- Email: [email protected]
Micro-hydro systems for small communities
REWBWABLE Renewable Energy 16 (1999) 1257-1261
PERGAMON
MICRO-HYDRO
SYSTEMS
FOR
SMALL
COMMUNITIES
R. WADDELL and P.BRYCE APACE, University of Technology, Sydney, P.O.Box 123, Broadway, NSW, Australia, 2007 and Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology, Sydney. P.O.Box 123, Broadway, NSW, Australia, 2007.
ABSTRACT
Micro-hydro electricity generating systemswere introduced by APACE (Appropriate Technology for Community and Environment), an Australian NGO into Solomon Islands in response to the need of the villagers to have a source of income other than that obtained from royalties from logging companies. The success of the pilot project has given rise to widespread demand for similar systemsto be installed in villages all over Solomon Islands. 0 1998 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
KEYWORDS
Appropriate technology; micro-hydro; community development; women’s participation. The rainforests of the South Pacific are being destroyed at an alarming rate. The main causes are the greed of logging companies, the need of poverty stricken countries to earn foreign exchange and the perception of villagers that royalties from loggers are their best means of earning much-needed cash. In this situation a joint operation between APACE and villagers in Solomon Islands has demonstrated that there is a feasible alternative. Over a period of fifteen years APACE, a Sydney-based voluntary non-government organisation specialising in appropriate technology, has been involved; at the invitation of the villagers, in the design and implementation of micro-hydro electricity generating systemsin several villages in Solomon Islands (Waddell.1993) In these villages, initially in the Western Province, the people marshalled all their resources and worked cooperatively to create all the necessaryinfrastructure. The commissioning of the first system was not a quick fix but the culmination of years of preparation and consultation with the villagers. It was preceded and followed by courses of training in the operation, maintenance and repair of the system.This has been the pattern of all subsequent installations. In line with APACE’s general philosophy, the bringing of electricity to the village was not seen as an end in itself but rather as a means of enhancing the independence and selfreliance of the community as a whole. To this end everyone in the village - men, women and children - was involved in the process and everyone received a benefit and therefore had a stake in ensuring a successful outcome. A prominent feature of APACE’s operations has been the involvement of women in the new technology. So often in the past when new technologies have been introduced into villages only the men have been involved and instructed in their operation. Women have not had a say in the planning or been consulted as to how they would like the technology to be used for their benefit. (Rogers, 1980) 0960-1481/99/ssee front matter 0 1998 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved PII: SO960-1481(98)00513-8
1258
WREC
1998
In Solomon Islands, APACE’s Program Development Officer, MS Donnella Bryce, and its Women in Development Officer, MS Sasha Giffard, a mechanical engineer, together with six women from one of the villages facilitated the first of a national series of women’s workshops. The object of these workshops was to impart a knowledge of the workings and uses of micro-hydro electricity systemsand their impact on village life. The women from the village where the first workshop was held had already been involved in the planning and installation of a system and were keen to pass on their knowledge and experience to other women who were anxious to have similar systemsin their own villages. Subsequent workshops have increasingly involved Solomon Islands women as facilitators. They are able to blend their understanding of local customary imperatives with their experience of their own microhydroelectric village systems.The people in these villages are now supplied with electrical power and can enjoy a number of benefits: they can run small cash-earning businesses such as bread-making, furniture making, and copra-drying; they can have refrigeration facilities for the storage of fish and vegetables, not to mention pharmaceuticals. All this has enabled them to keep their rain-forest intact and to avoid all the problems that the loss of the rainforest had caused other villages, namely, loss of top-soil, loss of innumerable plant and animal species, muddying of fresh water sources and siltation of reefs and consequent loss of marine life. Following the success of the first few installations a plan was drawn up to bring electricity to a large number of villages in the Western Province; this was the Western Province Rural Electrification Program. In February 1995 in a unique ceremony which took place in Honiara, a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between the Solomon Islands government and APACE was signed by the President of APACE and the Deputy prime Minister and Minister of Mines, Energy and Minerals on behalf of the Solomon Islands government. The MOU represented a great advance in the process of devolving power - in every sense of the word - to the people in rural areas. It was a bold step for the government to take and showed great trust in the ability of the villagers and APACE to do something which everywhere else has been the prerogative of a centrahsed authority. In this case.,however, the decentralised generation of electricity has been sanctioned by the Solomon Islands Electricity Authority, which will ensure that safety regulations are being observed. Since then, a working group, Solomon Islands Rural Village Electrification Council (SIVEC) has been set up to draft a national rural electrification policy and to design an appropriate organisation to implement a community-based hydroelecttification program. There are important macro-economic implications of such a grass-roots strategy. So far, economic development strategies have been formulated from the viewpoint of the developed countries. These countries see the developing countries as sources of raw materials, cash crops of all kinds and relatively cheap labour; the task of the local governments, in their opinion, is to exploit these resources in the most efficient way. This strategy leads to all the sorts of problems to which we have already alluded. The alternative strategy is for the country concerned to put its own interests first and then to consider how and to what extent it will respond to the interests of others. A small island economy has few &fences against the forces of international capital but that is no excuse for taking.no remedial action. There. is a happy medium between total self-sufficiency - which is impossible and loss of control over the economy and the devastation of the country’s natural resources and environment. The SIVEC agreement is a small but significant step in this direction. When fully implemented the SIVEC agreement will have made a quantifiable contribution to the national economy, the environment and to national self-sufficiency and self-reliance. The introduction of micro-hydro electricity into villages in Solomon Islands has stimulated the domestic economy. It has enabled the villagers to have the cash earning activities we have mentioned, all of which are
WREC
1998
1259
sustainable, in contrast to the one-off payments otherwise received from logging payments. The money thus earned circulates within the country with the usual multiplier effects, whetws the greater part of proceeds from logging go abroad and help to create employment in foreign countries. Insofar as money is earned by the government from logging royalties it tends to be spent in the towns on imported goods rather than used to improve conditions in the village. In other words the so-called ‘trickledown’ effect is conspicuous by its absence. The environment benefits in several ways from such a sustainable alternative. The initial impetus for designing and installing the first micro-hydro system arose from the anxiety of the villagers to preserve their section of the rainforest. To do this they had to find an alternative method of earning cash. They had originally been given a diesel generating set with which to produce electricity for their projects but it broke down;spare parts were unavailable, there were no workshop facilities and nobody had been trained in the operation, maintenance and repair of the system. There was also the problem of paying for the fuel which was costly and, of course, imported. The process which ended in the installation of the micro-hydro system followed a different course. There was a long preparatory period during which the project was thoroughly discussed with the villagers, the design was adapted to local conditions, the infrastructure was built by the people and the installation was a joint effort of APACE and the villagers. Training courses were arranged and were carried out both on location and in the University of Technology, Sydney and in a local technical college. There is now a small team of trained people who can, and do, act as advisers and consultants to other villages which also wish to have micro-hydro systems.The rainforest has remained intact; no carbon fuels are needed for the operation of the system; and there is an end to the soil erosion and siltation of reefs which accompanied the logging in other areas. The introduction of micro-hydro electricity to the villages was never regarded as an end in itself but rather as a catalyst for community development. The very fact that all the villagers were involved in its installation and that all benefited from its introduction created an esprit de corps which spilled over into other areas of village life. Paradoxically the advent of the new technology engendered a drive to recreate the selfsufficiency which had been the distinguishing feature of traditional rural life. The practice of using money earned from the logging companies to buy tinned food was replaced by a concentration on growing food for domestic consumption and for sale on the local market. More good agricultural land was now to be used for the growing of vegetables and fruit rather than cocoa or coffee. Futthermore there was a move, encouraged by APACE amongst others, to use organic gardening methods which not only obviated the need to use imported chemical fertilisers but helped to improve and sustain the quality of the soil.(Tutua and Jmsn, 1994) The signing of the SIVEC agreement marks the culmination of this progress towards greater self-reliance. The very composition of the SIVEC planning committee tells its own story: represented on it are not only government planners involved in national development but people from the villages, comprising rural community leaders, respected elders and women of influence with experience in technology development, and officers of participating NGOs. The chairperson is a former MP and Minister who was himself involved in the first micro-hydro project from its inception. We am not suggesting that SIVEC is going to alter the whole future course of Solomon Islands’ development but we do claim that it demonstrates the potential which the people possess to control their own destiny. At the time of writing the Solomon Islands Minister for Foreign Affairs has just delivered the new government’s inaugural speech to the UN General Assembly, describing the nation’s new emphasis on development for the majority of its citizens who live in rural areas. He emphasised the part to be played by micro-hydro electricity and solar energy in the national plan. There is no doubt that this program of rural electritication by micro-hyrho power could be replicated in many other countries in the Asia-Pacific region.
WREC 1998
1260
Developing nations generally lie in the equatorial region between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, with climates that 1nrovide substantial hydraulic resources, and the statistics provided by ESCAP (1990) and shown in Figure 1 tend to support this picture. The magnitude of these hydraulic resources relative to current usage is indicated for countries in our East Asia/Pacific region. The general picture is clear, with the least developed countries showing the most promising ratios of (small) current usage to (large) resource potential. Conventional large-scale centrahsed application of hydroelectricity has major drawbacks, and the technology and management methods for its exploitation need radical change for decentralised use in the Third World. The case for decentrahsed hydro-electricity in the South is based on the population distribution, the lack of technical infrastructure and the presence of major resource potential. Figure 1 shows the potential for hydroelectricity in some developed and underdeveloped countries. Figure 1 : Percentage of Exploited Hydraulic Capacity Relative to Hydraulic Potential
AUShdii New Zuhd Japan
In fact the potential for the South countries is greatly underestimated in this table. First, no figures are included for sites with less than 1 MWatt of hydraulic potential. Hagan estimates that 26% of global technical hydropower lies between 1 MW and 10 kW and that 95% of all sites lie below the 1 MW limit used in most statistical estimates. In fact, hydropotential under 1 h4W could provide more electricity than all existing hydra-electric schemes. Second, the table cannot account for the dearth of stream-gauging data characteristic of South countries. For both reasons, the extraordinary potential for hydroelectricity within our region is likely to be significantly underestimated in Figure 1, and in any case is capable of transforming national energy prognoses in many countries, given an appropriate method for its decentralised application. There is also every prospect that, in time, solar power will provide a complementary energy source in areas which do not have similar hydro potential. Indeed, the literature is replete with positive arguments for the increased use of decentralised renewable sources of energy (for examples see references UNDP and UNDP et al)
WREC
1261
1998
For nearly twenty years engineers and others at the University of Technology, Sydney have participated in development assistance projects through APACE. Within the community of some 140 Australian overseas assistance agencies APACE is an acknowledged leader in a number of aspects of technology transfer. There.have been some notable outcomes. The decentralised forms of hydroelectricity systems,that we argued earlier were potentially a significant answer to equitable and sustainable energy supply, have been implemented in demonstration schemes with remarkable effect. Such schemes are operated and maintained largely by local rural communities, with little subsidy or in-kind assistance from hard-pressed governments and electricity supply authorities. These examples have paved the way for a change in thinking regarding electricity supply to the predominantly rural populations.(Bryce, 1997) This change of thinking on the part of the autiiorities has not been achieved without considerable effort. In earlier.days members of APACE tried to persuade the planners to adopt a decentralised mode of development but with little success.Over the last fifteen years we have come to realise that a gramme of practical demonstration is worth a tonne of argument and that such successas APACE and the cause of micro-hydro electricity have enjoyed is the result of deeds not words. The same, we suspect, goes for all forms of environmentally benign technologies based on renewable resources. Participants at this conference will be interested to know that at the 75th anniversary dinner of the Institution of Engineers, Australia APACE was involved in two of the Awards for Excellence in Engineering: APACE was highly commended in the category ‘Export of Technology, Products and Services’, and APACE’s current President, Dr Paul Bryce, won the Fred Hollows Award for his ‘significant contributions to Humanity’. REFERENCES Bryce,P.( 1997) Empowering the poor: ODA and rural electrification, Development Bulletin, Vol.43, pp 13-17, Australian Development Studies Network, Canberra, Australia. ESCAP (1990) Power Systems in Asia and the Pacific with emphasis on Rural Electr$cation. STIESCAPI840, United Nations, p. 117 Rogers B.( 1980) The Domesricarion of Women, Tavistock Publications, London. Tutua J. and Jansen T.(1994) Sapa: the natural from APACE for $A15, post free. UNDP(undated) Initiativefor
Sustainable
way ofgrowingfoodfor
Energy,
the Solomon
Islands,
obtainable
http:llwww.uodp.orglseed/energy/unise
UNDP(undated) Energy after Rio: Prospects and challenges, UNDP et al, http://www.undp.org:8l/seed/energy/index.html#afterrio Waddell R.( 1993) Replanting the Banana Tree: a study in ecologically sustainable development, APACE, 1993. Copies obtainable for $A15 post free from APACE c/o UTS, PO Box 123, Broadway, NSW, Australia, 2007 (All profits to APACE’s projects)
PERGAMON
MICRO-HYDRO
SYSTEMS
FOR
SMALL
COMMUNITIES
R. WADDELL and P.BRYCE APACE, University of Technology, Sydney, P.O.Box 123, Broadway, NSW, Australia, 2007 and Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology, Sydney. P.O.Box 123, Broadway, NSW, Australia, 2007.
ABSTRACT
Micro-hydro electricity generating systemswere introduced by APACE (Appropriate Technology for Community and Environment), an Australian NGO into Solomon Islands in response to the need of the villagers to have a source of income other than that obtained from royalties from logging companies. The success of the pilot project has given rise to widespread demand for similar systemsto be installed in villages all over Solomon Islands. 0 1998 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
KEYWORDS
Appropriate technology; micro-hydro; community development; women’s participation. The rainforests of the South Pacific are being destroyed at an alarming rate. The main causes are the greed of logging companies, the need of poverty stricken countries to earn foreign exchange and the perception of villagers that royalties from loggers are their best means of earning much-needed cash. In this situation a joint operation between APACE and villagers in Solomon Islands has demonstrated that there is a feasible alternative. Over a period of fifteen years APACE, a Sydney-based voluntary non-government organisation specialising in appropriate technology, has been involved; at the invitation of the villagers, in the design and implementation of micro-hydro electricity generating systemsin several villages in Solomon Islands (Waddell.1993) In these villages, initially in the Western Province, the people marshalled all their resources and worked cooperatively to create all the necessaryinfrastructure. The commissioning of the first system was not a quick fix but the culmination of years of preparation and consultation with the villagers. It was preceded and followed by courses of training in the operation, maintenance and repair of the system.This has been the pattern of all subsequent installations. In line with APACE’s general philosophy, the bringing of electricity to the village was not seen as an end in itself but rather as a means of enhancing the independence and selfreliance of the community as a whole. To this end everyone in the village - men, women and children - was involved in the process and everyone received a benefit and therefore had a stake in ensuring a successful outcome. A prominent feature of APACE’s operations has been the involvement of women in the new technology. So often in the past when new technologies have been introduced into villages only the men have been involved and instructed in their operation. Women have not had a say in the planning or been consulted as to how they would like the technology to be used for their benefit. (Rogers, 1980) 0960-1481/99/ssee front matter 0 1998 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved PII: SO960-1481(98)00513-8
1258
WREC
1998
In Solomon Islands, APACE’s Program Development Officer, MS Donnella Bryce, and its Women in Development Officer, MS Sasha Giffard, a mechanical engineer, together with six women from one of the villages facilitated the first of a national series of women’s workshops. The object of these workshops was to impart a knowledge of the workings and uses of micro-hydro electricity systemsand their impact on village life. The women from the village where the first workshop was held had already been involved in the planning and installation of a system and were keen to pass on their knowledge and experience to other women who were anxious to have similar systemsin their own villages. Subsequent workshops have increasingly involved Solomon Islands women as facilitators. They are able to blend their understanding of local customary imperatives with their experience of their own microhydroelectric village systems.The people in these villages are now supplied with electrical power and can enjoy a number of benefits: they can run small cash-earning businesses such as bread-making, furniture making, and copra-drying; they can have refrigeration facilities for the storage of fish and vegetables, not to mention pharmaceuticals. All this has enabled them to keep their rain-forest intact and to avoid all the problems that the loss of the rainforest had caused other villages, namely, loss of top-soil, loss of innumerable plant and animal species, muddying of fresh water sources and siltation of reefs and consequent loss of marine life. Following the success of the first few installations a plan was drawn up to bring electricity to a large number of villages in the Western Province; this was the Western Province Rural Electrification Program. In February 1995 in a unique ceremony which took place in Honiara, a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between the Solomon Islands government and APACE was signed by the President of APACE and the Deputy prime Minister and Minister of Mines, Energy and Minerals on behalf of the Solomon Islands government. The MOU represented a great advance in the process of devolving power - in every sense of the word - to the people in rural areas. It was a bold step for the government to take and showed great trust in the ability of the villagers and APACE to do something which everywhere else has been the prerogative of a centrahsed authority. In this case.,however, the decentralised generation of electricity has been sanctioned by the Solomon Islands Electricity Authority, which will ensure that safety regulations are being observed. Since then, a working group, Solomon Islands Rural Village Electrification Council (SIVEC) has been set up to draft a national rural electrification policy and to design an appropriate organisation to implement a community-based hydroelecttification program. There are important macro-economic implications of such a grass-roots strategy. So far, economic development strategies have been formulated from the viewpoint of the developed countries. These countries see the developing countries as sources of raw materials, cash crops of all kinds and relatively cheap labour; the task of the local governments, in their opinion, is to exploit these resources in the most efficient way. This strategy leads to all the sorts of problems to which we have already alluded. The alternative strategy is for the country concerned to put its own interests first and then to consider how and to what extent it will respond to the interests of others. A small island economy has few &fences against the forces of international capital but that is no excuse for taking.no remedial action. There. is a happy medium between total self-sufficiency - which is impossible and loss of control over the economy and the devastation of the country’s natural resources and environment. The SIVEC agreement is a small but significant step in this direction. When fully implemented the SIVEC agreement will have made a quantifiable contribution to the national economy, the environment and to national self-sufficiency and self-reliance. The introduction of micro-hydro electricity into villages in Solomon Islands has stimulated the domestic economy. It has enabled the villagers to have the cash earning activities we have mentioned, all of which are
WREC
1998
1259
sustainable, in contrast to the one-off payments otherwise received from logging payments. The money thus earned circulates within the country with the usual multiplier effects, whetws the greater part of proceeds from logging go abroad and help to create employment in foreign countries. Insofar as money is earned by the government from logging royalties it tends to be spent in the towns on imported goods rather than used to improve conditions in the village. In other words the so-called ‘trickledown’ effect is conspicuous by its absence. The environment benefits in several ways from such a sustainable alternative. The initial impetus for designing and installing the first micro-hydro system arose from the anxiety of the villagers to preserve their section of the rainforest. To do this they had to find an alternative method of earning cash. They had originally been given a diesel generating set with which to produce electricity for their projects but it broke down;spare parts were unavailable, there were no workshop facilities and nobody had been trained in the operation, maintenance and repair of the system. There was also the problem of paying for the fuel which was costly and, of course, imported. The process which ended in the installation of the micro-hydro system followed a different course. There was a long preparatory period during which the project was thoroughly discussed with the villagers, the design was adapted to local conditions, the infrastructure was built by the people and the installation was a joint effort of APACE and the villagers. Training courses were arranged and were carried out both on location and in the University of Technology, Sydney and in a local technical college. There is now a small team of trained people who can, and do, act as advisers and consultants to other villages which also wish to have micro-hydro systems.The rainforest has remained intact; no carbon fuels are needed for the operation of the system; and there is an end to the soil erosion and siltation of reefs which accompanied the logging in other areas. The introduction of micro-hydro electricity to the villages was never regarded as an end in itself but rather as a catalyst for community development. The very fact that all the villagers were involved in its installation and that all benefited from its introduction created an esprit de corps which spilled over into other areas of village life. Paradoxically the advent of the new technology engendered a drive to recreate the selfsufficiency which had been the distinguishing feature of traditional rural life. The practice of using money earned from the logging companies to buy tinned food was replaced by a concentration on growing food for domestic consumption and for sale on the local market. More good agricultural land was now to be used for the growing of vegetables and fruit rather than cocoa or coffee. Futthermore there was a move, encouraged by APACE amongst others, to use organic gardening methods which not only obviated the need to use imported chemical fertilisers but helped to improve and sustain the quality of the soil.(Tutua and Jmsn, 1994) The signing of the SIVEC agreement marks the culmination of this progress towards greater self-reliance. The very composition of the SIVEC planning committee tells its own story: represented on it are not only government planners involved in national development but people from the villages, comprising rural community leaders, respected elders and women of influence with experience in technology development, and officers of participating NGOs. The chairperson is a former MP and Minister who was himself involved in the first micro-hydro project from its inception. We am not suggesting that SIVEC is going to alter the whole future course of Solomon Islands’ development but we do claim that it demonstrates the potential which the people possess to control their own destiny. At the time of writing the Solomon Islands Minister for Foreign Affairs has just delivered the new government’s inaugural speech to the UN General Assembly, describing the nation’s new emphasis on development for the majority of its citizens who live in rural areas. He emphasised the part to be played by micro-hydro electricity and solar energy in the national plan. There is no doubt that this program of rural electritication by micro-hyrho power could be replicated in many other countries in the Asia-Pacific region.
WREC 1998
1260
Developing nations generally lie in the equatorial region between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, with climates that 1nrovide substantial hydraulic resources, and the statistics provided by ESCAP (1990) and shown in Figure 1 tend to support this picture. The magnitude of these hydraulic resources relative to current usage is indicated for countries in our East Asia/Pacific region. The general picture is clear, with the least developed countries showing the most promising ratios of (small) current usage to (large) resource potential. Conventional large-scale centrahsed application of hydroelectricity has major drawbacks, and the technology and management methods for its exploitation need radical change for decentralised use in the Third World. The case for decentrahsed hydro-electricity in the South is based on the population distribution, the lack of technical infrastructure and the presence of major resource potential. Figure 1 shows the potential for hydroelectricity in some developed and underdeveloped countries. Figure 1 : Percentage of Exploited Hydraulic Capacity Relative to Hydraulic Potential
AUShdii New Zuhd Japan
In fact the potential for the South countries is greatly underestimated in this table. First, no figures are included for sites with less than 1 MWatt of hydraulic potential. Hagan estimates that 26% of global technical hydropower lies between 1 MW and 10 kW and that 95% of all sites lie below the 1 MW limit used in most statistical estimates. In fact, hydropotential under 1 h4W could provide more electricity than all existing hydra-electric schemes. Second, the table cannot account for the dearth of stream-gauging data characteristic of South countries. For both reasons, the extraordinary potential for hydroelectricity within our region is likely to be significantly underestimated in Figure 1, and in any case is capable of transforming national energy prognoses in many countries, given an appropriate method for its decentralised application. There is also every prospect that, in time, solar power will provide a complementary energy source in areas which do not have similar hydro potential. Indeed, the literature is replete with positive arguments for the increased use of decentralised renewable sources of energy (for examples see references UNDP and UNDP et al)
WREC
1261
1998
For nearly twenty years engineers and others at the University of Technology, Sydney have participated in development assistance projects through APACE. Within the community of some 140 Australian overseas assistance agencies APACE is an acknowledged leader in a number of aspects of technology transfer. There.have been some notable outcomes. The decentralised forms of hydroelectricity systems,that we argued earlier were potentially a significant answer to equitable and sustainable energy supply, have been implemented in demonstration schemes with remarkable effect. Such schemes are operated and maintained largely by local rural communities, with little subsidy or in-kind assistance from hard-pressed governments and electricity supply authorities. These examples have paved the way for a change in thinking regarding electricity supply to the predominantly rural populations.(Bryce, 1997) This change of thinking on the part of the autiiorities has not been achieved without considerable effort. In earlier.days members of APACE tried to persuade the planners to adopt a decentralised mode of development but with little success.Over the last fifteen years we have come to realise that a gramme of practical demonstration is worth a tonne of argument and that such successas APACE and the cause of micro-hydro electricity have enjoyed is the result of deeds not words. The same, we suspect, goes for all forms of environmentally benign technologies based on renewable resources. Participants at this conference will be interested to know that at the 75th anniversary dinner of the Institution of Engineers, Australia APACE was involved in two of the Awards for Excellence in Engineering: APACE was highly commended in the category ‘Export of Technology, Products and Services’, and APACE’s current President, Dr Paul Bryce, won the Fred Hollows Award for his ‘significant contributions to Humanity’. REFERENCES Bryce,P.( 1997) Empowering the poor: ODA and rural electrification, Development Bulletin, Vol.43, pp 13-17, Australian Development Studies Network, Canberra, Australia. ESCAP (1990) Power Systems in Asia and the Pacific with emphasis on Rural Electr$cation. STIESCAPI840, United Nations, p. 117 Rogers B.( 1980) The Domesricarion of Women, Tavistock Publications, London. Tutua J. and Jansen T.(1994) Sapa: the natural from APACE for $A15, post free. UNDP(undated) Initiativefor
Sustainable
way ofgrowingfoodfor
Energy,
the Solomon
Islands,
obtainable
http:llwww.uodp.orglseed/energy/unise
UNDP(undated) Energy after Rio: Prospects and challenges, UNDP et al, http://www.undp.org:8l/seed/energy/index.html#afterrio Waddell R.( 1993) Replanting the Banana Tree: a study in ecologically sustainable development, APACE, 1993. Copies obtainable for $A15 post free from APACE c/o UTS, PO Box 123, Broadway, NSW, Australia, 2007 (All profits to APACE’s projects)