- Email: [email protected]
Marital Conflict*
Marital Conflict 651
Marital Conflict P T McFarland and A Christensen University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA ã 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. This article is a revision of the previous edition article by P T McFarland and A Christensen, volume 2, pp 682–684, ã 2000, Elsevier Inc.
What Is Conflict? What Happens During Conflict? What Are the Consequences of Conflict?
What Happens During Conflict?
Glossary Demand– withdraw interaction
Process of conflict Psychoneuroimmunology Structure of conflict
It is important to note that a particular conflict of interest may give rise to a variety of conflictual processes. Couples may engage in overt conflict about the issue, or they may choose to avoid discussion about the issue altogether. Some theorists suggest that the decision to engage or to avoid is determined by spouses’ beliefs about the likelihood that their efforts at resolving the conflict will be successful. Others have suggested that factors such as commitment to the relationship and negative feelings about the partner may also influence engagement or avoidance in conflict.
A pattern of interaction in which one member of a couple attempts to engage in the discussion of relationship issues and pressures, nags, demands, or criticizes the other while the other member attempts to avoid such discussions and becomes silent, withdraws, or acts defensively. The interaction that takes place around a conflict of interest. The study of the interactions among the psychological, neurological, and immunological systems. The conflict of interest between spouses; the incompatibility of needs, desires, or preferences that characterize a couple’s struggle.
What Is Conflict? Conflict in marital relationships is normal and inevitable. Indeed, conflict occurs to a much greater extent in marriage than in any other long-term relationship. Although some theorists have suggested that conflict may serve constructive or functional purposes, such as allowing for the disclosure of feelings and the creative resolution of problems, the focus in the marital literature has generally been on the destructive or dysfunctional consequences of conflict. An important distinction is made in the marital literature between the structure of conflict and the process of conflict. The structure of conflict refers to the conflict of interest between the spouses, that is, the incompatibility of needs, desires, or preferences that characterize the couple’s struggle. The process of conflict refers to the actual interaction that occurs between the spouses regarding the conflict of interest.
Assuming that the management of conflict affects the quality and stability of the relationship, marital researchers have focused more of their attention on the process of conflict than on the structure of conflict. Researchers often study marital conflict by having couples discuss a conflict of interest in a laboratory setting for a predetermined amount of time (typically 10–15 min) while the resulting interaction is audiotaped or videotaped. Trained observers then code the problem-solving interaction for categories or dimensions of interest. Although the same type of discussion leads to more intense negative affect at home than it does in the laboratory, the observational research paradigm described does produce interactions that are similar to those experienced by couples in naturalistic settings. One of the objectives of marital research has been to identify conflict behaviors that are associated with relationship satisfaction and thus differentiate between distressed and nondistressed couples. Although a number of differences have been identified, there are a few consistent findings across studies. First, distressed couples display higher rates of negative behaviors during conflictual interactions than nondistressed couples. These negative behaviors include criticism, complaints, hostility, defensiveness, denial of responsibility, and withdrawal. Second, compared to nondistressed spouses, distressed spouses exhibit greater reciprocity of negative behavior. That is, when a distressed spouse behaves in a negative manner, the other spouse tends to respond in kind, which escalates the conflict and leads to a cycle of negativity that is difficult to break. Third, nondistressed couples display higher rates of positive behaviors, such as approval and humor, during conflictual interactions than distressed couples. Similar to this cross-sectional
652 Marital Conflict
research, longitudinal research has also demonstrated the deleterious effect of negative interactions on future satisfaction and stability. A pattern of conflictual interaction that has received much empirical attention and has been found to be highly correlated with marital dissatisfaction is the demand–withdraw interaction pattern. In this pattern, one spouse (the demander) attempts to engage in the discussion of relationship issues and pressures, nags, demands, or criticizes the other while the other spouse (the withdrawer) attempts to avoid such discussions and becomes silent, withdraws, or acts defensively. Although both self-report and observational studies have demonstrated a gender linkage in roles in this pattern, with wives generally in the role of demander and husbands generally in the role of withdrawer, this gender effect is moderated by the specific issue that is being discussed. Specifically, the gender linkage in roles is apparent during discussions in which wives’ issues are being addressed, but this linkage is not apparent during discussions in which husbands’ issues are being addressed. Also, the pattern often occurs when a structural conflict of interest exists between partners whereby the partners have a differential investment in change on an issue. The spouse who desires a change that can only be achieved through the cooperation of the other (e.g., spending more time together) will generally take on a demanding role during discussion, whereas the spouse who seeks no change or change that can be achieved unilaterally (e.g., spending less time together) will generally take on the withdrawing role because discussion will only create an argument or undesired change. In addition to studying overt behavior, marital researchers have also examined covert factors that may impact marital conflict and satisfaction, such as affective processes and perceptual differences between spouses. One area that has received much attention in the marital literature concerns the attributions that spouses make in accounting for events that occur in marriage. There is accumulating evidence indicating that attributions for negative events can promote conflict, such as when negative partner behavior is attributed to the selfish intent of the partner. Such attributions have been found to be related to less effective problem-solving behavior and to higher rates of negative behavior during problem-solving tasks. Moreover, research has demonstrated that attributions for negative partner behavior affect a spouse’s own behavior toward the partner. Recent years have seen a growing emphasis on the application of social psychological theories to the study of marital conflict. Attachment theory is one such theory that has been the focus of increased attention in marital conflict research. Attachment
theory asserts that mental models of the self and other develop in the context of early parent–child interactions and that these models influence the communications and reactions of spouses to partner behaviors. Research findings generally suggest that spouses with secure attachment styles are more likely to compromise when dealing with conflict, whereas those with insecure attachment styles tend to employ less productive approaches to marital conflict.
What Are the Consequences of Conflict? Conflict not only has an effect on the marital relationship itself, but it can also affect the health of individual partners. A growing body of research documents the association between marital conflict and the physical and mental well-being of spouses. Although married people tend to be healthier than those who are not married, marital conflict has been linked to an increase in physical illnesses such as rheumatoid arthritis and cardiac problems. Marital conflict also increases the risk for mental disorders. The association between marital conflict and depression is well established, as is the association between marital conflict and the physical and psychological abuse of spouses. Some of the most compelling data relating marital conflict to mental disorders are seen in the strong linkage between marital conflict and substance abuse. The link between marital discord and poorer health outcomes has been systematically explored over the past decade. Negative and hostile behaviors during marital conflict are associated with various physiological effects in spouses, such as elevations in blood pressure and heart rate and changes in endocrine and immune functioning. Across studies, these negative physiological effects are more severe and persistent for wives than for husbands. Research in the field of psychoneuroimmunology suggests that there are negative long-term health consequences for spouses who are unable to physiologically recover from marital conflicts or cannot adapt physiologically to repeated conflicts. In addition to its negative effects on spouses, marital conflict is related to problems in family functioning, including parenting and sibling relationships. Moreover, research has demonstrated the effects of marital conflict on the parent–child relationship, such as attachment difficulties and parent–child conflict, and to a wide range of adjustment problems in children, including internalizing problems such as depression and anxiety and externalizing problems such as aggression, delinquency, and conduct disorders. Exposure to frequent and severe marital conflict, such as physical aggression, seems to be particularly disturbing for children.
Marital Status and Health Problems 653
Not only is marital conflict itself a stressor, but other life stressors can affect marital conflict. For example, greater work demands among air traffic controllers and unemployment in blue-collar workers have been shown to be associated with more negative marital interactions. Stressful events may increase conflict by diminishing the capacity of spouses to provide support to one another, even as it increases their need for support. Such events may also affect marital interactions by giving rise to new conflicts of interest or by exacerbating old ones.
See Also the Following Articles Marital Status and Health Problems; Marriage.
Further Reading Aubry, T., Tefft, B. and Kingsbury, N. (1990). Behavioral and psychological consequences of unemployment in blue-collar couples. Journal of Community Psychology 18, 99–109. Beach, S. R. H., Fincham, F. D. and Katz, J. (1998). Marital therapy in the treatment of depression: toward a third generation of therapy and research. Clinical Psychology Review 18, 635–661. Bradbury, T. N. and Fincham, F. D. (1992). Attributions and behavior in marital interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63, 613–628. Burman, B. and Margolin, G. (1992). Analysis of the association between marital relationships and health problems: an interactional perspective. Psychological Bulletin 112, 39–63. Christensen, A. and Heavey, C. L. (1990). Gender and social structure in the demand/withdraw pattern of
marital conflict. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 59, 73–81. Cummings, E. M. and Davies, P. T. (2002). Effects of marital conflict on children: recent advances and emerging themes in process-oriented research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 43, 31–63. Ewart, C. K., Taylor, C. B., Kraemer, H. C., et al. (1991). High blood pressure and marital discord: not being nasty matters more than being nice. Health Psychology 10, 155–163. Gottman, J. M. (1979). Marital interaction: experimental investigations. New York: Academic Press. Grych, J. H. and Fincham, F. D. (1990). Marital conflict and children’s adjustment: a cognitive-contextual framework. Psychological Bulletin 108, 267–290. Halford, W. K. and Markman, H. J. (eds.) (1997). Clinical handbook of marriage and couples intervention. London: John Wiley. Hazan, C. and Shaver, P. R. (1994). Attachment as an organizational framework for research on close relationships. Psychological Inquiry 5, 1–22. Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., Malarkey, W. B., Chee, M. A., et al. (1993). Negative behavior during marital conflict is associated with immunological down-regulation. Psychosomatic Medicine 55, 395–409. Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., Glaser, R., Cacioppo, J. T., et al. (1997). Marital conflict in older adults: endocrinological and immunological correlates. Psychosomatic Medicine 59, 339–349. Repetti, R. L. (1989). Effects of daily workload on subsequent behavior during marital interaction: the roles of social withdrawal and spouse support. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 57, 651–659. Robles, T. F. and Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K. (2003). The physiology of marriage: pathways to health. Physiology and Behavior 79, 409–416.
Marital Status and Health Problems I M A Joung Erasmus University, Rotterdam, Netherlands ã 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. This article is reproduced from the previous edition, volume 2, pp 685–691, ã 2000, Elsevier Inc.
Glossary Determinants of health Intermediary factors Unmarried Selection
Health Differences among Marital Status Groups Theories about the Explanation Selection on Health and Determinants of Health Social Causation, Intermediary Factors, and Biological Pathways
Social causation
Factors associated with health and illness, such as socioeconomic status and alcohol consumption. Determinants of health through which marital status affects health outcomes. People who have never been married, are divorced, or are widowed. The theory about health differences between marital status groups in which it is assumed that health affects marital status. The theory about health differences between marital status groups in which it is assumed that marital status affects health.
Marital Conflict P T McFarland and A Christensen University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA ã 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. This article is a revision of the previous edition article by P T McFarland and A Christensen, volume 2, pp 682–684, ã 2000, Elsevier Inc.
What Is Conflict? What Happens During Conflict? What Are the Consequences of Conflict?
What Happens During Conflict?
Glossary Demand– withdraw interaction
Process of conflict Psychoneuroimmunology Structure of conflict
It is important to note that a particular conflict of interest may give rise to a variety of conflictual processes. Couples may engage in overt conflict about the issue, or they may choose to avoid discussion about the issue altogether. Some theorists suggest that the decision to engage or to avoid is determined by spouses’ beliefs about the likelihood that their efforts at resolving the conflict will be successful. Others have suggested that factors such as commitment to the relationship and negative feelings about the partner may also influence engagement or avoidance in conflict.
A pattern of interaction in which one member of a couple attempts to engage in the discussion of relationship issues and pressures, nags, demands, or criticizes the other while the other member attempts to avoid such discussions and becomes silent, withdraws, or acts defensively. The interaction that takes place around a conflict of interest. The study of the interactions among the psychological, neurological, and immunological systems. The conflict of interest between spouses; the incompatibility of needs, desires, or preferences that characterize a couple’s struggle.
What Is Conflict? Conflict in marital relationships is normal and inevitable. Indeed, conflict occurs to a much greater extent in marriage than in any other long-term relationship. Although some theorists have suggested that conflict may serve constructive or functional purposes, such as allowing for the disclosure of feelings and the creative resolution of problems, the focus in the marital literature has generally been on the destructive or dysfunctional consequences of conflict. An important distinction is made in the marital literature between the structure of conflict and the process of conflict. The structure of conflict refers to the conflict of interest between the spouses, that is, the incompatibility of needs, desires, or preferences that characterize the couple’s struggle. The process of conflict refers to the actual interaction that occurs between the spouses regarding the conflict of interest.
Assuming that the management of conflict affects the quality and stability of the relationship, marital researchers have focused more of their attention on the process of conflict than on the structure of conflict. Researchers often study marital conflict by having couples discuss a conflict of interest in a laboratory setting for a predetermined amount of time (typically 10–15 min) while the resulting interaction is audiotaped or videotaped. Trained observers then code the problem-solving interaction for categories or dimensions of interest. Although the same type of discussion leads to more intense negative affect at home than it does in the laboratory, the observational research paradigm described does produce interactions that are similar to those experienced by couples in naturalistic settings. One of the objectives of marital research has been to identify conflict behaviors that are associated with relationship satisfaction and thus differentiate between distressed and nondistressed couples. Although a number of differences have been identified, there are a few consistent findings across studies. First, distressed couples display higher rates of negative behaviors during conflictual interactions than nondistressed couples. These negative behaviors include criticism, complaints, hostility, defensiveness, denial of responsibility, and withdrawal. Second, compared to nondistressed spouses, distressed spouses exhibit greater reciprocity of negative behavior. That is, when a distressed spouse behaves in a negative manner, the other spouse tends to respond in kind, which escalates the conflict and leads to a cycle of negativity that is difficult to break. Third, nondistressed couples display higher rates of positive behaviors, such as approval and humor, during conflictual interactions than distressed couples. Similar to this cross-sectional
652 Marital Conflict
research, longitudinal research has also demonstrated the deleterious effect of negative interactions on future satisfaction and stability. A pattern of conflictual interaction that has received much empirical attention and has been found to be highly correlated with marital dissatisfaction is the demand–withdraw interaction pattern. In this pattern, one spouse (the demander) attempts to engage in the discussion of relationship issues and pressures, nags, demands, or criticizes the other while the other spouse (the withdrawer) attempts to avoid such discussions and becomes silent, withdraws, or acts defensively. Although both self-report and observational studies have demonstrated a gender linkage in roles in this pattern, with wives generally in the role of demander and husbands generally in the role of withdrawer, this gender effect is moderated by the specific issue that is being discussed. Specifically, the gender linkage in roles is apparent during discussions in which wives’ issues are being addressed, but this linkage is not apparent during discussions in which husbands’ issues are being addressed. Also, the pattern often occurs when a structural conflict of interest exists between partners whereby the partners have a differential investment in change on an issue. The spouse who desires a change that can only be achieved through the cooperation of the other (e.g., spending more time together) will generally take on a demanding role during discussion, whereas the spouse who seeks no change or change that can be achieved unilaterally (e.g., spending less time together) will generally take on the withdrawing role because discussion will only create an argument or undesired change. In addition to studying overt behavior, marital researchers have also examined covert factors that may impact marital conflict and satisfaction, such as affective processes and perceptual differences between spouses. One area that has received much attention in the marital literature concerns the attributions that spouses make in accounting for events that occur in marriage. There is accumulating evidence indicating that attributions for negative events can promote conflict, such as when negative partner behavior is attributed to the selfish intent of the partner. Such attributions have been found to be related to less effective problem-solving behavior and to higher rates of negative behavior during problem-solving tasks. Moreover, research has demonstrated that attributions for negative partner behavior affect a spouse’s own behavior toward the partner. Recent years have seen a growing emphasis on the application of social psychological theories to the study of marital conflict. Attachment theory is one such theory that has been the focus of increased attention in marital conflict research. Attachment
theory asserts that mental models of the self and other develop in the context of early parent–child interactions and that these models influence the communications and reactions of spouses to partner behaviors. Research findings generally suggest that spouses with secure attachment styles are more likely to compromise when dealing with conflict, whereas those with insecure attachment styles tend to employ less productive approaches to marital conflict.
What Are the Consequences of Conflict? Conflict not only has an effect on the marital relationship itself, but it can also affect the health of individual partners. A growing body of research documents the association between marital conflict and the physical and mental well-being of spouses. Although married people tend to be healthier than those who are not married, marital conflict has been linked to an increase in physical illnesses such as rheumatoid arthritis and cardiac problems. Marital conflict also increases the risk for mental disorders. The association between marital conflict and depression is well established, as is the association between marital conflict and the physical and psychological abuse of spouses. Some of the most compelling data relating marital conflict to mental disorders are seen in the strong linkage between marital conflict and substance abuse. The link between marital discord and poorer health outcomes has been systematically explored over the past decade. Negative and hostile behaviors during marital conflict are associated with various physiological effects in spouses, such as elevations in blood pressure and heart rate and changes in endocrine and immune functioning. Across studies, these negative physiological effects are more severe and persistent for wives than for husbands. Research in the field of psychoneuroimmunology suggests that there are negative long-term health consequences for spouses who are unable to physiologically recover from marital conflicts or cannot adapt physiologically to repeated conflicts. In addition to its negative effects on spouses, marital conflict is related to problems in family functioning, including parenting and sibling relationships. Moreover, research has demonstrated the effects of marital conflict on the parent–child relationship, such as attachment difficulties and parent–child conflict, and to a wide range of adjustment problems in children, including internalizing problems such as depression and anxiety and externalizing problems such as aggression, delinquency, and conduct disorders. Exposure to frequent and severe marital conflict, such as physical aggression, seems to be particularly disturbing for children.
Marital Status and Health Problems 653
Not only is marital conflict itself a stressor, but other life stressors can affect marital conflict. For example, greater work demands among air traffic controllers and unemployment in blue-collar workers have been shown to be associated with more negative marital interactions. Stressful events may increase conflict by diminishing the capacity of spouses to provide support to one another, even as it increases their need for support. Such events may also affect marital interactions by giving rise to new conflicts of interest or by exacerbating old ones.
See Also the Following Articles Marital Status and Health Problems; Marriage.
Further Reading Aubry, T., Tefft, B. and Kingsbury, N. (1990). Behavioral and psychological consequences of unemployment in blue-collar couples. Journal of Community Psychology 18, 99–109. Beach, S. R. H., Fincham, F. D. and Katz, J. (1998). Marital therapy in the treatment of depression: toward a third generation of therapy and research. Clinical Psychology Review 18, 635–661. Bradbury, T. N. and Fincham, F. D. (1992). Attributions and behavior in marital interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63, 613–628. Burman, B. and Margolin, G. (1992). Analysis of the association between marital relationships and health problems: an interactional perspective. Psychological Bulletin 112, 39–63. Christensen, A. and Heavey, C. L. (1990). Gender and social structure in the demand/withdraw pattern of
marital conflict. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 59, 73–81. Cummings, E. M. and Davies, P. T. (2002). Effects of marital conflict on children: recent advances and emerging themes in process-oriented research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 43, 31–63. Ewart, C. K., Taylor, C. B., Kraemer, H. C., et al. (1991). High blood pressure and marital discord: not being nasty matters more than being nice. Health Psychology 10, 155–163. Gottman, J. M. (1979). Marital interaction: experimental investigations. New York: Academic Press. Grych, J. H. and Fincham, F. D. (1990). Marital conflict and children’s adjustment: a cognitive-contextual framework. Psychological Bulletin 108, 267–290. Halford, W. K. and Markman, H. J. (eds.) (1997). Clinical handbook of marriage and couples intervention. London: John Wiley. Hazan, C. and Shaver, P. R. (1994). Attachment as an organizational framework for research on close relationships. Psychological Inquiry 5, 1–22. Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., Malarkey, W. B., Chee, M. A., et al. (1993). Negative behavior during marital conflict is associated with immunological down-regulation. Psychosomatic Medicine 55, 395–409. Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., Glaser, R., Cacioppo, J. T., et al. (1997). Marital conflict in older adults: endocrinological and immunological correlates. Psychosomatic Medicine 59, 339–349. Repetti, R. L. (1989). Effects of daily workload on subsequent behavior during marital interaction: the roles of social withdrawal and spouse support. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 57, 651–659. Robles, T. F. and Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K. (2003). The physiology of marriage: pathways to health. Physiology and Behavior 79, 409–416.
Marital Status and Health Problems I M A Joung Erasmus University, Rotterdam, Netherlands ã 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. This article is reproduced from the previous edition, volume 2, pp 685–691, ã 2000, Elsevier Inc.
Glossary Determinants of health Intermediary factors Unmarried Selection
Health Differences among Marital Status Groups Theories about the Explanation Selection on Health and Determinants of Health Social Causation, Intermediary Factors, and Biological Pathways
Social causation
Factors associated with health and illness, such as socioeconomic status and alcohol consumption. Determinants of health through which marital status affects health outcomes. People who have never been married, are divorced, or are widowed. The theory about health differences between marital status groups in which it is assumed that health affects marital status. The theory about health differences between marital status groups in which it is assumed that marital status affects health.