- Email: [email protected]
Monitor
Monitor ISMA proposals 1. 12-15 March 1984, a symposium was held in the Hague, the Netherlands, on 'Conditions essential for maintaining outer space for peaceful purposes', organized jointly by the United Nations University (UNU) and the International Institute of Space Law, with the cooperation of the Peace Palace and the Hague Carnegie Foundation in the Netherlands. The participating experts from 15 countries, including the major space powers, expressed in a statement their common view of the acute dangers presented by extension of the arms race into outer space. The worldwide benefits of maintaining outer space for peaceful uses were considered in the context of the current legal provisions for protecting these benefits and the need to extend these provisions. F u r t h e r m o r e , such practical measures were considered as satellite monitoring and verification, the settlement of disputes, and the adjustment of regulations to keep up with technological developments. The results were con> municated to national authorities and experts and to international bodies concerned, in particular the United Nations Outer Space Committee and the United Nations Committee on Disarmament (UNU Update, No 20, April 1984). 2. It was suggested by the 22 participants from 13 countries at the Tokyo Seminar on Peace, Science and Technology (Tokyo, 15-17 April 1984) that a regional satellite monitoring agency (RSMA) could perhaps be established as an initial phase of an International Satellite Monitoring agency (ISMA) (UNU Update, No 21, May 1984). 3. In G6ttingen (Federal Republic of Germany) a congress was held, 7-8 July 1984, under the title 'Scientists warn against militarization of space', with international participation, sponsored by the German Scientists for Peace and Disarma-
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al environment suited 1:o~ i;~Mmg t;h necessary, imtiatives a n d I)tl,*"-,lllil~7 these through adequate ine0.slnc~, l,.~, implementation and ncgoti~ll~,n:. Such action cxcccds the Illitll~.t;liC,, ,;{ either ESA oT the Intercosmo>, ( ~,un cil. At present prospects ale dim h,! discussions within the [!nited N41lioll~, system, due to the lack (fl intcl,_>a m co-operating with further Mudic~;, the: opposition against such studies ,,J ~,t~c reluctance to provide voltnHar,, con.tributions to the 1lnitcd Natioi> space p r o g r a m m e ~tlnong scverat coumric'~ having a space capabilit} ()n flw other hand, an)initiative to establish an ISMA. starling cither as an RSMA limited to the European rcgion ~u ;t~ an interregional o~ international vc~> ture outside the LiN system, ',horrid have a provision for its eventual inch= sion in the ITN. [Jnder the circumstaqccs several relevant initialhes at the European level are noteworlh\.:
ment. An appeal was launched to prevent all weapons fl)r use in outer space, a draft treaty was proposed, and international and/or regional means of verification were discussed. 4. At the 34th Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs, Bj6rkliden, Sweden, 9--14 July 1984, on '1984, and beyond: science, security, and public opinion', much consideration was given to military aspects of space by the 134 participating scientists, other scholars and public figures from 40 countries and 6 international organizations. The official Statement of the Pugwash Council, issued at the end of the Conference and intended for policy makers at all levels, the media and the general public, contains several paragraphs • On 7 February 1984 President Frangois Mitterand of Francc sugon this important issue (see "Docugested in an official address m the mentation'). ltaguc (Ncthcrhmds) the creation 5. Europe has been mentioned as the of a Europcan Space ('ommunity proper region for the establishment to strengthen the European militof an RSMA because of the special ary defencc power, for instance problems of the European arena. through launching a European Moreover, Europe is particularly manned space station for surveillwell equipped because of its strong ance purposes and defence action. intellectual capital and its technoloapparently as a parallel organizagical and industrial potential. It has tion to the European Economic achieved a sufficient level of capaCommunities (scc "Documentability in space technology to take a tion" ). credible political initiative towards the setting up of such an agency, • On 27 June 1984 the Summit Meeting of the El:K" in Fontainebleau the E u r o p e a n Space A g e n c y (France) decided to establish a (ESA) being the third space power special working group to elaborate in terms of exploration and peacethis suggestion of President Franful uses of outer space. Another gois Mitterand advantage is that there already exists a well organized inter- • The Assemhly of the Western European Union (WEU the governmental infrastructure suited European NATO partners plus for addressing technical aspects of France) discussed and adopted on an ISMA or an RSMA through 20 ,lune 1984 at its Paris meeting a ESA in Western Europe (including recommendation, referring to the C a n a d a ) and the Intercosmos military use o1: space in a broad Council in Eastern Europe. way, including the proposals for However, when discussing the estabsatellite monitoring and oceanic lishment of either an ISMA or an and terrestrial surveillance satellite RSMA the mere availability of proper systems m an international or a technological capabilities is not suffiWEU setting, the manned space cient. Much more essential is a politic-
SPACE POLICY February 1985
Monitor station proposal, etc, based on W E U Document 976 (15 May 1984) prepared on behalf of the WEU Committee on Scientific, Technological and A e r o s p a c e Questions. • During the French-German Summit at the end of May 1984 near Paris, which brought together President Frangois Mitterand and German Chancellor Helmut Kohl, top government representatives of the two countries discussed a study for the development of a joint military reconnaissance satellite as a followon to the French Samro programme, which was cut back in 1982 because of defence-spending constraints. The Samro's imaging system and telemetry links would have been adapted from the French SPOT civilian earth observation spacecraft and the European Space Agency's ERS-1 civilian oceanographic satellite, which will carry respectively an optical payload to gather data for land use, agriculture and earth resources applications and a microwave-imaging package to observe oceans, ice zones and coastal areas (Aviation Week & Space Technology, 4 June 1984, p 23). • Perhaps more important, and probably more promising with regard to future negotiations with the two superpowers and with Third World countries is the action undertaken by the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (21 states, including a number of neutral countries). In its contribution (Council of Europe Doc AS/ Science (34) 7, July 1982) to the Second United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, UNISPACE 82, held in Vienna, 9--21 August 1982, it supported the ISMA proposal as a most effective instrument in contributing to efforts to reduce worldwide arms expenditure - thus making possible the shift of resources in favour of the developing countries, called for in Council of Europe Resolution 747 of 12 May 1981 (on global prospects - human needs and the earth's resources). F u r t h e r m o r e the Council of
SPACE POLICY February 1985
Europe adopted on 24 June 1983 Resolution 789 on the future of the European space programme (addressing the ESA programmes), Resolution 788 on the 2nd United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (noting inter alia concern with the increasing militarization of space and recommending to exploit the potential of space technology as a stabilizing factor in international relations, for instance through an international satellite monitoring agency), and Recommendation 957 on the proposal for an international satellite monitoring agency (see Documentation). The last-mentioned Recommendation states explicitly that possibilities for renewed initiatives should be examined by the Council of Europe member states, either individually or collectively or in association with non-European industrialized or developing countries having a space capability. The Council of Europe went even further at its North-South Conference: Europe's Role (Lisbon, 9--11 April 1984) by adopting the 'Lisbon Declaration', which states in paragraph 11 among others that the Council of Europe and its members should undertake joint planning with developing countries of projects such as an
international satellite monitoring agency to ensure worldwide access to satellite-gained remote sensing information. The Sub-Committee on Space Policy, Information Technology and Telecommunications is currently investigating ways and means to implement Recommendation 957 in the light of the Lisbon Declaration. It should be noted, by the way, that the Council of Europe normally looks upon ESA (14 states, with some neutral countries as members or associate members and Canada as observer) as the main agency responsible for implementing a European space policy. The first four initiatives are due at least in part to the fear that Europe would be technologically lagging farther behind, the USA and the USSR having an almost absolute monopoly in the military use of outer space. These proposals have military and industrial policy objectives. The fifth initiative corresponds much more closely to the original intentions of an ISMA as an instrument for international confidence building and international cooperation. It therefore warrants the widest possible international support.
Professor Dr C: VoOte ITC, Enschede The Netherlands
Lunar base project The US federal venture into a low tunities for commerce, and prepare Earth orbit space station by the 1990s for the permanent habitation of other could open the way to a moon base planets by adopting the goal of returnthat is a springboard to the planets, a ing to the Moon. group of scientists and industrialists In 1972, the USA withdrew from says in a recent report. space activity concerning the Moon. Following a N A S A - s p o n s o r e d The Lunar Base Working Group beworkshop at Los Alamos National lieves there are no insurmountable Laboratory, USA, in the spring of technical obstacles to returning to the 1984, the Lunar Base Working Group lunar surface to establish a permanent released a document in October 1984 base. Neither would the costs be calling for a commitment to a lunar insurmountable. base within a decade. The report 'The cost would be roughly compaargues that the USA can advance rable to (NASA's) Apollo program, scientific exploration, expand oppor- which amounted to less than three-
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tenths of 1% of the US Gross National Product (GNP) in the decade from 1962 to 1972', says Paul Keaton, of the Los Alamos Physics Division. 'We don't think a lunar base program would mean an increase in NASA's historical budget level, given the doubling of the GNP after inflation, the long useful life of a lunar base compared to the Apollo program, and the possibility of international funding, such as is happening with the Space Shuttle. In fact, the lunar base would probably cost only about onetenth of 1% of the GNP'. The report does not paint any extreme or utopian prospects for future lunar dwellers, nor does it foresee the future as easy. Once a lunar base is established, the umbilical cord tying the Moon and Earth would be severed, and initially, at least, 'they will be worse off than aborigines because they will not be adapted to the environment. Using tools at first imported from Earth, they must construct whatever they need to deal with the lunar environment and live there with minimal resupply'. A Moon-base community would have an unprecedented chance for scientific research not possible from Earth, and despite the earlier forays into space, and the wealth of resulting data, there are many unanswered questions, not the least of which is the possible existence of extraterrestrial intelligence.
Quiet lunar environment 'The far side of the Moon is permanently shielded from direct radiofrequency emissions from Earth', Keaton says. 'This uniquely quiet lunar environment may be the only place where instruments can really be fully utilized in the search for extraterrestrial intelligence'. Seismic detectors and magnetometers could be deployed for long periods, to determine the composition of the Moon's interior, which could answer a lot of questions about the formation of Earth and the other planets. Heat-flow m e a s u r e m e n t s made at many locations beyond the two sites sampled by the Apollo program could yield data on the extent and
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distribution of radioactive elements on the Moon. Limited Apollo sampling hampered full understanding of the origin and evolution of the Moon's crust, Keaton explains. Such observations could be critical to future Moon dwellers: they would begin to mine space resources for industry, and a thorough understanding of the Moon's natural resources would be imperative. Keaton says the Lunar Working Group knows enough about the Moon's resources to believe
that a lunar colony COUld pD)dLltC oxygen, fuel, power, building mat~ rials, and metals, all essential to [u[tlr~low Earth-orbil missions and the: < , , onization of space This scientific and induslrial lunal complex could become a spaceporl lo launch humans and robot space pr~bes to Mars and lhc other planets Derails: Michael Duke, NASA..h~hnson Space ('entre, Houston, FX 77058, LISA.
UK space agency? The British engineering union TASS has called on the UK government to set up a space agency, similar to the USA's NASA or France's CNES, to re-establish the UK as a major force in space technology. The call comes in a TASS policy statement, 'Space the future', which draws on the experience of the union's members, including senior designers and engineers, who work in the space industry. In the foreword to the policy statement, the union's general secretary Ken Gill says, 'TASS believes that Britain needs a manufacturing base to create work and wealth for the benefit of the economy. This is not a case of clinging to an outdated heritage. In aerospace generally and in space particularly, we are facing the frontiers of technology - the possibilities are infinite. TASS is concerned that Britain makes the most of the enormous potential which exists. To do this we must marry together our experience of the past and our skills of the future in order to produce a strategic view of Britain's role in space'. Two fundamental problems are seen as facing UK space industry: the lack of a planned and coordinated approach to Britain's space role; and second, lack of investment in a high technology industry which is at the forefront of science and engineering developments. Both these problems are believed to stem from a lack of government commitment and political will to plan and invest adequately in manufacturing industry.
TASS states that, "Unlike France, Britain has neither a coherent space policy nor a properly co-ordinated programme. We have no space agency comparable to America's NASA or the French CNES . . . the UK could get far more out of its space industry if a UK space agency were to be established. This would bring together all interests in one forum, allowing the most advantageous decisions on the development of space to be taken for the benefit of Britain's space industry and the economy as a whole." There seems to be growing support within UK industry for a UK space agency, and an all-party parliamentary committee on space has been set up. The joint secretary of that committee is Ernie Ross, TASS-sponsored MP for Dundee West, who tabled an early-day Commons motion on the space industry on 4 April 1984 (see 'Documentation'). The union argues that lack of coordination and government support has led to the UK being a minor rather than a major partner in collaborative projects and has concentrated on satellites at the expense of other areas: 'The narrow vision of a succession of British governments has led to us ignoring areas wherein the greatest potential lies, for example, launch vehicles and space platforms'.
Integrated policy TASS has campaigned for many years for an integrated national policy for the whole aerospace industry, based
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on a publicly owned industry with adequate government funding: 'We need to draw together the various areas of expertise which undoubtedly exist throughout the industry, enabling the government to take a strategic view and plan and fund adequately so that we do not experience a second Blue Streak'. The union notes the view of experts in the industry that Britain could have built on the technological know-how acquired in the Blue Streak project which was abandoned in the 1960s: 'The consensus
seems to be that abandonment of Blue Streak was a disaster. Had the project been adequately financed and had the government seriously considered the implications of future developments in space, Britain would now have been in the forefront of rocket launcher technology'. Government response has not been particularly encouraging. At present responsibility for UK space policy resides in the Technology Minister and the Department of Trade and Industry.
APOLLO: a new telecommunications system A major boost has been given to the electronic information market by a series of agreements on APOLLO, 1 a new European satellite communications system, at a meeting of the APOLLO Working Group on 4 July 1984, in Luxembourg. APOLLO will be a high-speed digital transmission system for long data messages, in particular full text documents and graphics. This will provide a long-awaited infrastructure for a market which is potentially several orders of magnitude larger than the current bibliographic and numeric database market. Services based on APOLLO will commence from 1986 onwards. The APOLLO Working Group brings together representatives from: • EUTELSAT, the European Organization for Telecommunication Satellites, which will operate the satellite used by APOLLO; • National post and telecommunications administrations. British Telecom, eg, have already indicated that they will provide transmission facilities for APOLLO; • Permanent nucleus of the GTD/ CSTD Group of CEPT (European Conference of F I T Administrations); • The European Space Agency, which will organize the technical development of APOLLO; and S P A C E POLICY February 1985
• The Commission of the European Communities (EEC), at whose request APOLLO is being created. The EEC will organize the first trials of APOLLO, together with document delivery services in Europe, such as the British Library Lending Division, UK. The CEC is already co-financing with industry a 16 million ECU (European Currency Unit) package of experiments in electronic document delivery. APOLLO will overcome serious obstacles to their later commercial development, which are notably: unsuitability of relatively narrow-band terrestrial data networks, such as Euronet, and unavailability for several years of high capacity digital networks (ISDN's) at international level. APOLLO will cover the entire area of Western Europe which is served by the 'parent' satellite, ECS-2 (European Communication Satellite; flight unit 2), which will be launched by ESA later this year. The APOLLO system will form the kernel of electronic information services where there are typically few suppliers and many, widely distributed users. A prime application is as a return channel for documents which have been located after an on-line bibliographic search on Euronet DIANE services. Other applications
would include: remote printing of newspapers etc; 'broadcasting' of press agency and other news; multidestination distribution of technical specifications, spare part lists (eg for cars); electronic mail; high resolution (colour) image transmission; and computer data file transfer. An important innovation at the user's end will be the provision of receive-only earth stations, which are cheaper than transmit-receive earth stations by a factor of more than ten. Between 20 and 30 receive-only earth stations will be installed during the initial trial period, from 1986 onwards. At least nine ESA member states will participate in this programme. Contact: C. Vernimb, CEC, DG XIII/ B, L-2920 Luxembourg, or S. Hanell, ESA, 8-10, rue Mario Nikis, F-75738 Paris Cedex 15. 1Article Procurement with On-Line Local Ordering. APOLLO is not connected with
the US space programme of the same name.
Rural satellite programme The Academy for Educational Development is administering a five-year programme to promote the use of satellite technologies for communication services, in support of such basic aspects of rural development as health care, agricultural improvement, adult literacy, and classroom education. Funded by the US Agency for International Development (USAID), the programme represents an effort by the USA to transfer to developing nations a range of appropriate, cost-effective communication technologies that will enable them to strengthen their total communication systems. The Rural Satellite Program includes several full-scale pilot projects, each of about two years' operation, jointly designed and jointly funded by the USA and host country governments. Although individual projects are managed cooperatively during the initial phases, the goal is to transfer the management and operation of the 109
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projects entirely to host country personnel. A 'limited number of satellite earth stations installed in the host countries are helping the participating countries to develop the expertise that will enable them to provide ongoing operational satellite services in rural areas.
The pilot project in Indonesia is putting in place an audio teleconferencing system that will enable the campuses of the Eastern Islands University Association (BKS) to train new faculty, upgrade existing faculty capabilities, increase student access to basic science courses, and increase the availability of specialized faculty and library resources. The pilot project in the Caribbean region is providing an audio teleconferencing system to expand the education and outreach capabilities of the University of the West Indies. The Peru Rural Communication Services Project is establishing a satellite-based communication system to link seven rural communities with each other and with Lima. The communication system has a public service focus, providing special services to development ministry personnel working in remote health posts, rural schools, and agricultural extension offices, as well as being a commercial telephone service. The academy's management of the pilot projects includes supervision of the engineering subcontract for the design and installation of the hardware system, supervision of the equipment procurement process, and technical assistance for the development of software and appropriate applications of the communication systems.
Policy studies In addition to the pilot projects that are testing the use of satellite communications in the field, the Rural Satellite Program includes several central activities c o n d u c t e d by the academy's Washington DC, office. One of these central activities is the development of a series of policy studies analysing the financial, technical, regulatory, and international environments within which developing countries must operate to obtain rural
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satellite services. The first policy study examines the satellite systems available for providing rural telecommunication services by satellite to developing countries. A second policy study examines the criteria and procedures that agencies use in funding rural telecommunication projects. The cumulative experience of the Rural Satellite Program will be examined at an international conference to be held at the end of the program's five years. Rural Satellite Program staff also help to coordinate programme elements being developed by other agen-
cies. The lnsiitule for lclcc~,m munication Sciences in Boulder, (~i orado, has been working wilh lhc' programme [o develop a design foi ~tt~ earth station lhat will provide, h:lc communication scrvicc to rural area, effectively and economicall~ kiss} working with All)'s Office of Entrap, NASA's Lewis Research Center has conducted rcsearch on using s~)lfn power to provide low-cost tcliabtc electricity for small earth sl:MioI1~, ('ontact: Academy l o i [~ducationai Development, 1414 22nd Street NW. Washington, I)C 20037. USA
Call for Australian agency Calls for the Australian government to set up a national space agency to promote and coordinate Australia's space technology were made by scientists and industrialists at Australia's first ever national space symposium in March 1984. Don M a t h e w s o n , Professor of Astronomy at the Australian National University and director of Mount Stromlo and Siding Spring observatories, said that an Australian space agency was essential to initiate and maximize the benefits of Australia's participation in the joint US, Canadian and Australian space project Starlab. 'An Australian space agency must be formed with a government space policy firmly in place', he said. 'Starlab is a real live project. Australia has been in it for the past four years together with two prestigious partnets, Canada and the USA. Australian technology is at the heart of the project. It is doubtful whether another opportunity for Australia to participate in a project as meritorious as Starlab will present itself in another 20 years'. Stanley Schaetzel, Chairman and Managing Director of Auspace Proprietary Ltd, also urged the establishment of a national space organization, which would weld the dormant capabilities into a coherent and efficient system, capable of overcoming Australia's current lag in space activities. Mr Schaetzel estimated the budget for
such an agency as about $75 million. John Carver. Director and Professor of physics at the Research School of Physical Sciences fit the Australian National University. said thc board should cover terrestrial and extraterrestrial science and should involve a number of institutions. There should be at least one major projcc! of sufficient magnitude to provide a demand for local industry. "We missed a great opportunity when there was no follow-up to the 1967 launch of Wresat 1 (Australia's first satellite). We failed to exploit our early successes in X-ray astronomy and have provided inadequale suppor! for gamma-ray find infra-red astro-nomy from balloons find aircraft. Support for research using earth resources, meteorological and oceanographic satellites has been modest when compared with the benefits this work can bring to Australia," said Professo~ Carver. From the government there was a call for greater Australian involvement in space technology. Mr Barry Jones, Minister for Science and Technology, said that ihe alternative was that the leading countries in space technology and research would be uncatchable and, by default, Australia would be a mere spectator. 'We have a substantial reserwfir ol expertise in areas relevant to space technology in government laboratories, universities, industries and in the form of Australians who have worked
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within the U S space industry,' he said. ' T h r o u g h Aussat alone we have Australians with more than 100 manyears of experience in space hardware design and d e v e l o p m e n t ' . Projects such as the Australian Telescope had stimulated the development within Australia of expertise which should enable efficient ground stations for satellite communications to be designed and built here. Australia was located in the most forward-
looking and dynamic part of the world with large potential markets in SouthEast Asia and the Pacific particularly for earth stations and associated services. A u s t r a l i a ' s national c o m m u n i c a tions satellite system is due to b e c o m e operational in July 1985 with the launching of the Aussat satellite by the U S Space Shuttle. Aussat will go into a g e o s t a t i o n a r y orbit 36 000 km (21 600 miles) above the equator and
Initiatives to implement the National Policy on the Commercial Use of Space
Documentation US National Policy on the Commercial Use of Space Private sector investment and involvement is essential if the enormous commercial potential of space is to be developed. The key to the success of industrial research and manufacturing in space and the development of space-based services is a clear policy defining government's role in encouraging private sector space-based activities that will benefit life on earth. The President today (20 July 1984) issued his National Policy on the Commercial Use of Space. The policy extends to four general categories: I. Economic initiatives. Tax laws and regulations which discriminate against commercial space ventures will be changed or eliminated. Such changes will be subject to revision in accordance with decisions made on fundamental tax reform later this year. H. Legal and regulatory initiatives. Laws and regulations predating space operations will be updated to accommodate the commercial use of space. IlL Research and development initiatives. In partnership with industry and academia, government will expand basic research and development which may have implications for investors aiming to develop commercial space products and services. IV. Initiatives to implement the National Policy on the Commercial Use o f Space. Since commercial developments in space often require many years to reach the production phase, entrepreneurs will receive assurance of consistent government actions and policies over long periods.
The Administration will take the following initiatives to facilitate the commercial use of space.
Economic initiatives Replace the current 'carry-on test' for the 25% research tax credit with provisions
SPACE POLICY February 1985
will provide a wide range of telecommunications services for broadcasting and television stations, the maritime and aviation transport industries, private companies and isolated Australian communities. T h e system will comprise three satellites, two ground control stations (in Sydney and Perth) and eight earth stations (in all State capitals, in Canberra, the national capital, and in Darwin, in the Northern Territory).
allowing corporations engaged in a trade or business to form joint ventures and be eligible to use any R&D tax credits resulting from the venture. Modify the tax code to assure that space capital projects owned principally by United States interests and operated for domestic purposes are eligible for the 10% Investment Tax Credit and the accelerated cost recovery system. Facilitate long-term contracts with new space ventures if the Government has a need for the product and if the purchase would be cost-efficient. Direct the Treasury to develop a proposal designed to identify those prototypes eligible for the R&D credit even though they eventually will be used in commercial service, so that current uneconomic incentives will be reduced. Clarify the appropriate tariff regulations to ensure that space-made projects are not considered imports when returned to the United States. These proposed changes are in reference to the current tax law. They would, of course, be revised in accordance with decisions made on fundamental tax reform later this year.
Legal and regulatory initiatives Assure that radio frequency assignment for private sector use is timely. Provide additional protection of proprietary information through the Space Act. Assure fair international competition.
Research and development initiatives Expand current practices to increase private sector awareness of space opportunities and to encourage increased industry investment in high-tech, space-based research and development.
Increase public awareness about the commercial opportunities in space. Develop a plan for privatization of specific government space activities. Establish a high-level national focus for commercial space issues by creating a Cabinet Council on Commerce and trade (CCCT) Working Group on the Commercial Use of Space: The Working Group will be chaired by a representative of the Commerce Department with a representative of NASA serving as vice chairman. Membership will consist of all interested departments and agencies. The SIG-Space Interagency Group will continue in its current policy role. Issued by the White House, 20 July 1984.
US National Space Strategy On 15 August 1984, the President approved a National Space Strategy designed to implement the National Space Policy, as supplemented by the President's 1984 State of the Union Address. The strategy identifies selected, high priority efforts and responsibilities, and provides implementation plans for major space policy objectives. This strategy is consistent with other space-related National Security Decision Directives and other Administration policies. A summary of the strategy's contents is provided below.
The Space Transportation System (STS) Insure routine, cost-effective access to space with the STS. The STS is a critical factor in maintaining US space leadership, in accomplishing the basic goals of the National Space Policy, and in achieving a permanent manned presence in space. It is the primary space launch system for both national security and civil government missions. As such, NASA's first priority is to make the STS fully operational and cost-
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al environment suited 1:o~ i;~Mmg t;h necessary, imtiatives a n d I)tl,*"-,lllil~7 these through adequate ine0.slnc~, l,.~, implementation and ncgoti~ll~,n:. Such action cxcccds the Illitll~.t;liC,, ,;{ either ESA oT the Intercosmo>, ( ~,un cil. At present prospects ale dim h,! discussions within the [!nited N41lioll~, system, due to the lack (fl intcl,_>a m co-operating with further Mudic~;, the: opposition against such studies ,,J ~,t~c reluctance to provide voltnHar,, con.tributions to the 1lnitcd Natioi> space p r o g r a m m e ~tlnong scverat coumric'~ having a space capabilit} ()n flw other hand, an)initiative to establish an ISMA. starling cither as an RSMA limited to the European rcgion ~u ;t~ an interregional o~ international vc~> ture outside the LiN system, ',horrid have a provision for its eventual inch= sion in the ITN. [Jnder the circumstaqccs several relevant initialhes at the European level are noteworlh\.:
ment. An appeal was launched to prevent all weapons fl)r use in outer space, a draft treaty was proposed, and international and/or regional means of verification were discussed. 4. At the 34th Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs, Bj6rkliden, Sweden, 9--14 July 1984, on '1984, and beyond: science, security, and public opinion', much consideration was given to military aspects of space by the 134 participating scientists, other scholars and public figures from 40 countries and 6 international organizations. The official Statement of the Pugwash Council, issued at the end of the Conference and intended for policy makers at all levels, the media and the general public, contains several paragraphs • On 7 February 1984 President Frangois Mitterand of Francc sugon this important issue (see "Docugested in an official address m the mentation'). ltaguc (Ncthcrhmds) the creation 5. Europe has been mentioned as the of a Europcan Space ('ommunity proper region for the establishment to strengthen the European militof an RSMA because of the special ary defencc power, for instance problems of the European arena. through launching a European Moreover, Europe is particularly manned space station for surveillwell equipped because of its strong ance purposes and defence action. intellectual capital and its technoloapparently as a parallel organizagical and industrial potential. It has tion to the European Economic achieved a sufficient level of capaCommunities (scc "Documentability in space technology to take a tion" ). credible political initiative towards the setting up of such an agency, • On 27 June 1984 the Summit Meeting of the El:K" in Fontainebleau the E u r o p e a n Space A g e n c y (France) decided to establish a (ESA) being the third space power special working group to elaborate in terms of exploration and peacethis suggestion of President Franful uses of outer space. Another gois Mitterand advantage is that there already exists a well organized inter- • The Assemhly of the Western European Union (WEU the governmental infrastructure suited European NATO partners plus for addressing technical aspects of France) discussed and adopted on an ISMA or an RSMA through 20 ,lune 1984 at its Paris meeting a ESA in Western Europe (including recommendation, referring to the C a n a d a ) and the Intercosmos military use o1: space in a broad Council in Eastern Europe. way, including the proposals for However, when discussing the estabsatellite monitoring and oceanic lishment of either an ISMA or an and terrestrial surveillance satellite RSMA the mere availability of proper systems m an international or a technological capabilities is not suffiWEU setting, the manned space cient. Much more essential is a politic-
SPACE POLICY February 1985
Monitor station proposal, etc, based on W E U Document 976 (15 May 1984) prepared on behalf of the WEU Committee on Scientific, Technological and A e r o s p a c e Questions. • During the French-German Summit at the end of May 1984 near Paris, which brought together President Frangois Mitterand and German Chancellor Helmut Kohl, top government representatives of the two countries discussed a study for the development of a joint military reconnaissance satellite as a followon to the French Samro programme, which was cut back in 1982 because of defence-spending constraints. The Samro's imaging system and telemetry links would have been adapted from the French SPOT civilian earth observation spacecraft and the European Space Agency's ERS-1 civilian oceanographic satellite, which will carry respectively an optical payload to gather data for land use, agriculture and earth resources applications and a microwave-imaging package to observe oceans, ice zones and coastal areas (Aviation Week & Space Technology, 4 June 1984, p 23). • Perhaps more important, and probably more promising with regard to future negotiations with the two superpowers and with Third World countries is the action undertaken by the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (21 states, including a number of neutral countries). In its contribution (Council of Europe Doc AS/ Science (34) 7, July 1982) to the Second United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, UNISPACE 82, held in Vienna, 9--21 August 1982, it supported the ISMA proposal as a most effective instrument in contributing to efforts to reduce worldwide arms expenditure - thus making possible the shift of resources in favour of the developing countries, called for in Council of Europe Resolution 747 of 12 May 1981 (on global prospects - human needs and the earth's resources). F u r t h e r m o r e the Council of
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Europe adopted on 24 June 1983 Resolution 789 on the future of the European space programme (addressing the ESA programmes), Resolution 788 on the 2nd United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (noting inter alia concern with the increasing militarization of space and recommending to exploit the potential of space technology as a stabilizing factor in international relations, for instance through an international satellite monitoring agency), and Recommendation 957 on the proposal for an international satellite monitoring agency (see Documentation). The last-mentioned Recommendation states explicitly that possibilities for renewed initiatives should be examined by the Council of Europe member states, either individually or collectively or in association with non-European industrialized or developing countries having a space capability. The Council of Europe went even further at its North-South Conference: Europe's Role (Lisbon, 9--11 April 1984) by adopting the 'Lisbon Declaration', which states in paragraph 11 among others that the Council of Europe and its members should undertake joint planning with developing countries of projects such as an
international satellite monitoring agency to ensure worldwide access to satellite-gained remote sensing information. The Sub-Committee on Space Policy, Information Technology and Telecommunications is currently investigating ways and means to implement Recommendation 957 in the light of the Lisbon Declaration. It should be noted, by the way, that the Council of Europe normally looks upon ESA (14 states, with some neutral countries as members or associate members and Canada as observer) as the main agency responsible for implementing a European space policy. The first four initiatives are due at least in part to the fear that Europe would be technologically lagging farther behind, the USA and the USSR having an almost absolute monopoly in the military use of outer space. These proposals have military and industrial policy objectives. The fifth initiative corresponds much more closely to the original intentions of an ISMA as an instrument for international confidence building and international cooperation. It therefore warrants the widest possible international support.
Professor Dr C: VoOte ITC, Enschede The Netherlands
Lunar base project The US federal venture into a low tunities for commerce, and prepare Earth orbit space station by the 1990s for the permanent habitation of other could open the way to a moon base planets by adopting the goal of returnthat is a springboard to the planets, a ing to the Moon. group of scientists and industrialists In 1972, the USA withdrew from says in a recent report. space activity concerning the Moon. Following a N A S A - s p o n s o r e d The Lunar Base Working Group beworkshop at Los Alamos National lieves there are no insurmountable Laboratory, USA, in the spring of technical obstacles to returning to the 1984, the Lunar Base Working Group lunar surface to establish a permanent released a document in October 1984 base. Neither would the costs be calling for a commitment to a lunar insurmountable. base within a decade. The report 'The cost would be roughly compaargues that the USA can advance rable to (NASA's) Apollo program, scientific exploration, expand oppor- which amounted to less than three-
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tenths of 1% of the US Gross National Product (GNP) in the decade from 1962 to 1972', says Paul Keaton, of the Los Alamos Physics Division. 'We don't think a lunar base program would mean an increase in NASA's historical budget level, given the doubling of the GNP after inflation, the long useful life of a lunar base compared to the Apollo program, and the possibility of international funding, such as is happening with the Space Shuttle. In fact, the lunar base would probably cost only about onetenth of 1% of the GNP'. The report does not paint any extreme or utopian prospects for future lunar dwellers, nor does it foresee the future as easy. Once a lunar base is established, the umbilical cord tying the Moon and Earth would be severed, and initially, at least, 'they will be worse off than aborigines because they will not be adapted to the environment. Using tools at first imported from Earth, they must construct whatever they need to deal with the lunar environment and live there with minimal resupply'. A Moon-base community would have an unprecedented chance for scientific research not possible from Earth, and despite the earlier forays into space, and the wealth of resulting data, there are many unanswered questions, not the least of which is the possible existence of extraterrestrial intelligence.
Quiet lunar environment 'The far side of the Moon is permanently shielded from direct radiofrequency emissions from Earth', Keaton says. 'This uniquely quiet lunar environment may be the only place where instruments can really be fully utilized in the search for extraterrestrial intelligence'. Seismic detectors and magnetometers could be deployed for long periods, to determine the composition of the Moon's interior, which could answer a lot of questions about the formation of Earth and the other planets. Heat-flow m e a s u r e m e n t s made at many locations beyond the two sites sampled by the Apollo program could yield data on the extent and
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distribution of radioactive elements on the Moon. Limited Apollo sampling hampered full understanding of the origin and evolution of the Moon's crust, Keaton explains. Such observations could be critical to future Moon dwellers: they would begin to mine space resources for industry, and a thorough understanding of the Moon's natural resources would be imperative. Keaton says the Lunar Working Group knows enough about the Moon's resources to believe
that a lunar colony COUld pD)dLltC oxygen, fuel, power, building mat~ rials, and metals, all essential to [u[tlr~low Earth-orbil missions and the: < , , onization of space This scientific and induslrial lunal complex could become a spaceporl lo launch humans and robot space pr~bes to Mars and lhc other planets Derails: Michael Duke, NASA..h~hnson Space ('entre, Houston, FX 77058, LISA.
UK space agency? The British engineering union TASS has called on the UK government to set up a space agency, similar to the USA's NASA or France's CNES, to re-establish the UK as a major force in space technology. The call comes in a TASS policy statement, 'Space the future', which draws on the experience of the union's members, including senior designers and engineers, who work in the space industry. In the foreword to the policy statement, the union's general secretary Ken Gill says, 'TASS believes that Britain needs a manufacturing base to create work and wealth for the benefit of the economy. This is not a case of clinging to an outdated heritage. In aerospace generally and in space particularly, we are facing the frontiers of technology - the possibilities are infinite. TASS is concerned that Britain makes the most of the enormous potential which exists. To do this we must marry together our experience of the past and our skills of the future in order to produce a strategic view of Britain's role in space'. Two fundamental problems are seen as facing UK space industry: the lack of a planned and coordinated approach to Britain's space role; and second, lack of investment in a high technology industry which is at the forefront of science and engineering developments. Both these problems are believed to stem from a lack of government commitment and political will to plan and invest adequately in manufacturing industry.
TASS states that, "Unlike France, Britain has neither a coherent space policy nor a properly co-ordinated programme. We have no space agency comparable to America's NASA or the French CNES . . . the UK could get far more out of its space industry if a UK space agency were to be established. This would bring together all interests in one forum, allowing the most advantageous decisions on the development of space to be taken for the benefit of Britain's space industry and the economy as a whole." There seems to be growing support within UK industry for a UK space agency, and an all-party parliamentary committee on space has been set up. The joint secretary of that committee is Ernie Ross, TASS-sponsored MP for Dundee West, who tabled an early-day Commons motion on the space industry on 4 April 1984 (see 'Documentation'). The union argues that lack of coordination and government support has led to the UK being a minor rather than a major partner in collaborative projects and has concentrated on satellites at the expense of other areas: 'The narrow vision of a succession of British governments has led to us ignoring areas wherein the greatest potential lies, for example, launch vehicles and space platforms'.
Integrated policy TASS has campaigned for many years for an integrated national policy for the whole aerospace industry, based
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on a publicly owned industry with adequate government funding: 'We need to draw together the various areas of expertise which undoubtedly exist throughout the industry, enabling the government to take a strategic view and plan and fund adequately so that we do not experience a second Blue Streak'. The union notes the view of experts in the industry that Britain could have built on the technological know-how acquired in the Blue Streak project which was abandoned in the 1960s: 'The consensus
seems to be that abandonment of Blue Streak was a disaster. Had the project been adequately financed and had the government seriously considered the implications of future developments in space, Britain would now have been in the forefront of rocket launcher technology'. Government response has not been particularly encouraging. At present responsibility for UK space policy resides in the Technology Minister and the Department of Trade and Industry.
APOLLO: a new telecommunications system A major boost has been given to the electronic information market by a series of agreements on APOLLO, 1 a new European satellite communications system, at a meeting of the APOLLO Working Group on 4 July 1984, in Luxembourg. APOLLO will be a high-speed digital transmission system for long data messages, in particular full text documents and graphics. This will provide a long-awaited infrastructure for a market which is potentially several orders of magnitude larger than the current bibliographic and numeric database market. Services based on APOLLO will commence from 1986 onwards. The APOLLO Working Group brings together representatives from: • EUTELSAT, the European Organization for Telecommunication Satellites, which will operate the satellite used by APOLLO; • National post and telecommunications administrations. British Telecom, eg, have already indicated that they will provide transmission facilities for APOLLO; • Permanent nucleus of the GTD/ CSTD Group of CEPT (European Conference of F I T Administrations); • The European Space Agency, which will organize the technical development of APOLLO; and S P A C E POLICY February 1985
• The Commission of the European Communities (EEC), at whose request APOLLO is being created. The EEC will organize the first trials of APOLLO, together with document delivery services in Europe, such as the British Library Lending Division, UK. The CEC is already co-financing with industry a 16 million ECU (European Currency Unit) package of experiments in electronic document delivery. APOLLO will overcome serious obstacles to their later commercial development, which are notably: unsuitability of relatively narrow-band terrestrial data networks, such as Euronet, and unavailability for several years of high capacity digital networks (ISDN's) at international level. APOLLO will cover the entire area of Western Europe which is served by the 'parent' satellite, ECS-2 (European Communication Satellite; flight unit 2), which will be launched by ESA later this year. The APOLLO system will form the kernel of electronic information services where there are typically few suppliers and many, widely distributed users. A prime application is as a return channel for documents which have been located after an on-line bibliographic search on Euronet DIANE services. Other applications
would include: remote printing of newspapers etc; 'broadcasting' of press agency and other news; multidestination distribution of technical specifications, spare part lists (eg for cars); electronic mail; high resolution (colour) image transmission; and computer data file transfer. An important innovation at the user's end will be the provision of receive-only earth stations, which are cheaper than transmit-receive earth stations by a factor of more than ten. Between 20 and 30 receive-only earth stations will be installed during the initial trial period, from 1986 onwards. At least nine ESA member states will participate in this programme. Contact: C. Vernimb, CEC, DG XIII/ B, L-2920 Luxembourg, or S. Hanell, ESA, 8-10, rue Mario Nikis, F-75738 Paris Cedex 15. 1Article Procurement with On-Line Local Ordering. APOLLO is not connected with
the US space programme of the same name.
Rural satellite programme The Academy for Educational Development is administering a five-year programme to promote the use of satellite technologies for communication services, in support of such basic aspects of rural development as health care, agricultural improvement, adult literacy, and classroom education. Funded by the US Agency for International Development (USAID), the programme represents an effort by the USA to transfer to developing nations a range of appropriate, cost-effective communication technologies that will enable them to strengthen their total communication systems. The Rural Satellite Program includes several full-scale pilot projects, each of about two years' operation, jointly designed and jointly funded by the USA and host country governments. Although individual projects are managed cooperatively during the initial phases, the goal is to transfer the management and operation of the 109
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projects entirely to host country personnel. A 'limited number of satellite earth stations installed in the host countries are helping the participating countries to develop the expertise that will enable them to provide ongoing operational satellite services in rural areas.
The pilot project in Indonesia is putting in place an audio teleconferencing system that will enable the campuses of the Eastern Islands University Association (BKS) to train new faculty, upgrade existing faculty capabilities, increase student access to basic science courses, and increase the availability of specialized faculty and library resources. The pilot project in the Caribbean region is providing an audio teleconferencing system to expand the education and outreach capabilities of the University of the West Indies. The Peru Rural Communication Services Project is establishing a satellite-based communication system to link seven rural communities with each other and with Lima. The communication system has a public service focus, providing special services to development ministry personnel working in remote health posts, rural schools, and agricultural extension offices, as well as being a commercial telephone service. The academy's management of the pilot projects includes supervision of the engineering subcontract for the design and installation of the hardware system, supervision of the equipment procurement process, and technical assistance for the development of software and appropriate applications of the communication systems.
Policy studies In addition to the pilot projects that are testing the use of satellite communications in the field, the Rural Satellite Program includes several central activities c o n d u c t e d by the academy's Washington DC, office. One of these central activities is the development of a series of policy studies analysing the financial, technical, regulatory, and international environments within which developing countries must operate to obtain rural
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satellite services. The first policy study examines the satellite systems available for providing rural telecommunication services by satellite to developing countries. A second policy study examines the criteria and procedures that agencies use in funding rural telecommunication projects. The cumulative experience of the Rural Satellite Program will be examined at an international conference to be held at the end of the program's five years. Rural Satellite Program staff also help to coordinate programme elements being developed by other agen-
cies. The lnsiitule for lclcc~,m munication Sciences in Boulder, (~i orado, has been working wilh lhc' programme [o develop a design foi ~tt~ earth station lhat will provide, h:lc communication scrvicc to rural area, effectively and economicall~ kiss} working with All)'s Office of Entrap, NASA's Lewis Research Center has conducted rcsearch on using s~)lfn power to provide low-cost tcliabtc electricity for small earth sl:MioI1~, ('ontact: Academy l o i [~ducationai Development, 1414 22nd Street NW. Washington, I)C 20037. USA
Call for Australian agency Calls for the Australian government to set up a national space agency to promote and coordinate Australia's space technology were made by scientists and industrialists at Australia's first ever national space symposium in March 1984. Don M a t h e w s o n , Professor of Astronomy at the Australian National University and director of Mount Stromlo and Siding Spring observatories, said that an Australian space agency was essential to initiate and maximize the benefits of Australia's participation in the joint US, Canadian and Australian space project Starlab. 'An Australian space agency must be formed with a government space policy firmly in place', he said. 'Starlab is a real live project. Australia has been in it for the past four years together with two prestigious partnets, Canada and the USA. Australian technology is at the heart of the project. It is doubtful whether another opportunity for Australia to participate in a project as meritorious as Starlab will present itself in another 20 years'. Stanley Schaetzel, Chairman and Managing Director of Auspace Proprietary Ltd, also urged the establishment of a national space organization, which would weld the dormant capabilities into a coherent and efficient system, capable of overcoming Australia's current lag in space activities. Mr Schaetzel estimated the budget for
such an agency as about $75 million. John Carver. Director and Professor of physics at the Research School of Physical Sciences fit the Australian National University. said thc board should cover terrestrial and extraterrestrial science and should involve a number of institutions. There should be at least one major projcc! of sufficient magnitude to provide a demand for local industry. "We missed a great opportunity when there was no follow-up to the 1967 launch of Wresat 1 (Australia's first satellite). We failed to exploit our early successes in X-ray astronomy and have provided inadequale suppor! for gamma-ray find infra-red astro-nomy from balloons find aircraft. Support for research using earth resources, meteorological and oceanographic satellites has been modest when compared with the benefits this work can bring to Australia," said Professo~ Carver. From the government there was a call for greater Australian involvement in space technology. Mr Barry Jones, Minister for Science and Technology, said that ihe alternative was that the leading countries in space technology and research would be uncatchable and, by default, Australia would be a mere spectator. 'We have a substantial reserwfir ol expertise in areas relevant to space technology in government laboratories, universities, industries and in the form of Australians who have worked
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within the U S space industry,' he said. ' T h r o u g h Aussat alone we have Australians with more than 100 manyears of experience in space hardware design and d e v e l o p m e n t ' . Projects such as the Australian Telescope had stimulated the development within Australia of expertise which should enable efficient ground stations for satellite communications to be designed and built here. Australia was located in the most forward-
looking and dynamic part of the world with large potential markets in SouthEast Asia and the Pacific particularly for earth stations and associated services. A u s t r a l i a ' s national c o m m u n i c a tions satellite system is due to b e c o m e operational in July 1985 with the launching of the Aussat satellite by the U S Space Shuttle. Aussat will go into a g e o s t a t i o n a r y orbit 36 000 km (21 600 miles) above the equator and
Initiatives to implement the National Policy on the Commercial Use of Space
Documentation US National Policy on the Commercial Use of Space Private sector investment and involvement is essential if the enormous commercial potential of space is to be developed. The key to the success of industrial research and manufacturing in space and the development of space-based services is a clear policy defining government's role in encouraging private sector space-based activities that will benefit life on earth. The President today (20 July 1984) issued his National Policy on the Commercial Use of Space. The policy extends to four general categories: I. Economic initiatives. Tax laws and regulations which discriminate against commercial space ventures will be changed or eliminated. Such changes will be subject to revision in accordance with decisions made on fundamental tax reform later this year. H. Legal and regulatory initiatives. Laws and regulations predating space operations will be updated to accommodate the commercial use of space. IlL Research and development initiatives. In partnership with industry and academia, government will expand basic research and development which may have implications for investors aiming to develop commercial space products and services. IV. Initiatives to implement the National Policy on the Commercial Use o f Space. Since commercial developments in space often require many years to reach the production phase, entrepreneurs will receive assurance of consistent government actions and policies over long periods.
The Administration will take the following initiatives to facilitate the commercial use of space.
Economic initiatives Replace the current 'carry-on test' for the 25% research tax credit with provisions
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will provide a wide range of telecommunications services for broadcasting and television stations, the maritime and aviation transport industries, private companies and isolated Australian communities. T h e system will comprise three satellites, two ground control stations (in Sydney and Perth) and eight earth stations (in all State capitals, in Canberra, the national capital, and in Darwin, in the Northern Territory).
allowing corporations engaged in a trade or business to form joint ventures and be eligible to use any R&D tax credits resulting from the venture. Modify the tax code to assure that space capital projects owned principally by United States interests and operated for domestic purposes are eligible for the 10% Investment Tax Credit and the accelerated cost recovery system. Facilitate long-term contracts with new space ventures if the Government has a need for the product and if the purchase would be cost-efficient. Direct the Treasury to develop a proposal designed to identify those prototypes eligible for the R&D credit even though they eventually will be used in commercial service, so that current uneconomic incentives will be reduced. Clarify the appropriate tariff regulations to ensure that space-made projects are not considered imports when returned to the United States. These proposed changes are in reference to the current tax law. They would, of course, be revised in accordance with decisions made on fundamental tax reform later this year.
Legal and regulatory initiatives Assure that radio frequency assignment for private sector use is timely. Provide additional protection of proprietary information through the Space Act. Assure fair international competition.
Research and development initiatives Expand current practices to increase private sector awareness of space opportunities and to encourage increased industry investment in high-tech, space-based research and development.
Increase public awareness about the commercial opportunities in space. Develop a plan for privatization of specific government space activities. Establish a high-level national focus for commercial space issues by creating a Cabinet Council on Commerce and trade (CCCT) Working Group on the Commercial Use of Space: The Working Group will be chaired by a representative of the Commerce Department with a representative of NASA serving as vice chairman. Membership will consist of all interested departments and agencies. The SIG-Space Interagency Group will continue in its current policy role. Issued by the White House, 20 July 1984.
US National Space Strategy On 15 August 1984, the President approved a National Space Strategy designed to implement the National Space Policy, as supplemented by the President's 1984 State of the Union Address. The strategy identifies selected, high priority efforts and responsibilities, and provides implementation plans for major space policy objectives. This strategy is consistent with other space-related National Security Decision Directives and other Administration policies. A summary of the strategy's contents is provided below.
The Space Transportation System (STS) Insure routine, cost-effective access to space with the STS. The STS is a critical factor in maintaining US space leadership, in accomplishing the basic goals of the National Space Policy, and in achieving a permanent manned presence in space. It is the primary space launch system for both national security and civil government missions. As such, NASA's first priority is to make the STS fully operational and cost-
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