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Managerial ratings of written compositions: Impact of information technology on the persuasiveness of communications
1
Research
Managerial ratings of written compositions: Impact of information technology on the persuasiveness of communications 1. Introduction
Rex Bennett McLoren College of Business, University of San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94117-I 080, USA
Douglas
Studies of managerial work have documented the behavior of managers at various organizational levels. Mintzberg [16] found that managers spend approximately two-thirds of their time in some form of communication - more time than in any other activity. Research by Kotter [13] and Luthans et al., [12], has reported similar findings.
Durand
College of Business, SC 20208, USA
University of South Carolina, Columbia,
Sam Betty Department of Communications, CO 80204, USA
University of Colorado, Denver,
Managers spend about two-thirds of their time communicating, but little IS research has considered technology’s effect on the communication process. Earlier findings indicated that communications composed at a keyboard differ structurally and stylistically from traditionally produced communications. Measuring eleven communication dimensions, the experimental study found that managers rated keyboard composed documents more positively than traditionally produced communications (using paper and pencil). Importantly, managers expressed more confidence in conclusions presented by writers using word processing tools than from those composed by traditional means. Thus, communication persuasiveness and effectiveness (from the writer’s perspective) was enhanced by using the technology. Keyword: Communication, gerial persuasiveness.
North-Holland Information & Management 0378-7206/90/$3.50
Effectiveness,
Productivity,
19 (1990) 1-6
0 1990 - Elsevier Science Publishers
Mana-
Rex Bennett is Professor of Marketing in the McLaren college of Business at the University of San Francisco. Dr. Bennett holds a B.S. in finance from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville and a Ph.D. from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. He has published numerous articles on marketing planning, marketing research, services marketing, and communications in such journals as Information and Management, Journal of Communication, Journal of Retail Banking, and Health Marketing Quarterly. Dr. Bennett has extensive consulting experience with such companies as me American Bankers Association, Citicorp, Kaiser-Permanente Healthcare, and Tram World Airlines. His research interests include communication effectiveness, services marketing, and development of strategic competitive advantage. Douelas E. Durand is Professor of Management Information Systems in the College of Business Administration at the University of South Carolina. Dr. Durand received his B.A. degree from Westminster College; his M.B.A. and Ph.D. degrees were received from Washington University, St. Louis. He has authored numerous articles on information system and human resource effectiveness in such journals as Information and Management, Decision Sciences, Academy of Management Journal, and Organization Dynamics. Dr. Durand has had widespread tconsulting experience working with such firms as IBM, Mons ,anto, John Wiley Publishing Company, and Emerson Electric . His research interests include cornmunication support systems, technological enhancement of managerial productivity, and management of information systems.
B.V. (North-Holland)
2
Research
Information & Management
Because managers spend so much time communicating, systems that enhance communication have potential for increasing managerial effectiveness and performance. Unfortunately, little research has considered the effect of information technology on written communication. Research concerning technology’s effects on written communication has concentrated on the communication and English disciplines. But these studies have been hampered by serious methodological flaws including: inadequate control of experimental variables [15], lack of quantitative data [3,14], lack of experimental data [17], lack of control groups and imprecise measurement criteria [9], and extremely small sample sizes [lo]. In addition, none of these studies have considered business communications. A recent study [5] addressed the effects of word processing technology on resulting composition. In comparison to paper and pencil essays, subjects who used word processors wrote longer and more conversational pieces. Because of the added time devoted to composing and revising, the total time spent with word processors increased (efficiency declined). Thus, with evidence that technology is not neutral, our second study explored whether the previously observed changes in style and syntax resulted in perceived improvements (improved effectiveness) in written output. Do managerial readers of keyboard composed communications rate those documents more positively on important communication dimensions?
2. Definitions We distinguish between two terms: (1) Keyboard composed (KC) written communications refer to communications produced directly through
Samuel A. Betty is an Associate Professor of Communication at the University of Colorado at Denver. He has a Masters of Science in Library Science for the University of IllinoisUrbana and a Ph.D. from Michigan State University. He is Chairman of the Department of Communication at CU-Denver. He teaches courses on the social impact of communication technology. He has authored studies on technology transfer, technological gatekeepers, and the diffusion of innovations.
word processing technology. Text is composed and entered immediately at the keyboard, revisions are then made and stored on magnetic media. (2) Traditionally composed (TC) written communications refer to written communications which are recorded by pen or pencil on paper. The handwritten document is given to a word processing clerk or secretary to transcribe (to magnetic media); a draft is then printed and returned to the end-user who makes revisions on the paper and the document is then updated by a secretary (on the magnetic media). In both cases, the communication is eventually transferred from magnetic media to final printed form; the format of the final printed document is the same.
3. Hypothesis Managers rate KC communications more positively on various communication dimensions than they rate TC communications. Support for this hypothesis is founded on managers’ preference for oral communication. It has been shown that managers have a strong preference for verbal communication [18]. They prefer unfiltered messages (those more natural and spontaneous) rather than reports which represent a filtered, compressed information source [4]. Although written communication does not contain all of the qualitative aspects of face-to-face oral communication (such as body language or other non-verbal cues), written communications can emphasize the style of oral communication by using less complex language, less abstraction, and a simpler structure. Because of this, and since KC communications are more like verbal communications in structure and style than TC communications, managers were expected to prefer KC communications.
4. Method Random Effects Model: The study employed a random effects design rather than a fixed effects model. In the latter, each subject would be exposed to one and only one example of a KC
Information
R. Bennett, D. Durand and S. Betty / Written Compositions
& Management
written communication; the subjects in the control group would also each be exposed to only one TC example. Thus, in the fixed effects model, the researcher gains extensive knowledge about a single example of the experimental variable. No knowledge is gained about other examples of the experimental variable and thus little becomes known about the experimental variable category. By contrast, the random effects model exposes each subject in the experimental group to one of a pool of developed messages rather than to a single message. Thus, a range of examples of the experimental variable are evaluated. The random effects model was chosen because of the limitations found in using the fixed effects model in language studies [2,6,], psychology [19], and communication. Jackson and Jacobs [8] point out “ . . . The researcher is only rarely interested in the properties of a particular message; instead, what is usually wanted is a generalization about some abstract category of messages. It follows that messages, like any other generalization variable, should be treated as random effects.” Bradac [l] and Hewes [7] reiterate this position. 4.1. Creation of Written Since the between KC erated text, development using each compositions, lowed:
Compositions
hypotheses are based on comparisons written communications and TC gentests of the hypothesis required the of a set of written communications technology. To generate the set of the following procedure was fol-
Participants (undergraduate business majors) were randomly assigned to one of two groups: the word processing group (KC) or to the traditional pen, paper, and typist group (TC). All participants had used the same word processing package for a number of assignments and had similar experience levels with it. The Dashman Company [ll], a short business case, that allows ample opportunity for differing levels and styles of written expression was used as the basis of the writing assignment. Variability in individual analysis and decisionmaking approaches might overshadow differences in communication style caused solely by the technology. In order to reduce this variability, participants were asked to respond to
3
four specific questions about the case. A maximum of ninety minutes was allowed to develop a written case response. 4. After completion of the assignment, both sets of compositions were transcribed into a common typed format. This procedure provided the pool of written communications used in the following experiment. 4.2. Procedure The compositions were presented to a group of thirty-nine (39) executives. The average age was 37; individuals had an average of 11 years of managerial experience. Each participant was given materials that consisted of the Dashman case with four discussion questions and two of the written communications. The managers were instructed to read the case and accompanying questions and to make any personal notes they thought appropriate. After reading the case, the managers read the first written case analysis and completed the Likert rating scale attached to it. Subsequently, they read and rated the second composition. Each respondent had one TC and one KC written communication. These were paired by length; i.e., the longest KC communication with the longest TC communication; the second longest from each category were paired, etc. The order of presentation was alternated to minimize order bias; specifically 19 of the KC communications were presented first and 19 were second; similarly 19 of the traditionally generated communications were presented first and 19 were second. The subjects were not told that different technologies had been used to compose the analyses (writing samples). 4.3. Communication
Dimensions
and Scales
From the general literature on persuasion, fourteen dimensions were identified to constitute a rating of the compositions. In alphabetical order, these are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Abstraction Appropriateness for business Clarity Coherence Conclusions (explicit) Conciseness
communication
4
Research
Information
Table 1 Rating Dimensions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
Compositions.
13. Quality of vocabulary 14. Redundancy
a
Likert scales measured these dimensions on a seven point scale (see Table 1). The presentation order of the dimensions was randomized, and negative as well as positive statements were incorporated. Given managers’ preference for verbal communication and since KC written communications are more like verbal communications that traditionally produced communications, the KC communications were predicted to have better ratings on all fourteen dimensions.
The writing was clear and unambiguous. The analysis was highly abstract. The analysis was not coherent, logical, or well-argued. The writer was concise and to the point. The analysis contained explicit conclusions. The writing was characterized by a high level of redundancy. The information presented was focused and relevant. The writing style was extremely dull and uninteresting. The overall quality of communication in the analysis was excellent. The writing style was very appropriate for a business communication. The writer conveyed a strong sense of expertise and analytical skill. The writer was totally biased and not objective. I would have a very high level of confidence in the quality of a decision based on this analysis. The quality of vocabulary employed was very low.
a The following statement:
7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
for Written
scale was presented
immediately
& Managemeni
below
5. Findings Data from Table 2 confirm that managers rated KC communications significantly more positively than they rated TC communications. For 12 of the communication variables, the ratings were in the predicted direction; the differences in ratings were statistically significant for nine of the dimensions. Managers rated KC communications as being or generating:
each
More confidence in decisions based on the communication. Higher quality. More appropriate for business communications. Clearer and less ambiguous. More coherent and logical.
Confidence in decision Focus and relevance Expertise and analytical skill of writer Interesting writing style Objectivity Quality (overall)
Table 2 Quality
of Written
Communication
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
Communication
Keyboard
versus Traditionally
Dimension
scales where:
Compositions.
a
TC Communication
KC Communications
Agreement with Hypothesis
3.89 2.51 3.23 3.11 3.88 3.34 2.54 2.95 3.74 3.16 4.43 2.62 3.33 4.21
3.45 3.46 4.05 4.00 4.35 3.70 3.00 3.33 4.08 4.08 4.38 3.33 3.72 3.83
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y N
Abstraction (high) Appropriate for business Communication Clear and unambiguous Coherent and logical Conclusions explicit Concise and to the point Confidence (high) in decision based on analysis Expertise and analytical skill Focused and relevant Interesting writing style Objective and unbiased Quality of communication was excellent Quality of vocabulary was high Redundancy (high)
a Mean scores on Likert rating
Produced
1 = completely
disagree,
7 = completely
agree. T-tests
Significance Level 0.016 0.009 0.069 0.016 0.051 0.184 0.106 0.134 0.169 0.017 0.434 0.027 0.024 0.144
where:
* < 0.10,
** ** ** ** *
** ** **
* * < 0.05.
Information
_ _ _ _
R. Bennett, D. Durand and S. Betty / Written Compositions
& Management
Less abstract. More explicit conclusions. Higher quality of vocabulary. Higher interest; less dull.
These findings are important to managers because KC communications are rated more positively on most of the dimensions. Additionally, managers were more confident in decisions from writers of KC communications. Increased preference for and confidence in decisions based on KC written communications indicates that communication persuasiveness improved. If one assumes that persuasiveness is an important objective of the writer, then the effectiveness of the communication also improved (from the writer’s perspective). However, it is important to note that increased effectiveness from the writer’s point of view does not necessarily mean better decision-making by the reader or better performance by the organization. The reader might adopt a deleterious solution which would not be been chosen except for the increased persuasiveness of the communication.
6. Conclusions The principal
finding
of the study is:
Managers rated KC communications more positively on a number of communications characteristics, including overall quality, and that they would have more confidence in business decisions based on such communications. These findings indicate that word processing technology itself produces important changes in managerial perceptions of written communication. Surprisingly, no previous research has reported on these effects and little research has reported how technology alters the communication process perhaps, the most important activity/process in an organization. When combined with previous results, we conclude that composing text at a word processor reduces writing efficiency but provides gains in communication effectiveness. Stated differently, writers spend more time in the writing process, and the result is a “better” product. Thus, even with the existence of superior information and decision support systems, the ability of those systems to improve managerial decisionmaking and performance may be undermined by
the inability communicate ommendations
of professionals the information, effectively.
5
and managers to analyses, and rec-
7. Summary Communication is the most frequent managerial activity. Because of its volume, increased communication effectiveness among managers will contribute to improved individual and organizational performance. Information technology can affect an organization’s communication processes _ both in style and effectiveness. Major contributions to organizational performance may result by understanding the tradeoff between communication efficiency (TC) and effectiveness (KC). However, more research is needed. Some problems include: How does the quality of the communication change with repeated revision? The ease of making KC revisions may encourage “too many” revisions. At some point, further revisions will improve the quality only slightly and the amount of managerial time required to make them is not justified. What are the most important factors influencing the quality of managerial communication? Is it quality of the verbs or vocabulary, level of abstraction, subordination/ coordination, energy level of the language, etc.? If we knew the answers to these questions, a communication support system could be developed to analyze a report and suggest where to make revisions to improve effectiveness. Communication effectiveness increases when the communicator matches or mirrors the communication patterns and preferences of the receiver. Developing a system which analyzes written communications and suggests changes that match the receiver’s communication patterns should improve communication effectiveness (e.g., by better understanding when to use similar words, phrases, and expressions).
References [l] J.J. Bradac, “On Generalizing Cabbages, Messages, Kings, and Several Other Things: The Virtues of Multiplicity,” Human Communication Research, 1983, Vol. 9, 187-191.
6
Research
[2] H.H. Clark, “The Language-as-Fixed-Effects Fallacy: A Critique of Language Statistics in Psychological Research,” Journal Verbal Learning Verbal Behaoior, 1973, Vol. 12, 335-359. [3] J.A. Cross and B.J. Curey, “The Effect of Word Processing on Writing,” Meeting of the American Society for Information Science, May, 1984. [4] G.B. Davis and M.H. Olson, Management Information Systems: Conceptual Foundations Structure, Deoelopment, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1985, 411-412. [5] D. Durand, R. Bennett, and S. Betty,, “What Does Information Technology “Do” to Business Communications?: Two Empirical Studies,” Information Management, 1987, Vol. 13, 111-117. [6] K.I. Forster and R.D. Dickinson, “More on the Language-as-Fixed-Effects Fallacy: Monte Carlo Estimates of Error Rates of F, F, F’ and min F’,” Journal Verbal Learning Verbal Behavior, 1976, Vol. 15, 135-142. [7] D.E. Hewes, “Confessions of a Methodological Puritan: A Response to Jackson and Jacobs,” Human Communications Research, 1983, Vol. 9, 181-187. [8] S. Jackson and Jacobs, “Generalizing About Messages: Suggestions for Design and Analysis of Experiments,” Human Communications Research, 1983, Vol. 9, 169-191. [9] S.L. Jarvenpaa, G.W. Dickson, and G. DeSanctis, “Methodological Issues in Experimental IS Research, MIS Quarterly, Volume 9, Number 2, pp. 141-156.
Information
DOI M.L. Lansing,
& Management
Student Writers and Word Processors: A Case Study, May, 1984, U.S. Department of Education, National Institute of Education, Educational Resources Information Center. P.R. Lawrence, L.B. Barnes, and J.W. Lorsch, Organirational Behavior Administration: Cases and Readings, Homewood, Ill., 1976, pp. 3-4. R. Hodgetts, and S. Rosenkrantz, Real ]121 F. Luthans, Managers, Ballinger, New York, 1988. 1131 J.P. Kotter, The Genera/ Manager, Free Press, New York, 1982. “Accordion Writing--Expository Composi]141 J. McKenzie, tion with the Word Processor,” English Journal, September, 1984, 56-58. Processing and Writers’ Behavior,” ]151 M. Meeker, “Word Annual Meeting of Minnesota Council of Teachers of English, May, 1984. The Nature of Managerial Work, Harper & ]161 H. Mintzberg, Row, New York, 1973. Composing,” The Writer’s Mind: ]171 S. Perl, “Understanding Writing as a Mode of Thinking, in Hayes, J., et. al., Eds., NCTE, Urbana, 1983. WI J.F. Rockart, “Chief Executives Define Their Own Data Needs,” Harvard Business Review, March-April, 1979, 83. [19] J.L. Santa, J.J. Miller, and M.L. Shaw, “Using Quasi F to Prevent Alpha Inflation Due to Stimulus Variation,” Psychological Bulletin, 1976, Vol. 86, 37-46.
Research
Managerial ratings of written compositions: Impact of information technology on the persuasiveness of communications 1. Introduction
Rex Bennett McLoren College of Business, University of San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94117-I 080, USA
Douglas
Studies of managerial work have documented the behavior of managers at various organizational levels. Mintzberg [16] found that managers spend approximately two-thirds of their time in some form of communication - more time than in any other activity. Research by Kotter [13] and Luthans et al., [12], has reported similar findings.
Durand
College of Business, SC 20208, USA
University of South Carolina, Columbia,
Sam Betty Department of Communications, CO 80204, USA
University of Colorado, Denver,
Managers spend about two-thirds of their time communicating, but little IS research has considered technology’s effect on the communication process. Earlier findings indicated that communications composed at a keyboard differ structurally and stylistically from traditionally produced communications. Measuring eleven communication dimensions, the experimental study found that managers rated keyboard composed documents more positively than traditionally produced communications (using paper and pencil). Importantly, managers expressed more confidence in conclusions presented by writers using word processing tools than from those composed by traditional means. Thus, communication persuasiveness and effectiveness (from the writer’s perspective) was enhanced by using the technology. Keyword: Communication, gerial persuasiveness.
North-Holland Information & Management 0378-7206/90/$3.50
Effectiveness,
Productivity,
19 (1990) 1-6
0 1990 - Elsevier Science Publishers
Mana-
Rex Bennett is Professor of Marketing in the McLaren college of Business at the University of San Francisco. Dr. Bennett holds a B.S. in finance from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville and a Ph.D. from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. He has published numerous articles on marketing planning, marketing research, services marketing, and communications in such journals as Information and Management, Journal of Communication, Journal of Retail Banking, and Health Marketing Quarterly. Dr. Bennett has extensive consulting experience with such companies as me American Bankers Association, Citicorp, Kaiser-Permanente Healthcare, and Tram World Airlines. His research interests include communication effectiveness, services marketing, and development of strategic competitive advantage. Douelas E. Durand is Professor of Management Information Systems in the College of Business Administration at the University of South Carolina. Dr. Durand received his B.A. degree from Westminster College; his M.B.A. and Ph.D. degrees were received from Washington University, St. Louis. He has authored numerous articles on information system and human resource effectiveness in such journals as Information and Management, Decision Sciences, Academy of Management Journal, and Organization Dynamics. Dr. Durand has had widespread tconsulting experience working with such firms as IBM, Mons ,anto, John Wiley Publishing Company, and Emerson Electric . His research interests include cornmunication support systems, technological enhancement of managerial productivity, and management of information systems.
B.V. (North-Holland)
2
Research
Information & Management
Because managers spend so much time communicating, systems that enhance communication have potential for increasing managerial effectiveness and performance. Unfortunately, little research has considered the effect of information technology on written communication. Research concerning technology’s effects on written communication has concentrated on the communication and English disciplines. But these studies have been hampered by serious methodological flaws including: inadequate control of experimental variables [15], lack of quantitative data [3,14], lack of experimental data [17], lack of control groups and imprecise measurement criteria [9], and extremely small sample sizes [lo]. In addition, none of these studies have considered business communications. A recent study [5] addressed the effects of word processing technology on resulting composition. In comparison to paper and pencil essays, subjects who used word processors wrote longer and more conversational pieces. Because of the added time devoted to composing and revising, the total time spent with word processors increased (efficiency declined). Thus, with evidence that technology is not neutral, our second study explored whether the previously observed changes in style and syntax resulted in perceived improvements (improved effectiveness) in written output. Do managerial readers of keyboard composed communications rate those documents more positively on important communication dimensions?
2. Definitions We distinguish between two terms: (1) Keyboard composed (KC) written communications refer to communications produced directly through
Samuel A. Betty is an Associate Professor of Communication at the University of Colorado at Denver. He has a Masters of Science in Library Science for the University of IllinoisUrbana and a Ph.D. from Michigan State University. He is Chairman of the Department of Communication at CU-Denver. He teaches courses on the social impact of communication technology. He has authored studies on technology transfer, technological gatekeepers, and the diffusion of innovations.
word processing technology. Text is composed and entered immediately at the keyboard, revisions are then made and stored on magnetic media. (2) Traditionally composed (TC) written communications refer to written communications which are recorded by pen or pencil on paper. The handwritten document is given to a word processing clerk or secretary to transcribe (to magnetic media); a draft is then printed and returned to the end-user who makes revisions on the paper and the document is then updated by a secretary (on the magnetic media). In both cases, the communication is eventually transferred from magnetic media to final printed form; the format of the final printed document is the same.
3. Hypothesis Managers rate KC communications more positively on various communication dimensions than they rate TC communications. Support for this hypothesis is founded on managers’ preference for oral communication. It has been shown that managers have a strong preference for verbal communication [18]. They prefer unfiltered messages (those more natural and spontaneous) rather than reports which represent a filtered, compressed information source [4]. Although written communication does not contain all of the qualitative aspects of face-to-face oral communication (such as body language or other non-verbal cues), written communications can emphasize the style of oral communication by using less complex language, less abstraction, and a simpler structure. Because of this, and since KC communications are more like verbal communications in structure and style than TC communications, managers were expected to prefer KC communications.
4. Method Random Effects Model: The study employed a random effects design rather than a fixed effects model. In the latter, each subject would be exposed to one and only one example of a KC
Information
R. Bennett, D. Durand and S. Betty / Written Compositions
& Management
written communication; the subjects in the control group would also each be exposed to only one TC example. Thus, in the fixed effects model, the researcher gains extensive knowledge about a single example of the experimental variable. No knowledge is gained about other examples of the experimental variable and thus little becomes known about the experimental variable category. By contrast, the random effects model exposes each subject in the experimental group to one of a pool of developed messages rather than to a single message. Thus, a range of examples of the experimental variable are evaluated. The random effects model was chosen because of the limitations found in using the fixed effects model in language studies [2,6,], psychology [19], and communication. Jackson and Jacobs [8] point out “ . . . The researcher is only rarely interested in the properties of a particular message; instead, what is usually wanted is a generalization about some abstract category of messages. It follows that messages, like any other generalization variable, should be treated as random effects.” Bradac [l] and Hewes [7] reiterate this position. 4.1. Creation of Written Since the between KC erated text, development using each compositions, lowed:
Compositions
hypotheses are based on comparisons written communications and TC gentests of the hypothesis required the of a set of written communications technology. To generate the set of the following procedure was fol-
Participants (undergraduate business majors) were randomly assigned to one of two groups: the word processing group (KC) or to the traditional pen, paper, and typist group (TC). All participants had used the same word processing package for a number of assignments and had similar experience levels with it. The Dashman Company [ll], a short business case, that allows ample opportunity for differing levels and styles of written expression was used as the basis of the writing assignment. Variability in individual analysis and decisionmaking approaches might overshadow differences in communication style caused solely by the technology. In order to reduce this variability, participants were asked to respond to
3
four specific questions about the case. A maximum of ninety minutes was allowed to develop a written case response. 4. After completion of the assignment, both sets of compositions were transcribed into a common typed format. This procedure provided the pool of written communications used in the following experiment. 4.2. Procedure The compositions were presented to a group of thirty-nine (39) executives. The average age was 37; individuals had an average of 11 years of managerial experience. Each participant was given materials that consisted of the Dashman case with four discussion questions and two of the written communications. The managers were instructed to read the case and accompanying questions and to make any personal notes they thought appropriate. After reading the case, the managers read the first written case analysis and completed the Likert rating scale attached to it. Subsequently, they read and rated the second composition. Each respondent had one TC and one KC written communication. These were paired by length; i.e., the longest KC communication with the longest TC communication; the second longest from each category were paired, etc. The order of presentation was alternated to minimize order bias; specifically 19 of the KC communications were presented first and 19 were second; similarly 19 of the traditionally generated communications were presented first and 19 were second. The subjects were not told that different technologies had been used to compose the analyses (writing samples). 4.3. Communication
Dimensions
and Scales
From the general literature on persuasion, fourteen dimensions were identified to constitute a rating of the compositions. In alphabetical order, these are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Abstraction Appropriateness for business Clarity Coherence Conclusions (explicit) Conciseness
communication
4
Research
Information
Table 1 Rating Dimensions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
Compositions.
13. Quality of vocabulary 14. Redundancy
a
Likert scales measured these dimensions on a seven point scale (see Table 1). The presentation order of the dimensions was randomized, and negative as well as positive statements were incorporated. Given managers’ preference for verbal communication and since KC written communications are more like verbal communications that traditionally produced communications, the KC communications were predicted to have better ratings on all fourteen dimensions.
The writing was clear and unambiguous. The analysis was highly abstract. The analysis was not coherent, logical, or well-argued. The writer was concise and to the point. The analysis contained explicit conclusions. The writing was characterized by a high level of redundancy. The information presented was focused and relevant. The writing style was extremely dull and uninteresting. The overall quality of communication in the analysis was excellent. The writing style was very appropriate for a business communication. The writer conveyed a strong sense of expertise and analytical skill. The writer was totally biased and not objective. I would have a very high level of confidence in the quality of a decision based on this analysis. The quality of vocabulary employed was very low.
a The following statement:
7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
for Written
scale was presented
immediately
& Managemeni
below
5. Findings Data from Table 2 confirm that managers rated KC communications significantly more positively than they rated TC communications. For 12 of the communication variables, the ratings were in the predicted direction; the differences in ratings were statistically significant for nine of the dimensions. Managers rated KC communications as being or generating:
each
More confidence in decisions based on the communication. Higher quality. More appropriate for business communications. Clearer and less ambiguous. More coherent and logical.
Confidence in decision Focus and relevance Expertise and analytical skill of writer Interesting writing style Objectivity Quality (overall)
Table 2 Quality
of Written
Communication
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
Communication
Keyboard
versus Traditionally
Dimension
scales where:
Compositions.
a
TC Communication
KC Communications
Agreement with Hypothesis
3.89 2.51 3.23 3.11 3.88 3.34 2.54 2.95 3.74 3.16 4.43 2.62 3.33 4.21
3.45 3.46 4.05 4.00 4.35 3.70 3.00 3.33 4.08 4.08 4.38 3.33 3.72 3.83
Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y N
Abstraction (high) Appropriate for business Communication Clear and unambiguous Coherent and logical Conclusions explicit Concise and to the point Confidence (high) in decision based on analysis Expertise and analytical skill Focused and relevant Interesting writing style Objective and unbiased Quality of communication was excellent Quality of vocabulary was high Redundancy (high)
a Mean scores on Likert rating
Produced
1 = completely
disagree,
7 = completely
agree. T-tests
Significance Level 0.016 0.009 0.069 0.016 0.051 0.184 0.106 0.134 0.169 0.017 0.434 0.027 0.024 0.144
where:
* < 0.10,
** ** ** ** *
** ** **
* * < 0.05.
Information
_ _ _ _
R. Bennett, D. Durand and S. Betty / Written Compositions
& Management
Less abstract. More explicit conclusions. Higher quality of vocabulary. Higher interest; less dull.
These findings are important to managers because KC communications are rated more positively on most of the dimensions. Additionally, managers were more confident in decisions from writers of KC communications. Increased preference for and confidence in decisions based on KC written communications indicates that communication persuasiveness improved. If one assumes that persuasiveness is an important objective of the writer, then the effectiveness of the communication also improved (from the writer’s perspective). However, it is important to note that increased effectiveness from the writer’s point of view does not necessarily mean better decision-making by the reader or better performance by the organization. The reader might adopt a deleterious solution which would not be been chosen except for the increased persuasiveness of the communication.
6. Conclusions The principal
finding
of the study is:
Managers rated KC communications more positively on a number of communications characteristics, including overall quality, and that they would have more confidence in business decisions based on such communications. These findings indicate that word processing technology itself produces important changes in managerial perceptions of written communication. Surprisingly, no previous research has reported on these effects and little research has reported how technology alters the communication process perhaps, the most important activity/process in an organization. When combined with previous results, we conclude that composing text at a word processor reduces writing efficiency but provides gains in communication effectiveness. Stated differently, writers spend more time in the writing process, and the result is a “better” product. Thus, even with the existence of superior information and decision support systems, the ability of those systems to improve managerial decisionmaking and performance may be undermined by
the inability communicate ommendations
of professionals the information, effectively.
5
and managers to analyses, and rec-
7. Summary Communication is the most frequent managerial activity. Because of its volume, increased communication effectiveness among managers will contribute to improved individual and organizational performance. Information technology can affect an organization’s communication processes _ both in style and effectiveness. Major contributions to organizational performance may result by understanding the tradeoff between communication efficiency (TC) and effectiveness (KC). However, more research is needed. Some problems include: How does the quality of the communication change with repeated revision? The ease of making KC revisions may encourage “too many” revisions. At some point, further revisions will improve the quality only slightly and the amount of managerial time required to make them is not justified. What are the most important factors influencing the quality of managerial communication? Is it quality of the verbs or vocabulary, level of abstraction, subordination/ coordination, energy level of the language, etc.? If we knew the answers to these questions, a communication support system could be developed to analyze a report and suggest where to make revisions to improve effectiveness. Communication effectiveness increases when the communicator matches or mirrors the communication patterns and preferences of the receiver. Developing a system which analyzes written communications and suggests changes that match the receiver’s communication patterns should improve communication effectiveness (e.g., by better understanding when to use similar words, phrases, and expressions).
References [l] J.J. Bradac, “On Generalizing Cabbages, Messages, Kings, and Several Other Things: The Virtues of Multiplicity,” Human Communication Research, 1983, Vol. 9, 187-191.
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[2] H.H. Clark, “The Language-as-Fixed-Effects Fallacy: A Critique of Language Statistics in Psychological Research,” Journal Verbal Learning Verbal Behaoior, 1973, Vol. 12, 335-359. [3] J.A. Cross and B.J. Curey, “The Effect of Word Processing on Writing,” Meeting of the American Society for Information Science, May, 1984. [4] G.B. Davis and M.H. Olson, Management Information Systems: Conceptual Foundations Structure, Deoelopment, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1985, 411-412. [5] D. Durand, R. Bennett, and S. Betty,, “What Does Information Technology “Do” to Business Communications?: Two Empirical Studies,” Information Management, 1987, Vol. 13, 111-117. [6] K.I. Forster and R.D. Dickinson, “More on the Language-as-Fixed-Effects Fallacy: Monte Carlo Estimates of Error Rates of F, F, F’ and min F’,” Journal Verbal Learning Verbal Behavior, 1976, Vol. 15, 135-142. [7] D.E. Hewes, “Confessions of a Methodological Puritan: A Response to Jackson and Jacobs,” Human Communications Research, 1983, Vol. 9, 181-187. [8] S. Jackson and Jacobs, “Generalizing About Messages: Suggestions for Design and Analysis of Experiments,” Human Communications Research, 1983, Vol. 9, 169-191. [9] S.L. Jarvenpaa, G.W. Dickson, and G. DeSanctis, “Methodological Issues in Experimental IS Research, MIS Quarterly, Volume 9, Number 2, pp. 141-156.
Information
DOI M.L. Lansing,
& Management
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