- Email: [email protected]
Knowledge workers' use of support software in Saudi Arabia
Information & Management 25 (1993) 303-311 North-Holland
Mawdudur Rahman Suffolk University, Boston, M4,
303
Introduction USA
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Knowledge workers (KW) perform key roles in managing financial and economic activities in an enterprise. A knowledge worker is a professional ‘who applies ideas, concepts and information rather than manual skill or brawn’ (Dalton and Thompson, 1971). Knowledge workers assume
The study reports results from a survey, in Saudi Arabia, of the use of applications software by knowledge workers. Results indicate that user productivity is positively related to satisfaction and negatively to alienation. Knowledge workers in Saudi Arabia generally use low-end applications software. Expert Systems and 4 GE’s are rarely used in a micro-environment. Informal knowledge sources are more significantly correlated with higher proficiency and productivity of knowledge workers than are the formal sources. Computer periodicals are an important information source for successful users. Younger knowledge workers are more productive than the older ones. Sharing with others has a negative effect on productivity. Implications of the use of applications software by knowledge workers in developing countries are discussed.
Mamdudur Rahman is a Professor of
Abdullah Abdul-Gader
Keywords: Knowledge worker; Knowledge workers’ support software (KWSS); Applications software; Satisfaction; Alienation; Productivity; Saudi Arabia; End-user
Accounting at Suffolk University, Boston. He did his Ph.D. from Manchester University, England, and M.B.A. from Indiana University. His teaching and research areas are in AIS, MIS, Management control, and Accounting and behavior. Ye coauthored two books, one in AIS and the other in MIS. He published in
Accounting, Organization and Society, Accounting Systems Journal, Journal of Accounting Education, Journal of
Petroleum Accounting and Finance, Journal of Management, Business and Economics, and Economica in Aziendale. He presented papers in National and regional conferences of American Accounting Association and Decision Sciences Institute. He developed business cases and consulted for foreign companies in accounting systems and management controls. He also taught at Saskatchewan University in Canada and University of Petroleum and Minerals in Saudi Arabia as a visiting professor, and at Dhaka University, Bangladesh. Abdul-Gader is an Associate Pro or of Management Information Systems at Ring Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. His degree includes B.S. and form KFUPM and Ph.D. from the University of Colorado. He published in the Journal of Management Infor-
Abdulla
Correspondence to: M. Rahman, School of Management, Suf-
folk University, Boston, MZ 02108-2770, USA. * Authors are grateful to Suffolk University, Boston and Ring Fahd University of Petroleum and inerals, Saudi Arabia rces, to the end-users fol ionnaire and to Professor reviewers for their helpful
0378-7206/93/$06.00
mation Systems, Information Resources Management Journal, hzformation and Management, and the Middle d Business Reciew. East Economic
owledge-based sysIS ~~~~a~ research interest includes terns development, en d-user computing, and social impacts of information technolog W.
0 1993 - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved
304
roles of managers, analysts, engineers, accountants, treasurers, planners, and controllers, and work at different organizational levels. The degree of their influence on organizational decision making and performance depends on the nature of their responsibilities. Nevertheless, the quality of decisions made, depends on their ability to process and use information. The influence of computer technology on knowledge worker’s information is indisputable [Drucker, 1988; Galbraith, 1973; Ives and Learmonth, 1984, Cash et al., 19881. Information manipulation, interpretation, communication, and use constitute major tasks of knowledge workers. Adequate computer skill is indispensable in performing these tasks efficiently and effectively. Generally, KW’s job is to provide and/or use relevant and reliable information. Such information can be enhanced through the use of information technologies (IT). Advantages in speed, accuracy, storage capacity, communication, real time manipulation, reporting, complexity handling, and analytical flexibility are becoming easily attainable through IT. KW’s skills in the use of computer determine the success of an enterprise in a world of increasing competition and globalization of financial and industrial markets. Globally, the computer has become a necessary medium to gain competitive advantage [Porter, 19801. Scholars have emphasized the importance of KW’s computer efficiency in developing countries like Saudi Arabia. (Bogod, 1979; Tsai and Wei, 1987). As developing countries are expanding industrially and commercially, the volume of domestic consumption, export production and imports is growing at a very high rate. This new phenomenon has created and expanded the demand on the supply and use of information (Abdul Ghani and al-Sakran, 1988). Not surprisingly, the computer has emerged as an essential element in developing countries to support the need for regular, real-time, and dependable information in business and industry. is study provides empirical evidence of the use of the computer in business and industry in
tion.
Information & Management
Research
Methodology Study variables The of impact on user productivity and user satisfaction is usually said to be as an indicator of the success of computer utilization in business and industry. Research in computer utilization includes many variables to study the nature and extent of computer utilization. Variables selected in this study are primarily derived from studies done by Igbaria (1992), and Abdul-Gader (199Oa). User productivity It is assumed that computer applications influence user efficiency and improve knowledge workers’ productivity. However, it may affect productivity of different users in different ways. Depending on orientation and background, some users may achieve higher productivity than others. Productivity may also be related to user satisfaction and knowledge level. The facets of user productivity included in this study are: (1) time saving, (2) output volume, and (c) output quality. To indicate which software, used by a respondent, contributes to his/her productivity, each of the facets was scored on a Likert scale from I to 5, with 5 being highest and 1 the least. User satisfaction Some researchers have suggested that user satisfaction with computer applications is an indicator of computer systems success (Cheney, et al., 1986; Montazemi, 1988). Generally, user satisfaction enhances employee morale and reduces turnover and absenteeism. Moreover, a higher user satisfaction in computer applications is essential for a continuous growth in the degree of use and ability in handling complexity. user satisfaction was measured by a I2 ert Tor tional environment. Computer use environment The positive influence of the computer
envi-
Information & management
in this regard. measured by self-reporte
gle item questions.
L!xYroles The level of use and productivity are related to the roles of the s. They may be a a designer and evaluator of inforIn the business and industry environment, an organization apacity to process information and handle lexity depends on er roles included in the user role(s) performed. osed by Davis (1987) are: data or recipient
of outputs
User-developer: Formulator of retrievals, developing information processing routines, and writing ands using application software. processing co Large application developer: Active member of a project team for large application development. Information requirement specifier : Specifier of information requirements in end-user application development. Data base designer and user: Designer and user of large data bases. Data and informa5on evaluator: Evaluator of the quality and appropriateness of data. Information System controller and auditor : Auditor and controller of data processing. ondents were asked to select one or more of the above to specify their computer user roles. Ihowledge workers’ support software Applications software (ASW) used by the Kw’s are classified as knowledge workers’ support software (KWSS). Those included here are: word spreadsheet, statistical package, processing, graphics, modelling software, electronic mail, data base management, audit, desktop publishing, and Arabic software. Lee (1986) in his study of micro usage included word processing, et, database, graphics, other packaged and own programming as support software.
ave access to different media this study we ine job learning, for-
owledge sources are ore in enhancing users proficiency and proUsers were asked to identify one or owiedge source they had used for each of the KWSS. I~fo~atio~ source The users were to rank order seven information sources computer use, according to their level 3 rtance. These sources are: coworkers, friends, data processing staff, vendors, Computer periodicals, systems manuzls, and radio/T.V.. The first six were used by Lee in his survey. User proficiency User proficiency in applications software varies among the users and between the use of different ASW’s. User proficiency influences his/her level of use and productivity. It is no: necessary for a knowledge worker to possess the same level of skills in all applications software. Though the desired level of skill and the nature of software depend on the job performed, it is also related to knowledge worker’s personal orientation towards the applications. As in the knowledge source, the KW’s were asked to indicate their level of knowledge in each KWSS by assigning a number from 1 to 4 (1 = None, 2 = Introductory, 3 = Intermediate, and 4 = Advanced). Computer alienation People who have negative attitude towards computer are likely to be low level users. It is important to find out the knowledge workers’ attitude towards computer and the affects it has on user productivity. Traditionally, social as well as work alienation have been linked to technology artifa,is (Lystad, 1972; Meltzer and Rosow, 1978; Seeman, 1983). It is only recently that an alienation construct about computers has been suggested. Computer alienation is defined as the socially and psychologically induced subjective state of separation from computers. To measure computer alienation, a 22 item psychometrically tested scale has been used (Abdul-Gader I990b; Minch and Ray 1986, 1987). User background information on age, experience, edUser backgroun size, and monthly salary cational levels, co were collected to provide descriptive statistics.
Infonnution & Managemtvt
and procedure
Self-reported data on variables relating to environment, roles, information source, proficiency, edge source, and user productivity were collected through single item questions. Alienation and satisfaction data were collected through k&ert-type scales previously constructed and validated in other studies. The questionnaire was pretested among a group of 20 part-time M.B.A. students, all of whom were working in business and/or industry. The questionnaire was distributed to managers and professionals in selected companies; these people were users of microcomputers. The questionnaires were distributed through contact persons to KW’s who agreed to participate in the study. Most of these were M.B.A. students, but working full time. A total of 200 questionnaires were distributed and 171 useable responses were received Of these, 11 qon-users respcnses were excluded from subsequent analyses. Out of 160 respondents 93.3% have college or university degrees. Averhly salary for the respondents is above age SR. and 84% have a salary greater than SRS,OOO, while 17% have more than SR.lS,OOO. .A wide range of industries, in size and business, was represented in the sample. However, most (53%) respondents were from oil or oil related industries, and of the remaining, 11% were from banking, 20% from chemical and manufacturing. The functional areas of the respondents included accounting, engineering, marketing, general mmagement, system training, production, planning, and purchasing. ore than 80% were from engineering, general management, and systems. Table ows descriptive statistics on respondents’ demographic profiles.
Table 1 Biographic data.
Age Experience Years in the present company c,Jmpany size No. of employees
Mean
SD.
36.23 13.75
8.17 8.64
71
25
40
1
5.97
4.45
18
1
22,441 (maximum 45,
Nationalityof KU+:
Total responses
Saudi
159 100%
65 41%
Other Arabs and GEC 11 7%
Asian and African 50 31%
American and European 33 21%
Missing = I
Relatively low percentages for other user roles indicate that the majority of knowledge workers are low end-users. Apparently managers in Saudi Arabia as KW’s do not involve themselves in design, analysis, control, and evaluation of applications. Use of diferent
A total of twelve KWSS were included in the survey to investigate the frequency of their use and the proficiency of the users. In arranged the applications software in usage (1 being the most used). The table indicates that word processi spreadsheet are the two st frequently used applications software. Gra cs and database are used by more than 50% of the users. programming is still popular.
Table 2 User roles.
User roles
ole classifications ents were allowed
User category
No. of respondents
ercentage * of total
User Used-developer Large appl. dev Info. req. spec. Data base desgnr.
128 65 23 24 12
38.7 13.7 IQ.3 7.1
76.:‘
word processing and spreadsheet. Word ssing shows the highest percentage of res in the advanced proficiency range. Which so high for spreadsheet. Own programming category showed consistently high percentages in ah three categories. Relat&ely low use or non-use of software is related to the level of proficiency of the users. Based on these results, the application software used in Saudi Arabia can be classified as four different user proficiency groups: th
ntages of software e range (45%) for
Q. High proficiency: Spreadsheet and Word processing. b. Med-high proficiency: Data base, graphics, own programming, Statistical package, and Electronic mail. c. Med-low proficiency: Desk top publishing and Arabic software. d. Low proficiency: Expert systems, Modelling language, and External data base. ffiowledge source Table 5 reveals an interesting phenomenon. Most of the high and med-high proficiency users, word processing and spreadsheet, attain user expertise through informal means, i.e., e job learning and self-training. learning found where a e next college degree was found useful is in learning If training is also found to be
Information & Management Table 6 Significance of knowledge source on KW’s proficiency in spreadsheet (SPS) and processing WP). Level of proficiency
Number of responses N=160
X2 value and significance
Use of
No use of
26 47 16 5
6 25 13 22
26.14 P < 0.01
16 46 30 3
11 26 13 25
24.72 P < 0.01
serf-training High Med LOW
No SPS High Med LOW
No
On the job learning WP . Hi& 13 Med 38 LOW 14 3 No SPS High Med LOW
No
17 31 10 3
19
34 15 24 10 41 23 25
14.44 P < 0.01
puter with others and sh iring has negative effects on the hours of use pe we Q.Ql), time saved (r = -4.1 -0.224, p < 0.00, and qu 0.05). Sharing computer deems to influence users productivity negativeltl. Table 7 shows significant X2 values for sharing and not sharing in associatir>n with productivitjr measures for spreadsheet and word processing For the .two most frequently used ASW’s, r,harint; t&h others significantly affects volume of output, however, for the quality of output and time saving, results are different. For use of spreadsccets sharing affects time saving significantly, while for word processing it is the quaiity of output that is affected significantly. ‘s output is adversely afThis means that Table 7 Relationships between sharing with others and productivity for spreadsheet GPS) and word processing (WP). Level of productivity
24.74 P < 0.01
X2 value and significance
Sharing
Not sharing
19 36 14
35 38 16
4.6 N.S.
22 24 23
43 28 15
12.25 P < 0.05
16 34 19
35 28 23
7.38 N.S.
14 24 31
34 33 19
,?utput quality WP High 26 Med 31 LOW 12
47 15 23
Time saving High Med LOW
ther there is little company formal training or the training is not effective. Table 6 shows significant relationships between knowledge source (self-training and on the job learning) and proficiency in word processing and spreadsheet. The table show that the use of self-training and on-the-job learning make significant difference in enhancing users’ proficiency levels. It can be observed that computer skill development, like an%’other skill, depends on practice i informal situations. Another conclusion can be software use and user proficie users’ 0 otivation.
Number cf responses N=l60
SPS High Med LOW
Output volume High Med LOW
SPS High ed LOW
19
25 25
37 27 22
17.63 P < 0.01
Information & ~a~age~e~t
Table 8 ~~~at~o~s between insolation source variabtes and productivity and proficiency vatixbles. Information suurce
D.P
Periodicals
Vendor
-0.113
0.203 * 0.171 ** 0.171 ** 0.197 *
0.039 0.039 0.042
P~~~e~~ Tune Saving output VoI
Volume of output - 0.185 0.303 * ** Quality of output
Friends
**
* Sig. at P < 0.01 * * Sig. at P < 0.05 *** Sig. at PCO.10 (These significance levels will be used for all tables.)
fected by sharing, and it may also and time saving.
Table 11 Information source.
ct quality
Productivity and demographic variables Table 8 shows correlations between productivity variables: time saving, volume, quality of output, and users’ age, use years, education levels, and the number of hours used per week. Negative correlations of productivity variables with age signify that younger KW’s are more productive users of computer. Significant positive correlations of productivity variables with use years in indicate that KWs with more use experience are more productive. Productivity is also related to users educational levels. KW’s with higher educational level (college and university degrees) were found to be more productive. Table 9 Descriptive statistics.
Use years Time saving Output volume Output quality Computer alienation User satisfaction Use hour/week Expect to use
Mean
SD.
Max
Min
3.00 24.90 23.69 25.10 60.5 1 49.27 1.80 3.35
1.29 6.81 7.31 7.45 15.45 7.11 0.81 0.96
5 59 52 55 108 60 3 4
0 14 14 14 27 25 1 1
5.42 4.33 4.00 4.30 5.94 2.7 2.3
1.80 1.94 1.99 1.95 2.11 2.27 1.97
7 7 7 7 7 7 7
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Information
Use year
Use hour/ tieek
Comnt. in
Computer periodicals
0.148 **
0.168 **
- 0.037
Al1 other information source variables showed N.S. results.
Productivity and infomation source Seven information source variables were used to investigate their influence on KWs software use. As shown in Table 9, most preferred information sources are co-workers and vendors. However, Tabies 10 and 11 show computer periodicals appear to have significant effects on the KW productivity variables: proficiency, and use intensity. Productivity and satisfaction Table 12 shows the correlations of productivity variables: time saving, volume, and quality of output with satisfaction. Significant positive correlations of satisfaction with the productivity variables indicate that user satisfaction may increase productivity. The overall satisfaction score was also high. Out of maximum possible score of 70, the average satisfaction score was 49.25 with SD. of 7.11.
soup%e Friends DP dept ~rnp~ter periodicals
Table 12 Correlations between productivity and satisfaction alienation. Productivity
Time saving
Volume of output
QuaW of output
Satisfaction ienation
0.211 * -0.143 ***
0.190 * -0.183 *
0.201 -0.421 *
3 10
Information & Management
Reseurch
Productidy and computer alienation Table 11 also shows correlations of productivity variables with computer alienation. Significant negative correlations of productivity variables with users’ alienation indicate that users who have negative feelings about computer use are not as productive. It may be observed that, in order to encourage managers to use computer, psychological distance between them and the computer should be reduced through organizational development methods.
The study reports empirical results from a survey of computer utilization in Saudi Arabia. It shows that younger knowledge workers use computers more than the older ones. KW’s mainly perform simple user or user developer roles. They primarily use low-end application software for routine work. The most commonly used software include word processing and spreadsheet; DSS are least used. Few users have advanced proficiency in software. Users reported that their most important knowledge sources are self-training and on the job leaning, formal training having less impact. Sharing with others adversely affects productivity. It has been observed that, computer periodicals as an information source has significant impact on productivity, skills, and use intensity. Age has negative effect on productivity, while education and use experience have positive effects. User satisfaction is positively related to productivity and computer alienation is negatively related. Findings can be used to address the issue of overall improvement of knowledge workers’ efficiency in developing countries like Saudi Arabia. Special attention should be given to t and numbers of in-company formal traini Companies should encourage the use of c puter for decision making and train employees m 4GL, s analytical tools, graphics etc. It see rs are quick to adapt to
lenges from competition, managers must make quick and complex decisions. Timely information is essential to support them. Results fro e useful in developing 1s for business decision competitive environment.
ferences Abdul Ghani, J. and Al&&ran, S. “The Changing Data Processing Environment in Saudi Arabia,” Information and Management, Vol. 14, 1988, pp. 61-66. Abdul-Gader, A.H., “End-User Computing Success Factors: Further Evidence from a Developing Nation,” Information Resources Management Journal, Vol. 3, Winter, 199Oa, pp. 1-13. Abdul-Gader, A.H., “The Impact of Computer Training on Attitude among University students; An Empirical Study,” (in Arabic), Risalat Ul-Khaleej Al-Arabi Journal, Volume 10, No. 34, 199Ob, pp. 73-96. Bogod, J., The Role of Computing in Developing Countries, London, U.K, The British Computer Society, 1979. Cash, J., F. McFarlan. and J. McKenney, Corporate hfomzation Systems Management: The Issues Facing Senior &ecutives, Homewood: Irwin, 1988.
Cheney, P.H., Mann, R.I., and Amoroso, D.L. “Organizational Factors Affecting the Success of End-User Computing,” The Journual of MIS, Volume 3, Summer 1986, pp. 65-80. Davis, Gordon B., “Commentary on Information Systems”, Accounting Horizons, March 1987, pp.75-79. Doll, W.J., and Torkzadeh, G., “The Measurement of EndUser Computing Satisfaction,” MIS Quarterly, Vol. 12, No 2, 1988, pp. 259-274. Dalton, G.W. aud Thompson, P.H., “Accelerating Obsolescence of Older Engineers.” Harvard Business Review, September-October 1971, pp. 57-61. Drucker, P., “The Coming of the New Organization,” Harvard Business Review, 66, 1988 pp. 45-53. Ein-Dor, P. and Segev, E., “Organizational Context and the Success of Management Information Systems,” Management Science, Vol. 24, June 1978, pp. 1064-1077. Galbraith, J., Designing Complex Organizations, Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1973. Igbaria, agid, “An Examination of Microcomputer Usage in Taiwan.” Information and management, 22 (1992) pp. I928. Ives, B. and Learmonth, G., “Information Systems as a Competitive Weapon,” Communication of the ACM, Vol. 27, No. 12, 1984, pp. 1193-1201. .S., “Use Pattern and Sources of Assistance for Personal Computer Users” , lMIS Quarterly, Vol 10, No. 4, LYS
usiness and in
13. eltzer, L. a
ienation: A Review of Current Literarterly. I7 ( OSOW,
ts
of
Information & Management the Literature. Scardale, New York: Work in Institute, 1978.
IV. Rahman, A. Abdul-Gader /Support
erica
Minch, R. and Ray, N., “Alienation and Computer User Attitude”, Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference of Information System, San Diego, California, 1986, pp. 168-180. Minch, R. and Ray, N., “Computer Anxiety and Alienation: Toward a Definitive and Parsimonious Measure”, Working Paper, Boise State University, 1987. Montazemi, A.R., “Factors Affecting Information Satisfaction in the Context of Small Business Environment”, MS Quarterly, June 1988, pp. 239-256. Porter, M., Competitive Strategy Technique for Analyzing Industries and Competitors, Free Press, New York, NY. 1980.
somare in Saudi Arabia
311
Seeman, M., “Alienation Motifs in Contemporary Theorizing: The Hidden Continuity of the Classic Themes”, Social Psychology Quatier&, 4-6, 1983, pp. 171-184. Tsai, S.D.H. and Wei, “The Empirical Study of Computer Adoption Behaviors in Medium and Small Business of Taiwan,” Proceedings of the Pan-Pacific Conference IV for Business. Economics & Technological &change. May 1987,
pp. 891-898. Yaverbaum, G., “Critical Factors in the user Environment: An Experimental Study of Users, Organizations, and Tasks,” MIS QuarlerIy, Vol. 12, No. 1, 1988, pp. 75-88.
Mawdudur Rahman Suffolk University, Boston, M4,
303
Introduction USA
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Knowledge workers (KW) perform key roles in managing financial and economic activities in an enterprise. A knowledge worker is a professional ‘who applies ideas, concepts and information rather than manual skill or brawn’ (Dalton and Thompson, 1971). Knowledge workers assume
The study reports results from a survey, in Saudi Arabia, of the use of applications software by knowledge workers. Results indicate that user productivity is positively related to satisfaction and negatively to alienation. Knowledge workers in Saudi Arabia generally use low-end applications software. Expert Systems and 4 GE’s are rarely used in a micro-environment. Informal knowledge sources are more significantly correlated with higher proficiency and productivity of knowledge workers than are the formal sources. Computer periodicals are an important information source for successful users. Younger knowledge workers are more productive than the older ones. Sharing with others has a negative effect on productivity. Implications of the use of applications software by knowledge workers in developing countries are discussed.
Mamdudur Rahman is a Professor of
Abdullah Abdul-Gader
Keywords: Knowledge worker; Knowledge workers’ support software (KWSS); Applications software; Satisfaction; Alienation; Productivity; Saudi Arabia; End-user
Accounting at Suffolk University, Boston. He did his Ph.D. from Manchester University, England, and M.B.A. from Indiana University. His teaching and research areas are in AIS, MIS, Management control, and Accounting and behavior. Ye coauthored two books, one in AIS and the other in MIS. He published in
Accounting, Organization and Society, Accounting Systems Journal, Journal of Accounting Education, Journal of
Petroleum Accounting and Finance, Journal of Management, Business and Economics, and Economica in Aziendale. He presented papers in National and regional conferences of American Accounting Association and Decision Sciences Institute. He developed business cases and consulted for foreign companies in accounting systems and management controls. He also taught at Saskatchewan University in Canada and University of Petroleum and Minerals in Saudi Arabia as a visiting professor, and at Dhaka University, Bangladesh. Abdul-Gader is an Associate Pro or of Management Information Systems at Ring Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. His degree includes B.S. and form KFUPM and Ph.D. from the University of Colorado. He published in the Journal of Management Infor-
Abdulla
Correspondence to: M. Rahman, School of Management, Suf-
folk University, Boston, MZ 02108-2770, USA. * Authors are grateful to Suffolk University, Boston and Ring Fahd University of Petroleum and inerals, Saudi Arabia rces, to the end-users fol ionnaire and to Professor reviewers for their helpful
0378-7206/93/$06.00
mation Systems, Information Resources Management Journal, hzformation and Management, and the Middle d Business Reciew. East Economic
owledge-based sysIS ~~~~a~ research interest includes terns development, en d-user computing, and social impacts of information technolog W.
0 1993 - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved
304
roles of managers, analysts, engineers, accountants, treasurers, planners, and controllers, and work at different organizational levels. The degree of their influence on organizational decision making and performance depends on the nature of their responsibilities. Nevertheless, the quality of decisions made, depends on their ability to process and use information. The influence of computer technology on knowledge worker’s information is indisputable [Drucker, 1988; Galbraith, 1973; Ives and Learmonth, 1984, Cash et al., 19881. Information manipulation, interpretation, communication, and use constitute major tasks of knowledge workers. Adequate computer skill is indispensable in performing these tasks efficiently and effectively. Generally, KW’s job is to provide and/or use relevant and reliable information. Such information can be enhanced through the use of information technologies (IT). Advantages in speed, accuracy, storage capacity, communication, real time manipulation, reporting, complexity handling, and analytical flexibility are becoming easily attainable through IT. KW’s skills in the use of computer determine the success of an enterprise in a world of increasing competition and globalization of financial and industrial markets. Globally, the computer has become a necessary medium to gain competitive advantage [Porter, 19801. Scholars have emphasized the importance of KW’s computer efficiency in developing countries like Saudi Arabia. (Bogod, 1979; Tsai and Wei, 1987). As developing countries are expanding industrially and commercially, the volume of domestic consumption, export production and imports is growing at a very high rate. This new phenomenon has created and expanded the demand on the supply and use of information (Abdul Ghani and al-Sakran, 1988). Not surprisingly, the computer has emerged as an essential element in developing countries to support the need for regular, real-time, and dependable information in business and industry. is study provides empirical evidence of the use of the computer in business and industry in
tion.
Information & Management
Research
Methodology Study variables The of impact on user productivity and user satisfaction is usually said to be as an indicator of the success of computer utilization in business and industry. Research in computer utilization includes many variables to study the nature and extent of computer utilization. Variables selected in this study are primarily derived from studies done by Igbaria (1992), and Abdul-Gader (199Oa). User productivity It is assumed that computer applications influence user efficiency and improve knowledge workers’ productivity. However, it may affect productivity of different users in different ways. Depending on orientation and background, some users may achieve higher productivity than others. Productivity may also be related to user satisfaction and knowledge level. The facets of user productivity included in this study are: (1) time saving, (2) output volume, and (c) output quality. To indicate which software, used by a respondent, contributes to his/her productivity, each of the facets was scored on a Likert scale from I to 5, with 5 being highest and 1 the least. User satisfaction Some researchers have suggested that user satisfaction with computer applications is an indicator of computer systems success (Cheney, et al., 1986; Montazemi, 1988). Generally, user satisfaction enhances employee morale and reduces turnover and absenteeism. Moreover, a higher user satisfaction in computer applications is essential for a continuous growth in the degree of use and ability in handling complexity. user satisfaction was measured by a I2 ert Tor tional environment. Computer use environment The positive influence of the computer
envi-
Information & management
in this regard. measured by self-reporte
gle item questions.
L!xYroles The level of use and productivity are related to the roles of the s. They may be a a designer and evaluator of inforIn the business and industry environment, an organization apacity to process information and handle lexity depends on er roles included in the user role(s) performed. osed by Davis (1987) are: data or recipient
of outputs
User-developer: Formulator of retrievals, developing information processing routines, and writing ands using application software. processing co Large application developer: Active member of a project team for large application development. Information requirement specifier : Specifier of information requirements in end-user application development. Data base designer and user: Designer and user of large data bases. Data and informa5on evaluator: Evaluator of the quality and appropriateness of data. Information System controller and auditor : Auditor and controller of data processing. ondents were asked to select one or more of the above to specify their computer user roles. Ihowledge workers’ support software Applications software (ASW) used by the Kw’s are classified as knowledge workers’ support software (KWSS). Those included here are: word spreadsheet, statistical package, processing, graphics, modelling software, electronic mail, data base management, audit, desktop publishing, and Arabic software. Lee (1986) in his study of micro usage included word processing, et, database, graphics, other packaged and own programming as support software.
ave access to different media this study we ine job learning, for-
owledge sources are ore in enhancing users proficiency and proUsers were asked to identify one or owiedge source they had used for each of the KWSS. I~fo~atio~ source The users were to rank order seven information sources computer use, according to their level 3 rtance. These sources are: coworkers, friends, data processing staff, vendors, Computer periodicals, systems manuzls, and radio/T.V.. The first six were used by Lee in his survey. User proficiency User proficiency in applications software varies among the users and between the use of different ASW’s. User proficiency influences his/her level of use and productivity. It is no: necessary for a knowledge worker to possess the same level of skills in all applications software. Though the desired level of skill and the nature of software depend on the job performed, it is also related to knowledge worker’s personal orientation towards the applications. As in the knowledge source, the KW’s were asked to indicate their level of knowledge in each KWSS by assigning a number from 1 to 4 (1 = None, 2 = Introductory, 3 = Intermediate, and 4 = Advanced). Computer alienation People who have negative attitude towards computer are likely to be low level users. It is important to find out the knowledge workers’ attitude towards computer and the affects it has on user productivity. Traditionally, social as well as work alienation have been linked to technology artifa,is (Lystad, 1972; Meltzer and Rosow, 1978; Seeman, 1983). It is only recently that an alienation construct about computers has been suggested. Computer alienation is defined as the socially and psychologically induced subjective state of separation from computers. To measure computer alienation, a 22 item psychometrically tested scale has been used (Abdul-Gader I990b; Minch and Ray 1986, 1987). User background information on age, experience, edUser backgroun size, and monthly salary cational levels, co were collected to provide descriptive statistics.
Infonnution & Managemtvt
and procedure
Self-reported data on variables relating to environment, roles, information source, proficiency, edge source, and user productivity were collected through single item questions. Alienation and satisfaction data were collected through k&ert-type scales previously constructed and validated in other studies. The questionnaire was pretested among a group of 20 part-time M.B.A. students, all of whom were working in business and/or industry. The questionnaire was distributed to managers and professionals in selected companies; these people were users of microcomputers. The questionnaires were distributed through contact persons to KW’s who agreed to participate in the study. Most of these were M.B.A. students, but working full time. A total of 200 questionnaires were distributed and 171 useable responses were received Of these, 11 qon-users respcnses were excluded from subsequent analyses. Out of 160 respondents 93.3% have college or university degrees. Averhly salary for the respondents is above age SR. and 84% have a salary greater than SRS,OOO, while 17% have more than SR.lS,OOO. .A wide range of industries, in size and business, was represented in the sample. However, most (53%) respondents were from oil or oil related industries, and of the remaining, 11% were from banking, 20% from chemical and manufacturing. The functional areas of the respondents included accounting, engineering, marketing, general mmagement, system training, production, planning, and purchasing. ore than 80% were from engineering, general management, and systems. Table ows descriptive statistics on respondents’ demographic profiles.
Table 1 Biographic data.
Age Experience Years in the present company c,Jmpany size No. of employees
Mean
SD.
36.23 13.75
8.17 8.64
71
25
40
1
5.97
4.45
18
1
22,441 (maximum 45,
Nationalityof KU+:
Total responses
Saudi
159 100%
65 41%
Other Arabs and GEC 11 7%
Asian and African 50 31%
American and European 33 21%
Missing = I
Relatively low percentages for other user roles indicate that the majority of knowledge workers are low end-users. Apparently managers in Saudi Arabia as KW’s do not involve themselves in design, analysis, control, and evaluation of applications. Use of diferent
A total of twelve KWSS were included in the survey to investigate the frequency of their use and the proficiency of the users. In arranged the applications software in usage (1 being the most used). The table indicates that word processi spreadsheet are the two st frequently used applications software. Gra cs and database are used by more than 50% of the users. programming is still popular.
Table 2 User roles.
User roles
ole classifications ents were allowed
User category
No. of respondents
ercentage * of total
User Used-developer Large appl. dev Info. req. spec. Data base desgnr.
128 65 23 24 12
38.7 13.7 IQ.3 7.1
76.:‘
word processing and spreadsheet. Word ssing shows the highest percentage of res in the advanced proficiency range. Which so high for spreadsheet. Own programming category showed consistently high percentages in ah three categories. Relat&ely low use or non-use of software is related to the level of proficiency of the users. Based on these results, the application software used in Saudi Arabia can be classified as four different user proficiency groups: th
ntages of software e range (45%) for
Q. High proficiency: Spreadsheet and Word processing. b. Med-high proficiency: Data base, graphics, own programming, Statistical package, and Electronic mail. c. Med-low proficiency: Desk top publishing and Arabic software. d. Low proficiency: Expert systems, Modelling language, and External data base. ffiowledge source Table 5 reveals an interesting phenomenon. Most of the high and med-high proficiency users, word processing and spreadsheet, attain user expertise through informal means, i.e., e job learning and self-training. learning found where a e next college degree was found useful is in learning If training is also found to be
Information & Management Table 6 Significance of knowledge source on KW’s proficiency in spreadsheet (SPS) and processing WP). Level of proficiency
Number of responses N=160
X2 value and significance
Use of
No use of
26 47 16 5
6 25 13 22
26.14 P < 0.01
16 46 30 3
11 26 13 25
24.72 P < 0.01
serf-training High Med LOW
No SPS High Med LOW
No
On the job learning WP . Hi& 13 Med 38 LOW 14 3 No SPS High Med LOW
No
17 31 10 3
19
34 15 24 10 41 23 25
14.44 P < 0.01
puter with others and sh iring has negative effects on the hours of use pe we Q.Ql), time saved (r = -4.1 -0.224, p < 0.00, and qu 0.05). Sharing computer deems to influence users productivity negativeltl. Table 7 shows significant X2 values for sharing and not sharing in associatir>n with productivitjr measures for spreadsheet and word processing For the .two most frequently used ASW’s, r,harint; t&h others significantly affects volume of output, however, for the quality of output and time saving, results are different. For use of spreadsccets sharing affects time saving significantly, while for word processing it is the quaiity of output that is affected significantly. ‘s output is adversely afThis means that Table 7 Relationships between sharing with others and productivity for spreadsheet GPS) and word processing (WP). Level of productivity
24.74 P < 0.01
X2 value and significance
Sharing
Not sharing
19 36 14
35 38 16
4.6 N.S.
22 24 23
43 28 15
12.25 P < 0.05
16 34 19
35 28 23
7.38 N.S.
14 24 31
34 33 19
,?utput quality WP High 26 Med 31 LOW 12
47 15 23
Time saving High Med LOW
ther there is little company formal training or the training is not effective. Table 6 shows significant relationships between knowledge source (self-training and on the job learning) and proficiency in word processing and spreadsheet. The table show that the use of self-training and on-the-job learning make significant difference in enhancing users’ proficiency levels. It can be observed that computer skill development, like an%’other skill, depends on practice i informal situations. Another conclusion can be software use and user proficie users’ 0 otivation.
Number cf responses N=l60
SPS High Med LOW
Output volume High Med LOW
SPS High ed LOW
19
25 25
37 27 22
17.63 P < 0.01
Information & ~a~age~e~t
Table 8 ~~~at~o~s between insolation source variabtes and productivity and proficiency vatixbles. Information suurce
D.P
Periodicals
Vendor
-0.113
0.203 * 0.171 ** 0.171 ** 0.197 *
0.039 0.039 0.042
P~~~e~~ Tune Saving output VoI
Volume of output - 0.185 0.303 * ** Quality of output
Friends
**
* Sig. at P < 0.01 * * Sig. at P < 0.05 *** Sig. at PCO.10 (These significance levels will be used for all tables.)
fected by sharing, and it may also and time saving.
Table 11 Information source.
ct quality
Productivity and demographic variables Table 8 shows correlations between productivity variables: time saving, volume, quality of output, and users’ age, use years, education levels, and the number of hours used per week. Negative correlations of productivity variables with age signify that younger KW’s are more productive users of computer. Significant positive correlations of productivity variables with use years in indicate that KWs with more use experience are more productive. Productivity is also related to users educational levels. KW’s with higher educational level (college and university degrees) were found to be more productive. Table 9 Descriptive statistics.
Use years Time saving Output volume Output quality Computer alienation User satisfaction Use hour/week Expect to use
Mean
SD.
Max
Min
3.00 24.90 23.69 25.10 60.5 1 49.27 1.80 3.35
1.29 6.81 7.31 7.45 15.45 7.11 0.81 0.96
5 59 52 55 108 60 3 4
0 14 14 14 27 25 1 1
5.42 4.33 4.00 4.30 5.94 2.7 2.3
1.80 1.94 1.99 1.95 2.11 2.27 1.97
7 7 7 7 7 7 7
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Information
Use year
Use hour/ tieek
Comnt. in
Computer periodicals
0.148 **
0.168 **
- 0.037
Al1 other information source variables showed N.S. results.
Productivity and infomation source Seven information source variables were used to investigate their influence on KWs software use. As shown in Table 9, most preferred information sources are co-workers and vendors. However, Tabies 10 and 11 show computer periodicals appear to have significant effects on the KW productivity variables: proficiency, and use intensity. Productivity and satisfaction Table 12 shows the correlations of productivity variables: time saving, volume, and quality of output with satisfaction. Significant positive correlations of satisfaction with the productivity variables indicate that user satisfaction may increase productivity. The overall satisfaction score was also high. Out of maximum possible score of 70, the average satisfaction score was 49.25 with SD. of 7.11.
soup%e Friends DP dept ~rnp~ter periodicals
Table 12 Correlations between productivity and satisfaction alienation. Productivity
Time saving
Volume of output
QuaW of output
Satisfaction ienation
0.211 * -0.143 ***
0.190 * -0.183 *
0.201 -0.421 *
3 10
Information & Management
Reseurch
Productidy and computer alienation Table 11 also shows correlations of productivity variables with computer alienation. Significant negative correlations of productivity variables with users’ alienation indicate that users who have negative feelings about computer use are not as productive. It may be observed that, in order to encourage managers to use computer, psychological distance between them and the computer should be reduced through organizational development methods.
The study reports empirical results from a survey of computer utilization in Saudi Arabia. It shows that younger knowledge workers use computers more than the older ones. KW’s mainly perform simple user or user developer roles. They primarily use low-end application software for routine work. The most commonly used software include word processing and spreadsheet; DSS are least used. Few users have advanced proficiency in software. Users reported that their most important knowledge sources are self-training and on the job leaning, formal training having less impact. Sharing with others adversely affects productivity. It has been observed that, computer periodicals as an information source has significant impact on productivity, skills, and use intensity. Age has negative effect on productivity, while education and use experience have positive effects. User satisfaction is positively related to productivity and computer alienation is negatively related. Findings can be used to address the issue of overall improvement of knowledge workers’ efficiency in developing countries like Saudi Arabia. Special attention should be given to t and numbers of in-company formal traini Companies should encourage the use of c puter for decision making and train employees m 4GL, s analytical tools, graphics etc. It see rs are quick to adapt to
lenges from competition, managers must make quick and complex decisions. Timely information is essential to support them. Results fro e useful in developing 1s for business decision competitive environment.
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