the individual’s ability to implement his self-concept by obtaining a job.
TABLE Relationship Placement readiness
High Moderate LOW
1
of Placement Readiness and Placement SuccessQ Placement Success HML 28 12 9
4 17 4
0 0 16
42.872 15.739 1.487
**p < .OOl **p < .OOl
**p < .os
aNote; Frequencies will not add up to the 100 subjects selected, because 10 subjects were “lost” before the study was concluded.
214
STEVENS ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS IN JOB-SEEKING BEHAVIOR PATTERNS
Because personality characteristics were observed to affect job-seeking behavior, further research (Schneider & Stevens, 1971) was conducted for the purpose of measuring the relationship of personality dimensions to the three patterns of job-seeking behavior. The qualities of self-actualization in some job-seekers who successfully obtained jobs indicated effective coping behavior and suggested personal adjustment. Others who gave evidence of being unable to function effectively in trying to obtain a job because of their passivity suggested possible neurotic manifestations in their personality development. This raised a question concerning the identification of personality dynamics involved in each style of behavior exhibited when a person seeks a job. The basic hypothesis of this study was that individuals with the characteristics of high placement readiness would be assertive, independent and tough-minded and nonneurotic with low levels of depression and anxiety; whereas, individuals with low placement readiness would be passive, dependent, sensitive and neurotic with high levels of depression and anxiety. Because individuals with moderate placement readiness exhibit a mixture of high and low placement readiness behaviors, it was hypothesized that these individuals would dynamically move through a counterdependent process.
METHOD
Subjects. One hundred and sixty-one (50 males and 101 females) subjects were selected randomly from a population of graduating seniors voluntarily registered with the Career Counseling and Placement office at Hunter College of the City University of New York. The sample appeared to be interracial and interfaith. They were seeking full-time jobs in business, government and non-profit social agencies. Insfruments. The Stevens Placement Readiness Scale (Stevens, 1960) was used to identify the level of the subjects’ placement readiness, inasmuch as the earlier study had established its validity and reliability in identifying the characteristics of three different patterns of job-seeking behavior. Sheier and Cattell’s Neurotic Scale Questionnaire was selected as a measure of personality characteristics, because its five scales give measures of sensitivitytough-mindedness, depression-cheerfulness, dominance-submissiveness, anxietynonanxiety, and a total composite neuroticism score. Because this was a pioneer exploration, scores were cut into discrete classes of extremes with high placement readiness (scores 4-5.99), low placement readiness (scores l-2.99), and moderate placement readiness (scores 3-3.99); high sensitivity, depression, anxiety and neuroticism (NSQ 8-lo), and
JOB-SEEKING
BEHAVIOR
215
tough-mindedness, cheerfulness, low depression and anxiety and low neuroticism (scores l-3). In addition, dominance-submissiveness, as measured by the NSQ, was divided into three groupings: dependent, submissive (scores 8-10) truly independent (scores 4-7) and counterdependent (scores l-3). The NSQ yields weighted Sten scores for men, women, and men and women combined. Only the results of the combined scores are presented here because these two studies are being presented as a unit, and the initial study identified its job-seeking patterns on a population of men and women combined, when it was found from the pilot study that the characteristics identified for each job-seeking behavior pattern were the same for both sexes. The chi-square test at 1 df and at t-he .05 level of significance was used. The statistical null hypothesis tested states that there would be no observable difference in the frequencies when comparing individuals with high placement readiness (PR 4-5.99) and (1) tough-mindedness (NSQ l-3) with low placement readiness (PR l-2.99) and sensitivity (NSQ 8-10); (2) cheerfulness (NSQ l-3) with low placement readiness (PR l-2.99) and depression (NSQ S-10); (3) low anxiety (NSQ l-3) with low placement readiness (PR l-2.99) and high anxiety (NSQ 8-10); (4) low neuroticism (NSQ l-3) with low placement readiness (PR l-2.99) and high depression (NSQ 8-10); (5) “truly independent” behavior (NSQ 4-7) with moderate placement readiness (PR 3-3.99) and “counter-dependent” behavior (NSQ l-3). Results Highly significant results were obtained which clearly indicated that the job-seeking behavior pattern with the characteristics of high placement readiness was associated with dominance, tough-mindedness and low neuroticism; whereas, the job-seeking behavior pattern with the characteristics of low placement readiness was related to submissiveness, sensitivity and high neuroticism. Since the obtained X2 were greater than the tabled X2 (3.841) at the .OS level and 1 df, the null hypotheses were rejected in each case. The characteristic personality dimensions of individuals with the jobseeking behavior pattern of moderate placement readiness were behaviorally and dynamically similar to those identified in both high and low placement readiness patterns. However, these individuals tended to resemble the individuals with high placement readiness patterns more than they did those with low placement readiness, which may account for their modicum of success in obtaining a job. A X2 = 3.69 was obtained in testing the basic hypothesis that they were in a counterdependent process. Inasmuch as this was significant at the .lO level of significance, but not at the .05 level, the basic hypothesis was accepted. However, the results indicated a strong direction toward counter-dependence inasmuch as the obtained X2 was approaching significance at the .05 level.
216
STEVENS TABLE 2 Relationship of Personality Characteristics to Levels of Placement Readiness
Personality characteristics
Placement readiness H L
Submissivenessdominance
1 55
12 22
19.221
***p < ,001
Sensitivitytough-mindedness
11 17
17 3
10.031
**p < ,005
Neuroticismnonneuroticism
6 17
17 5
7.163
*p< .Ol
Anxietynon-ankty
12 19
8 6
1.327
N.S.
Depressioncheerfulness
6 20
11 4
.006
N.S.
Although the emotions of anxiety and depression may be present in any given individual, they do not seem to be a component affecting the development of coping behavior in the job-seeking process for the sample studied. Discussion These companion studies have established that there is a significant relationship between the individual’s personality characteristics and his style of coping behavior in seeking a chosen job, which determines how successful he is going to be in implementing his self-concept. The dynamic process of job-seeking behavior can be viewed as a developmental one which reflects the individual’s stage of vocational development. The behavior expressed in all three job-seeking patterns does relate to different stages in both Ginzberg’s (1951) and Super’s (1956) theories on the process of vocational development (see Figure 1). The three different periods in Ginzberg’s theory are parallel to the substages defined by Super, and job-seeking behavior corresponds to these periods. That is, individuals with the characteristics of low placement readiness exhibited in their job-seeking behavior express confused, vague goals untempered by reality considerations, which are expressions of wish fulfillment. In effect, such individuals would be in the Fantasy Stage of vocational development as defined by Ginzberg; and they would be in the Fantasy substage of Super’s Exploration Stage. The age range of the subjects in the first study who had low placement readiness was from 25 to 61; whereas, both Ginzberg and Super identify the fantasy stage as occurring roughly from ages 6 to 11. It suggests that the process of vocational development for these individuals was stunted.
JOB-SEEKING
BEHAVIOR
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Individuals whith the characteristics of moderate placement readiness exhibited in their job-seeking behavior, express a blending of vague and semicrystallized goals and a tendency to explore career options. These individuals would be at Ginzberg’s Tentative Stage, and they could be in any one subperiod of that Stage: Interests, Capacities, Values, or Transitional. Depending on the progress of their vocational development, some subjects could be in the Exploration substage of Ginzberg’s Realistic Period. According to Super, they would be at the Tentative substage of the Exploration Stage. Individuals with the characteristics of high placement readiness exhibited in their job-seeking behavior, express crystallized and specific job goals. These individuals would be in Ginzberg’s Realistic Stage at either the Crystallized or Specification periods as well as in Super’s Realistic substage of the Exploration Stage. Individuals with specific goals and self-actualized behavior exhibit the most effective job-seeking behavior that results in obtaining a job. When this occurs, they enter the Establishment Stage defined by Super. See Figure 1. Job-seeking behavior as a developmental process meets some of Beilin’s (1955) criteria of general developmental principles, applied to the vocational area. Job-seeking behavior is differentiated into three patterns, each of which has its own characteristic behavior identifiable as levels of placement readiness. The characteristics of high placement readiness are self-actualized, independent behavior with crystallization and specificity of job goals; whereas, the characteristics of low placement readiness are passive, dependent behavior with vaguely defined goals. The characteristics of moderate placement readiness are a mixture of behavior exhibited in each of the other two patterns with a tendency toward exploration. The characteristic differences of these three patterns reflect the dynamics of different personality development. For the psychologically healthy individual, development is in the direction of greater differentiation; so that there is movement from vaguely defined fantasy goals toward specification of job goals with ever increasing consideration of reality factors. Job-seeking behavior also tends to move in the direction of independence, becoming increasingly influenced by the individual’s own preferences, rather than by the preferences of others. This direction of movement reflects the normal developing process of increasing maturation and integration of self, and is an expression of self-actualization. When job-seeking behavior is viewed as a continuous process, it gives evidence of occurring at a developmental pace. For the maturing individual who exhibits moderate placement readiness, the pace of development tends to be rapid at first and then begins to slow as an evaluative process is in operation, and the vast number of career options begins to be sorted out. For the mature individual with independent behavior who exhibits high placement readiness, the pace of development has slowed with time, because the range of career possibilities has been sorted out and reality factors have been increasingly considered in this process. Over a period of time, many options
Stevens:
Ginzberg:
Super:
I
I I Interest 1period
Fig. 1. Relationship
I I Vague goals I Untempered by reality. I Products of wish fulfillment ( Dependent behavior (Low Placement Readiness) 1
Fantasy stage
I
I Fantasy’substage
stage
I Transition period
stage
of job-seeking behavior development
I Exploration period
I
I
I
-r
I Specification of job goal within chosen field, or job goal which defines preferred job activity focus. Independent behavior. (High Placement Readiness)
I Specification period
development.
I Crystallization of field of work and job activity focus. Independent Behavior. (High Placement Readiness)
Realistic stage I Crystallization period
Realistic substage
to Ginzberg’s and Super’s theories of vocational
I Exploring job goals in context of realities of job market. Behavior becomes more independent than dependent (Moderate Placement Readiness)
Job seeking behavior development
Tentative I Values period
I Exploring identification of interests, abilities, values and related job fields. Dependent-Independent behavior. (Moderate Placement Readiness)
I Capabilities period
Exploration Tentative’substage
JOB-SEEKING BEHAVIOR
219
have been eliminated so that the range of possibilities is continuously narrowed and a choice of field and job have been selected. For the dependent, immature individual, who exhibits low placement readiness characteristics, the pace of development appears to be stunted. Despite periods of career exploration over a length of time, an evaluative process is not in operation, and the range of possible choices is not sorted out and narrowed down. A career choice remains uncrystallized and the individual continues to be unfocused and confused. In evaluating the vocational maturity of an individual, it is not only necessary to understand how an individual makes a career choice and how he adjusts to work, but it is also necessary to understand his style of job-seeking behavior. Job-seeking behavior is the bridge linking job choice to the desired job. Without effective job-seeking behavior, a job is not successfully obtained, and the task of adjusting to work cannot be experienced by the individual. When job-seeking behavior is also understood as a segment of vocational development, we have the chance to construct a theory of vocational development which can totally embrace all the vocational behaviors involved in the vocational aspects of life.
REFERENCES Beilin, H. Applications of general developmental principles to the vocational area. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1955, 2, 55-57. Ginzberg, E., Ginsburg, S., Axelrad, S., and Herma, J. Occupational choice. New York: Columbia University Press, 195 1. Schneider, L. R. and Stevens, N. D. Personality characteristics associated with job-seeking behavior patterns. Vocational Guidance Quarterly, 197 1, 3, 194-200. Stevens, N. D. The relationship of placement readiness and placement success. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. New York University, 1960. Super, D. E. Psychology of careers. New York: Harper, 1956. Received: April 20, 1972.