- Email: [email protected]
Needs versus deeds: The unfulfilled research potential in school psychology
Needs Versus Deeds: The Unfulfilled Research Potential in School Psychology William Strein University
of Maryland
A nationwide sample of school psychology practitioners and one of authors of recent journal articles, from three main school psychology journals, were asked to rate the importance of the types of neededresearch in school psychology. Close agreement was found between the priorities assigned by the two groups. Prevention of school-related problems and improvement in the functioning of non-referred populations were the areas identified as most in need of research by both authors and practitioners. A comparison of the priorities for needed research with a previously published study of types of articles actually published in the school psychology press revealed little agreement between perceived needs and actual publications. The results are discussed in terms of implications for collaborative research between field-based practitioners and researchers, and possible actions by journal editorial boards and professional organizations that would facilitate greater research productivity in areas of great need. Formal
analysis
current
status
has
study bridges
what practitioners research
Previous
1984).
current
authors
1984; Ysseldyke
and Clark (1984)
journals between
chosen
status and future
of journal
what
The
needs by identifying
believe
to be the pressing
articles
relating
to
the authors
comparison found,
& Clark,
1984). TWO categories,
19.4%
professional
issues,
and Referral,
and 7.9% Practice
category
accounted
of the total,
and Professional
share of the total. The Reynolds
similar
Gutkin,
to the original
categories
statistic
to their expectations, Instrument
results,
1974)
to analyze
that research
Development
and Vali-
share of publications,
Two categories
also accounted
Elliott,
in
were
for more of the published
for the largest
respectively.
Reynolds
that appeared
study (O’Callaghan, entropy
accounted
Identity,
of the major
1984).
These
and Clark data were subsequently
system (Reynolds,
results were generally
a relative
contrary
studies (Reynolds constituting
& Clark,
to school psychology
to an earlier
Using
that fewer categories
and Assessment
Reynolds
topics (French
the contents
1974 and 1980 into 16 categories.
the years 1967-1973.
time,
reviewed dissertation
1974;
narrowed,
lyzed
largely
these areas of needed research
1975) or analyzed
actually
of an updated
articles
research
(O’Callaghan,
to facilitate
that had surveyed
dation
of a profession’s
reflect
for what needs to be done.
and comparing
& Pickholtz,
sorted journal
live major journals
across
analyses
in progress.
school psychology
deliberately
as one indicator such
implications
the gap between
and active
serves
However,
studies of school psychology
& Raykovitz,
interests
publications
needs in school psychology,
actual research
trends
research & Clark,
done but have only limited
been
present
of recent (Reynolds
& Witt, including
relating
to
for a substantial
reanalyzed 1984). heavier
in terms
The reanaemphasis
Partial funding for this project was provided by the University of Maryland Center for Educational Research and Development and the Division of Human and Community Resources. The author gratefully acknowledges the generous help given in every phase of this project by Dr. Arnold R. Spokane. Thanks are also expressed to Ms. Beverly Cohen and Ms. Carolyn Murphy for their invaluable assistance. 3
Journal of School
4
on the traditional results
role of testing and little emphasis
did show an unexpectedly
Theory The periods
that examined
1967-1973
(Ysseldyke
1984) used different
research
and published
Raykovitz
(biological,
involved
whereas
categories,
of articles
The recategorized in the Psychological
focused
The French
professional published
practice
in other journals.
ing to French
Dissertation
research much
there has been an increase
and adults,
differences),
and Raykovitz assessment
in dissertation
only two thirds of the dissertation
and
were probably
in school psychology, than
and
interventions,
French
published
broader
study ov’erFrench
individual
in school psychology
has been
& Ray-
on the “core” areas of
addressed
issues or practice. largely
(1984)
contents.
focused
and 13%
journals
dissertations
and Raykovitz,
Although
methods,
for the
(French
between dissertation
study ofjournal
and social bases of behavior;
psychology
articles,
1978-1980
and Raykovitz
of dissertations
on professional
school
in school psychology
and
making exact comparisons
on psychometric
that since
research 1975)
and Clark (1984)
cognitive,
research
only 2%
concluded
children
dissertation
& Pickholtz,
found that about half (49%)
psychology
testing.
on consultation.
proportion
studies difficult.
lapped 3 years of the Reynolds
16%
large
category. two studies
kovitz,
Psychology
then, accord-
traditional
research
research
being
interest
involving
in
older
in school psychology
has been practice-oriented. An examination practitioners research.
of what research
provides
If authors’
are more similar then a common
needs to be done as perceived
an interesting
contrast
and practitioners’
to the analyses
perceptions
of what research
to each other than they are to research research
by active authors
of previously
and
published
needs to be done
that has actually
been done,
agenda is not far off. METHOD
Subjects In order to identify articles
appearing
a sample
the Schools, and School Psycholo~
coauthored
of active authors,
in the 1979-1984
psychologists,
a random
Review was compiled.
sample
from the association’s
land school psychologists a local
or coauthors
of
Any person who had authored
or
three or more articles during this period was included in the author sample.
A total of 101 names were thus obtained. obtained
a list of all authors
issues of the Joumal ofSchool Psychology, Psychology in
study. There
practitioners’
Questionnaire
computerized
sample of practicing not living
no overlap
mailing list. A separate
between
was
sample of Mary-
membership
the names
school
in Maryland
list as part of
in the randomly
selected
samples and the author sample.
Development
The 16 categories
used in the Reynolds
study with minor editorial
unchanged
since
new thrusts
members
was drawn from a state association
was
the present Consultation,
For the national
of 112 NASP
the original
General
1974
Education,
and Clark (1984) changes.
O’Callaghan
study were adopted for use in
Since these categories study,
three
and Prevention/Enhancement,
in the field in a fashion
similar
have remained
additional
to the recategorizations
categories,
were added to reflect of Reynolds
et al.
Strein
5
Table 1 Categories Used for Rating Needs for Future Research in School Psychology 1. Practice: Delivery and enhancement of schoolpsychological services, such as teacher-psychologist interactions and parent conferencing. 2. Consultation: Models or specilic practices of individual, group, or organizational consultation in the schools, including in-service training for staff. 3. Professional preparation: Evaluation or development of models or specific techniques used in the professional preparation or training of school psychologists. 4. Professional identity: Roles and goals of school psychologists; employment and certification issues. 5. Ethical/legal issues: Questions pertaining to the practice of school psychology, such as con& dentiality, malpractice, etc. 6. Early education: Programs or general research on issues and findings from early childhood education that are relevant to school psychology. 7. Compensatory/remedial education: Programs or techniques appropriate for nonspecial education students, preschool through senior high. 8. Instrument development and evaluation: Technical or practical evaluation of tests and other diagnostic procedures used by school psychologists, with particular emphasis on validity, reliability, and bias. 9. Assessment and referral: Research on assessment, reporting, and referral practices. 10. Research issues: Work on issues relating specifically to the research process in school psychology 11. General education: Research on general educational theory and curriculum development, and specific ongoing practices such as academic grouping, grade placement, or retention. 12. Current problems in education: Research on more narrow issues in the public eye, such as drug abuse in the schools, child abuse, or merit pay for teachers. 13. Clinical-personality: Research on “clinical” issues such as personality development, psychopathology, or counseling/psychotherapy interventions. 14. Special education/exceptional children: Identification of, educational practices with, and service provision for special school populations, including the gifted. 15. Classroom organization and management: Models and techniques for classroom management. 16. Socioeducational: Social ecology of the classroom; teacher-learner or learner-learner interactions, either for the general population or specific special groups. 17. Instructional issues: Instructional methods and practices, including learning theory. 18. Higher mental processes: Research on the general school population in regard to cognitive processing, intelligence, perceptual-motor skills, or creativity. 19. Prevention/enhancement: School-based programs designed to prevent academic or behavior problems in at-risk students or to enhance functioning in non-identified populations.
(1984).
Short operational
resulting
19 categories
could rate each category
definitions
were written
were then arranged
for each category
into a Likert
in terms of its importance
forfuture research in school psycholo-
gy, from
Unimportant (1) to Very ifn,f~ortant(5). Respondents
questions
about (a) suggestions
practicing
school psychologists
ered to be most influential readings” graphic
for research
information
on the respondents’
was collected.
were also asked open-ended
that could be collaboratively
and university
for school psychologists
(see Table 1). The
scale so that the respondents
researchers,
own professional
or school psychology
conducted
(b) lines of research students.
by
consid-
work, and (c) “must In addition,
demo-
6
Journal of School Psychology
Procedures A questionnaire,
an individually
were sent to each subject were obtained sulting
from the NASP
a variety
affiliation
written
cover letter,
at the best available mailing
of association
list. Authors’
membership
respond
within
urgently
requesting
by sample
materials
addresses
of the author.
their participation.
request
Return
to 75%
for authors,
return
envelope
for the practitioners
were obtained
by con-
or by using the institutional After 2-3 weeks a follow-
were sent to nonrespondents.
3 weeks time to the second
amounted,
Addresses
directories
listed in the most recent publication
up letter and identical
and a stamped
address.
All subjects
who did not
were sent a humorous
rates were adequate.
(rz = 75) and,
postcard
Useable
for practitioners,
returns
to 50.9%
(n = 57).
RESULTS Of the subjects practitioners identified
drawn
themselves
fied themselves now, directly
the NASP
as practitioners
or administrators.
or teaching
is done predominantly
and practitioners for future
by authors
ratings were highly correlated and Maryland
sample
Most authors
themselves
as
of the authors (79.7%)
publication
identi-
in school psy-
who may have been,
but are not
of school psychology. close, however, in overall agreement
in the field. Authors’
(r = .80; p< ,001).
was so high (r= .96;
sample were subsequently
identified
only 16.2%
faculty. Clearly,
were surprisingly
research
71%
In contrast,
involved in the daily practice
the priorities
national
membership
as administrators.
as researchers
chology journals Authors
from
and 15.1%
and practitioners’
Th e correlation
p<.OOl)
on
mean Likert
between the national
that only the data
from
the
used in this study.
Ten items from the needs inventory
showed strong agreement
between
authors
and
practitioners
(rank-order
differences
of 2 or less), and only six items showed strong
disagreement
(rank-order
differences
of 4 or more points).
Complete
data are displayed
in Table 2. Both authors
and practitioners
lems, or enhancement tant category relative
of needed
importance
education,
and classroom
organization
greater
on professional
identity,
or behavior
issues,
also agreed consultation,
Research
on the special
on clinical/person-
as moderately
the process
prob-
as the most impor-
and practitioners
on practice
and management.
included
and evaluation, relative
socioeducational
important
of research,
by both
and general
importance
issues and higher
ethical/legal
and current
issues,
problems
early education,
in education.
to all of these categories. mental
processes
Research
were assigned
instru-
Practitioners efforts
on
lower relative
im-
and practitioners
on
by practitioners.
Although needed
of academic populations,
was viewed as unimportant.
ment development
portance
authors
issues was regarded
Areas of strong disagreement assigned
The
preparation
and research
education
research.
prevention
in nonidentified
to the field of research
ality and professional groups,
identified
of functioning
there
research,
published
was substantial
agreement
between
authors
the indicated
priorities
were not reflected
in school psychology
journals
(Reynolds
tween the authors’ ratings and the number the 16 original
categories
was P = .08; p =
& Clark,
of articles published
in the research 1984).
actually
Correlation
(1974-1980)
.38 (r = .38; p = .08 for practitioners’
be-
in each of ratings
v
Practice Consultation Professional preparation Professional identity Ethical/legal issues Early education Compensatory/remedial education Instrument development and evaluation Assessment and referral Research issues General education Current problems in education Clinical/personality Special education Classroom organization and management Socioeducational Instructional issues Higher mental processes Prevention/enhancement
category
10 3 17 18 16 13 5 6 7 12 8 1
3.80 3.79 3.57 3.77 4.52
9
3.73 3.68 4.03 3.36 3.01 3.43 3.53 3.88
2 4 11 19 15 14
Rank order’)
4.21 3.97 3.60 2.84 3.50 3.51
Rating1
3.77 3.40 3.23 3.46 4.49
3.95 3.79 2.86 3.02 3.68 3.63 3.83
3.63
4.14 4.16 3.51 3.18 3.68 3.88
Ratinga
8 15 16 14 1
4 7 19 18 9.5 11.5 6
11.5
3 2 13 17 9.5 5
order”
Rank
Practitioners
x
x
x
Strongc agreement
x
x
x
x
x
x
Strong’ disagreement
2 8 7 11 N/A
1 6 14 N/A 5 10 12
16
4 N/A 13 3 9 15
Journal rank order
x
x
x
N/A
A
x
x
x
x
x
N/A x
P
Strong1 agreement
x
x
x
x
x
N/A
A
x
x
x
x
x
N/A
P
Strongs disagreement
,‘Ratings are the mean Likert ratings for each category by group. ‘)Rank orders are the rankings within each group.
16. 17. 18. 19.
9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
8.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Research
Authors
Table 2 Authors’ and Practitioners’ Ratings of Categories of Needed Research and Comparison with Actual Publications
Journal of School Psychology
8 vs. journal between
content).
rank-orders
and Clark
and journal
showed strong ment issues, personality
third most frequent Both authors the journals
difference
category
socioeducational
enhancement as the number
an underemphasis
active authors
one research
Au-
identity
of
were the
in 1974-1980. authors
perceived
on research
in the journals
on
an overemphasis
and current on higher
on early education,
and practitioners Research
in nonidentified
in
problems
mental
in
processes.
and an overemphasis
closely agreed on perceived on prevention
populations
need. Quite unexpectedly,
research
identity. 16 categories
on
issues research.
in school psychology.
published
of the original
and evaluation,
an underemphasis
of functioning
contributed
development
pro-
was found on several
a strong underemphasis
In addition,
(b) ethi-
mental
being in the area of professional
perceived
and instructional
In summary, future research
on higher
disagreement
of actual publications
education.
perceived
Strong
on clinical/
agreed with the
and evaluation,
(d) research
as the least important
and practitioners
but perceived
Practitioners
high emphasis
development
au-
and manage-
issues. Practitioners
issues,
authors’
Practitioners In general,
ranked it 15th. Yet articles on professional
on instrument
education,
between
organization
with the journals’
preparation.
identity
compensatory/remedial
of articles),
with only the origi-
on seven categories.
on research
and referral
the most striking and practitioners
or disagreement
(frequency
agreement
on classroom
on (a) instrument
(c) assessment
and (e) professional
research
Strong
contents
emphasis
and low emphasis
degree of emphasis
categories,
included.
with journal
thors ranked professional
contents
ratings were recalculated
and both groups concurred research
areas of agreement
was found on only 3 of the 16 categories.
with the journals’
cal/legal issues, cesses,
specific
needs and journal
categories
contents
agreement
thors concurred
journals’
perceived
of authors’ and practitioners’
nal 16 Reynolds ratings
In order to identify
professionals’
needs for
of school problems
was perceived
or the
by both groups
the authors who themselves
did not agree with the priorities
historically
had
accorded
by the journals.
Open-Ended Questions Half to three-quarters Responses between
researchers
was very little agreement questions
between relative frequencies ly zero. The small number sons difficult
(Table
kinds of collaborative demands
intervention
with an agreement
on open-ended
for direct
the three open-ended of possible
(nonspecific),
doctoral
between the responses
of responses
research
needs.
research
consensus
would be fruitful.
from practicing
research
interests
that practitioners
research
findings.
Echoing
“real world” concerns,
what was needed was “practical
catego-
by Cohen’s kappa.
of the authors The
and the practi-
correlation
made item-by-item
among
practitioners
One respondent
school psychologists
only wanted
and mis-
(t.= - .04)
by the two groups was essential-
in each category
was little
research
19 categories
neuropsychology,
rate of .89 as measured
about
questions.
collaborative
student in school psychology
assigned to each category
3). There service
(areas
were sorted into 17 of the original
The author and an advanced
rized each response There
categories:
answered
question
and practitioners)
plus three additional cellaneous.
tioners
of the respondents
to the first open-ended
greater another
ideas, simple to implement
compariabout
suggested
so overshadowed
communication practitioner
what
that heavy any
of available responded
that
that get quick results.” The
Strein
Areas
Table 3 Most Often Mentioned
Research
for Collaborative
9
by Authors
and Practitioners
Practitioners Research
category
h:
Rank
Practice Consultation Professional preparation Professional identity Ethical/legal issues Compensatory/remedial education Instrument development and evaluation Assessment and referral Research issues Current problems in education Clinical-personality Special education/exceptional children Classroom organization and management Socioeducational Instructional issues Higher mental processes Prevention/enhancement Intervention (nonspecific) Neuropsychology Miscellaneous
Authors
order
Ai
6 9 13.5 6 13.5 19
Rank
12 9 2 2 0 2 9 12 4
13.5 19 13.5 3.5 2 6 17 13.5 3.5 13.5 19 9 9
order
2.5 6.5 14.5 14.5 19.5 14.5 6.5 2.5 10 17.5 19.5 8 12 10 5 14.5 4 1 17.5 10
1 0 8 3 4 10 2 11 14 1 4
Note; N= 93 respondents
very
embodied
position
in the latter
about the future direction school psychologists Authors
want “simpler and simpler
and practitioners
enced the respondent’s hen’s kappa = .98),
work. After the responses
a correlation responses
tests, developmental
methods
rized as “miscellaneous,”
problems.”
categorizations
psychology/learning
a substantial
indicating
most influ-
were sorted into 11 categories
(Table 4). Both groups identified
as having been influential
of topics mentioned,
for pessimism
who believed that most
of which research
of .81 was found between
related to psychometric and behavioral
was a cause
answers to complex
did agree on the question
thors’ and practitioners’
diversity
however,
statement,
of the field for one of the researchers
research
on topics
theory, consultation,
on their work. Owing
proportion
(Co-
of the au-
of the responses
that both groups were influenced
to the large were catego-
by a wide variety
of sources. The third question, produced
which asked for up to live “must readings”
a wide array of responses,
tioned by more than one person. more mentions
(Table
1980; Kaufman, recent,
research.
1979; Sattler,
providing
mentioned was needed
respondents,
as “must readings”
references
or topics were men-
(all books)
received
three of the books dealt with testing & Gutkin,
a wide variety of topics. Although
references
reference
in school psychology
references
1982), and the fourth (Reynolds
covering
numerous
were general Several
Five specific
5). Interestingly,
general reference
scholarly,
and few specific
to the literature,
books or textbooks
both authors
1982) was a
all live books were
the three books most often
rather
than in-depth
reviews of
commented
that what
and practitioners,
was not any specific
four or (Jensen,
publication
but rather
a broad
Journal of School Psychology
10
Table 4 Areas of Research Most Often Mentioned by Authors and Practitioners as Influential in Their Work Authors
Practitioners
Research category
A’
Rank order
N
Rank order
Professional issues Neuropsychology Personality research Social psychology Minority issues Test development, validation, and use Developmental psYchology/learning theory Research on learnmg disabilities Consultation Behavioral assessment and intervrntion Miscellaneous
1 5 3 1 0 8 14 5 3 8 20
9.5 5.5 7.5 9.5 11 3.5 2 5.5 7.5 3.5 1
6 9 7 11 3 23 17 3 12 10 27
9 7 8 5 10.5 2 3 10.5 4 6 1
.%e.- h’= 82 respondents
exposure
to ideas in general psychology.
research
as “narrow” or even “mundane,”
thorough
understanding
minded respondent
Characterizing
of basic psychological
even included
traditional
these respondents
philosophy
school psychology
emphasized
knowledge and literature
the need for a
and research. as essential
One broad-
reading.
DISCUSSION Although
it is often
differently,
it is clear
future research more
assumed
empirical
is substantial
in school psychology.
prevention-oriented
support
that practitioners
that there
or refute
approach
the effectiveness
work on preventive
and researchers agreement
Practitioners
and researchers
are faced with a relative of such approaches.
interventions
perceive
the world
on the best directions
Clearly,
is a very high priority
for
seeking to apply a
scarcity
of research
both conceptual
to and
for school psychology
research. Table 5 Most Frequently Mentioned “Must Readings” in School Psychology Practitioners
Authors
T0tZll
11
Strein In addition
to the need
school psychologists accent
a more
knowledge
preventive
regarding
used, because
classroom
states,
interventions,
Overall,
research
however,
and authors
instrument
the substantial
agreement Increased
priority
showed so little agreement
even though collectively and Raykovitz psychology search.
look outside
It is interesting
both practitioners (e.g.,
school psychology
actual
journals.
1979),
due to editorial conceptual
Perhaps
policies
or practical
appropriate
produced
enough
until
useable
the information
already
occurred
respondents.
the most influence
rather
priorities
1968;
knowledge
on journal
contents
currently
articles
or and
of the higher-priority 1968)
and consultation
and statistical
may be rigor over
1979).
research
of neededfuture research
that the traditional areas
of heavy
that new priorities provided
whereas
during the intervening
research
some of the discrepancy
complexity
now, and that present
have ‘Addi-
between currently
being published
and Clark
in the present
actually
published
(1984)
study
were
may have
expressed
perceived
may be smaller
content
may emerge.
by Reynolds
the data
in school
journal publication
5 years toward the priorities
If this is so, the discrepancy
in the
books and
for needed research
Glidewell,
Additionally,
that
methods)
categories
than specific
between
due to the fact that much
in 1980,
their re-
on their work
this is the reason why general reference
(Gelso,
French
in school
behavioral
occurring
5 years later. A shift in types of studies
and types of research
Perhaps
researchers
consultation,
may have perceived
only the years ending about
theory,
that favor methodological
The respondents
collected
as exerting
(Bloom,
for
published,
press in order to publish
the most frequently
to conduct.
relevance
that
some
as to priorities
of that research.
were asked to rate the importance
has been tionally,
prevention
between
so essential
of studies of tests, areas of research
as “must readings”
is difficult
The respondents psychology.
among
is undoubtedly
for example,
(Medway,
identified
Some of the discrepancy
publications
research,
covers
been
were identified
lines of research.
psychology
psychology/learning
have not traditionally textbooks
of the school
priorities
research,
of studies actually
conclusions
that with the exception
and authors
developmental
in their
the critical and practi-
as a group,
with the frequency
were correct
and valida-
is not likely to occur without
they were the very producers
(1984)
on pragmat-
researchers
on research
dynamic leadership from one or both groups. It is remarkable that the preferences of the authors,
in
Practi-
illustrates
collaborative
results are to be useful to practitioners,
(p. 119).
of research
development
both university-based
is encouraging.
is not fully
and special education.
This differing
involving
importance
to
relevant
of a profession”
than did the researchers
issues,
in education.
prevention,
we do have some
on the relative
placed a higher priority
problems
need for collaborative
research
regarding
but “our knowledge
and management,
issues such as ethical/legal
tion, and current
if research
knowledge
of how to change their profession
(1985)
also agreed
organization
not surprisingly,
ic, day-to-day
tioners.
As Alpert
effective preventive
and authors
consultation,
practitioners
role.
content
understanding
little is known about how to change the practice
Practitioners tioners,
for increased
need a greater
by the
needed research
than the data suggest.
/mplications The results of this study have several direct implications ogy. 1. There emotional
is a clear need for research problems,
oriented
or the enhancement
for research
toward the prevention
of functioning
in school psycholof academic
in “normal”
children.
and The
12
Journal
traditional
research
emphasis
on after-the-fact
ened to include more proactive 2. Given the substantial researchers,
workers.
and the relevance
agreement
Increased
of research.
ing representation
practice.
both relevance
problem
of research
research
on how change
such change crease
posed typically
occurs
the participation
journals
published
and and
both the quality
by two national
a joint APA-NASP
interest
organiin joint
task force includ-
could identify
and mobilize
the
need to be aware of the types of research
prevention), needed
by the discrepancy occurs
can only increase
and practitioners.
encourage
could reduce
practitioners
university-based
efforts could be increased.
areas (e.g.,
and rigor would
between
between
is represented
Similarly,
by both authors
issues devoted to high-need
research
and researchers
research
school psychology
to be important
must be broad-
16, which have shown considerable
from practitioners
3. The primary
and treatment
priorities
research
School psychology
means by which collaborative
4. The
on research
collaborative
work on issues of professional
types
diagnosis
approaches.
NASP and APA Division
deemed
Psychology
the field is ripe for collaborative
field-based zations,
of School
within
school
use of theme
policies
that stress
efforts.
perceived
needed
to Alpert’s (1985)
a profession.
the discrepancy
of field-based
research
between
lends support
Occasional
and editorial
A better
between
psychologists
research
and
call for increased
understanding
values and action in collaborative
of how and inresearch
efforts.
REFERENCES
Alpert, J. L. (1985). Change within a profession: Change, future, prevention, and school psychology. Am&an Psychologist, 40, 111 Z- 112 1. Bloom, B. L. (1968). Evaluation of prevention programs. In L. M. Roberts, N. S. Greenfield, & M. H. Miller (Eds.), Comprehensive mental health- The challen,~eofeualualion. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 117-136 French, J. L., & Raykovitz, J, (1984). D‘rssertation research in school psychology, 1978-1980. Journal ofSchool Psychology, 22, 73-82. Gelso, C. J. (1979). Research in counseling: Counseling Psychology, 8, 7-35.
Methodological
and professional
issues. Jourmi
of
Glidewell, J. C. (1968). Some methodological problems in the evaluation of school mental health programs. In L. M. Roberts, N. S. Greenfield, & M. H. Miller (Eds.), Comprehensive mental hmlth. The challenge ofevaluation. Madison, WI: Universrty of Wisconsin Press, 195-220 Jensen, A. R. (1980). Bias in mental testing-. New York: Free Press. Kaufman, A. S. (1979). Intelligent testin! with the WZSC-R. New York: Wiley. Medway, F. J. (1979). How effective is school consultation? A review of recent research. Journal of School Psycholqgy, 17, 275-282.
O’Callaghan,
S. (1974).
Publication
trends
in school psychology.
1963-1973.
Joumal
of School
Psychology, 12, X9-275.
Reynolds,
C. R., &Clark,
ofSchoolPsychology, Reynolds, Reynolds,
J. H. (1984). Trends in school psychology
research:
1974-1980.~Jourml
22, 43-52.
C. R., & Gutkin, T. B. (1982). The handbook ofschoolpsycholo~. New York: Wiley. C. R., Gutkin, T. B., Elliott, S. N., & Witt, J. C. (1984). SchoolpsycholoQ: Essentzals of theory andpractice. New York: Wiley. Samson, S. B. (1971). Theculture oftheschool and tlwpmblem ofchange. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Sat&r, J. M. (1982). Assessment ofchzldwn’s inlelli~eme and special abilities (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Ysseldyke, J. E., & Pickholtz, H. (1975). Dissertation research in school psychology: 1967-1973. Journal ofSchool Psycho&y, 13, 264-27 1.
Strein
William Strein Division of Human and Community University of Maryland College Park, MD 20742
Resources
Manuscript received: November 8, 1985 Final revision received: March 23. 1986
13
of Maryland
A nationwide sample of school psychology practitioners and one of authors of recent journal articles, from three main school psychology journals, were asked to rate the importance of the types of neededresearch in school psychology. Close agreement was found between the priorities assigned by the two groups. Prevention of school-related problems and improvement in the functioning of non-referred populations were the areas identified as most in need of research by both authors and practitioners. A comparison of the priorities for needed research with a previously published study of types of articles actually published in the school psychology press revealed little agreement between perceived needs and actual publications. The results are discussed in terms of implications for collaborative research between field-based practitioners and researchers, and possible actions by journal editorial boards and professional organizations that would facilitate greater research productivity in areas of great need. Formal
analysis
current
status
has
study bridges
what practitioners research
Previous
1984).
current
authors
1984; Ysseldyke
and Clark (1984)
journals between
chosen
status and future
of journal
what
The
needs by identifying
believe
to be the pressing
articles
relating
to
the authors
comparison found,
& Clark,
1984). TWO categories,
19.4%
professional
issues,
and Referral,
and 7.9% Practice
category
accounted
of the total,
and Professional
share of the total. The Reynolds
similar
Gutkin,
to the original
categories
statistic
to their expectations, Instrument
results,
1974)
to analyze
that research
Development
and Vali-
share of publications,
Two categories
also accounted
Elliott,
in
were
for more of the published
for the largest
respectively.
Reynolds
that appeared
study (O’Callaghan, entropy
accounted
Identity,
of the major
1984).
These
and Clark data were subsequently
system (Reynolds,
results were generally
a relative
contrary
studies (Reynolds constituting
& Clark,
to school psychology
to an earlier
Using
that fewer categories
and Assessment
Reynolds
topics (French
the contents
1974 and 1980 into 16 categories.
the years 1967-1973.
time,
reviewed dissertation
1974;
narrowed,
lyzed
largely
these areas of needed research
1975) or analyzed
actually
of an updated
articles
research
(O’Callaghan,
to facilitate
that had surveyed
dation
of a profession’s
reflect
for what needs to be done.
and comparing
& Pickholtz,
sorted journal
live major journals
across
analyses
in progress.
school psychology
deliberately
as one indicator such
implications
the gap between
and active
serves
However,
studies of school psychology
& Raykovitz,
interests
publications
needs in school psychology,
actual research
trends
research & Clark,
done but have only limited
been
present
of recent (Reynolds
& Witt, including
relating
to
for a substantial
reanalyzed 1984). heavier
in terms
The reanaemphasis
Partial funding for this project was provided by the University of Maryland Center for Educational Research and Development and the Division of Human and Community Resources. The author gratefully acknowledges the generous help given in every phase of this project by Dr. Arnold R. Spokane. Thanks are also expressed to Ms. Beverly Cohen and Ms. Carolyn Murphy for their invaluable assistance. 3
Journal of School
4
on the traditional results
role of testing and little emphasis
did show an unexpectedly
Theory The periods
that examined
1967-1973
(Ysseldyke
1984) used different
research
and published
Raykovitz
(biological,
involved
whereas
categories,
of articles
The recategorized in the Psychological
focused
The French
professional published
practice
in other journals.
ing to French
Dissertation
research much
there has been an increase
and adults,
differences),
and Raykovitz assessment
in dissertation
only two thirds of the dissertation
and
were probably
in school psychology, than
and
interventions,
French
published
broader
study ov’erFrench
individual
in school psychology
has been
& Ray-
on the “core” areas of
addressed
issues or practice. largely
(1984)
contents.
focused
and 13%
journals
dissertations
and Raykovitz,
Although
methods,
for the
(French
between dissertation
study ofjournal
and social bases of behavior;
psychology
articles,
1978-1980
and Raykovitz
of dissertations
on professional
school
in school psychology
and
making exact comparisons
on psychometric
that since
research 1975)
and Clark (1984)
cognitive,
research
only 2%
concluded
children
dissertation
& Pickholtz,
found that about half (49%)
psychology
testing.
on consultation.
proportion
studies difficult.
lapped 3 years of the Reynolds
16%
large
category. two studies
kovitz,
Psychology
then, accord-
traditional
research
research
being
interest
involving
in
older
in school psychology
has been practice-oriented. An examination practitioners research.
of what research
provides
If authors’
are more similar then a common
needs to be done as perceived
an interesting
contrast
and practitioners’
to the analyses
perceptions
of what research
to each other than they are to research research
by active authors
of previously
and
published
needs to be done
that has actually
been done,
agenda is not far off. METHOD
Subjects In order to identify articles
appearing
a sample
the Schools, and School Psycholo~
coauthored
of active authors,
in the 1979-1984
psychologists,
a random
Review was compiled.
sample
from the association’s
land school psychologists a local
or coauthors
of
Any person who had authored
or
three or more articles during this period was included in the author sample.
A total of 101 names were thus obtained. obtained
a list of all authors
issues of the Joumal ofSchool Psychology, Psychology in
study. There
practitioners’
Questionnaire
computerized
sample of practicing not living
no overlap
mailing list. A separate
between
was
sample of Mary-
membership
the names
school
in Maryland
list as part of
in the randomly
selected
samples and the author sample.
Development
The 16 categories
used in the Reynolds
study with minor editorial
unchanged
since
new thrusts
members
was drawn from a state association
was
the present Consultation,
For the national
of 112 NASP
the original
General
1974
Education,
and Clark (1984) changes.
O’Callaghan
study were adopted for use in
Since these categories study,
three
and Prevention/Enhancement,
in the field in a fashion
similar
have remained
additional
to the recategorizations
categories,
were added to reflect of Reynolds
et al.
Strein
5
Table 1 Categories Used for Rating Needs for Future Research in School Psychology 1. Practice: Delivery and enhancement of schoolpsychological services, such as teacher-psychologist interactions and parent conferencing. 2. Consultation: Models or specilic practices of individual, group, or organizational consultation in the schools, including in-service training for staff. 3. Professional preparation: Evaluation or development of models or specific techniques used in the professional preparation or training of school psychologists. 4. Professional identity: Roles and goals of school psychologists; employment and certification issues. 5. Ethical/legal issues: Questions pertaining to the practice of school psychology, such as con& dentiality, malpractice, etc. 6. Early education: Programs or general research on issues and findings from early childhood education that are relevant to school psychology. 7. Compensatory/remedial education: Programs or techniques appropriate for nonspecial education students, preschool through senior high. 8. Instrument development and evaluation: Technical or practical evaluation of tests and other diagnostic procedures used by school psychologists, with particular emphasis on validity, reliability, and bias. 9. Assessment and referral: Research on assessment, reporting, and referral practices. 10. Research issues: Work on issues relating specifically to the research process in school psychology 11. General education: Research on general educational theory and curriculum development, and specific ongoing practices such as academic grouping, grade placement, or retention. 12. Current problems in education: Research on more narrow issues in the public eye, such as drug abuse in the schools, child abuse, or merit pay for teachers. 13. Clinical-personality: Research on “clinical” issues such as personality development, psychopathology, or counseling/psychotherapy interventions. 14. Special education/exceptional children: Identification of, educational practices with, and service provision for special school populations, including the gifted. 15. Classroom organization and management: Models and techniques for classroom management. 16. Socioeducational: Social ecology of the classroom; teacher-learner or learner-learner interactions, either for the general population or specific special groups. 17. Instructional issues: Instructional methods and practices, including learning theory. 18. Higher mental processes: Research on the general school population in regard to cognitive processing, intelligence, perceptual-motor skills, or creativity. 19. Prevention/enhancement: School-based programs designed to prevent academic or behavior problems in at-risk students or to enhance functioning in non-identified populations.
(1984).
Short operational
resulting
19 categories
could rate each category
definitions
were written
were then arranged
for each category
into a Likert
in terms of its importance
forfuture research in school psycholo-
gy, from
Unimportant (1) to Very ifn,f~ortant(5). Respondents
questions
about (a) suggestions
practicing
school psychologists
ered to be most influential readings” graphic
for research
information
on the respondents’
was collected.
were also asked open-ended
that could be collaboratively
and university
for school psychologists
(see Table 1). The
scale so that the respondents
researchers,
own professional
or school psychology
conducted
(b) lines of research students.
by
consid-
work, and (c) “must In addition,
demo-
6
Journal of School Psychology
Procedures A questionnaire,
an individually
were sent to each subject were obtained sulting
from the NASP
a variety
affiliation
written
cover letter,
at the best available mailing
of association
list. Authors’
membership
respond
within
urgently
requesting
by sample
materials
addresses
of the author.
their participation.
request
Return
to 75%
for authors,
return
envelope
for the practitioners
were obtained
by con-
or by using the institutional After 2-3 weeks a follow-
were sent to nonrespondents.
3 weeks time to the second
amounted,
Addresses
directories
listed in the most recent publication
up letter and identical
and a stamped
address.
All subjects
who did not
were sent a humorous
rates were adequate.
(rz = 75) and,
postcard
Useable
for practitioners,
returns
to 50.9%
(n = 57).
RESULTS Of the subjects practitioners identified
drawn
themselves
fied themselves now, directly
the NASP
as practitioners
or administrators.
or teaching
is done predominantly
and practitioners for future
by authors
ratings were highly correlated and Maryland
sample
Most authors
themselves
as
of the authors (79.7%)
publication
identi-
in school psy-
who may have been,
but are not
of school psychology. close, however, in overall agreement
in the field. Authors’
(r = .80; p< ,001).
was so high (r= .96;
sample were subsequently
identified
only 16.2%
faculty. Clearly,
were surprisingly
research
71%
In contrast,
involved in the daily practice
the priorities
national
membership
as administrators.
as researchers
chology journals Authors
from
and 15.1%
and practitioners’
Th e correlation
p<.OOl)
on
mean Likert
between the national
that only the data
from
the
used in this study.
Ten items from the needs inventory
showed strong agreement
between
authors
and
practitioners
(rank-order
differences
of 2 or less), and only six items showed strong
disagreement
(rank-order
differences
of 4 or more points).
Complete
data are displayed
in Table 2. Both authors
and practitioners
lems, or enhancement tant category relative
of needed
importance
education,
and classroom
organization
greater
on professional
identity,
or behavior
issues,
also agreed consultation,
Research
on the special
on clinical/person-
as moderately
the process
prob-
as the most impor-
and practitioners
on practice
and management.
included
and evaluation, relative
socioeducational
important
of research,
by both
and general
importance
issues and higher
ethical/legal
and current
issues,
problems
early education,
in education.
to all of these categories. mental
processes
Research
were assigned
instru-
Practitioners efforts
on
lower relative
im-
and practitioners
on
by practitioners.
Although needed
of academic populations,
was viewed as unimportant.
ment development
portance
authors
issues was regarded
Areas of strong disagreement assigned
The
preparation
and research
education
research.
prevention
in nonidentified
to the field of research
ality and professional groups,
identified
of functioning
there
research,
published
was substantial
agreement
between
authors
the indicated
priorities
were not reflected
in school psychology
journals
(Reynolds
tween the authors’ ratings and the number the 16 original
categories
was P = .08; p =
& Clark,
of articles published
in the research 1984).
actually
Correlation
(1974-1980)
.38 (r = .38; p = .08 for practitioners’
be-
in each of ratings
v
Practice Consultation Professional preparation Professional identity Ethical/legal issues Early education Compensatory/remedial education Instrument development and evaluation Assessment and referral Research issues General education Current problems in education Clinical/personality Special education Classroom organization and management Socioeducational Instructional issues Higher mental processes Prevention/enhancement
category
10 3 17 18 16 13 5 6 7 12 8 1
3.80 3.79 3.57 3.77 4.52
9
3.73 3.68 4.03 3.36 3.01 3.43 3.53 3.88
2 4 11 19 15 14
Rank order’)
4.21 3.97 3.60 2.84 3.50 3.51
Rating1
3.77 3.40 3.23 3.46 4.49
3.95 3.79 2.86 3.02 3.68 3.63 3.83
3.63
4.14 4.16 3.51 3.18 3.68 3.88
Ratinga
8 15 16 14 1
4 7 19 18 9.5 11.5 6
11.5
3 2 13 17 9.5 5
order”
Rank
Practitioners
x
x
x
Strongc agreement
x
x
x
x
x
x
Strong’ disagreement
2 8 7 11 N/A
1 6 14 N/A 5 10 12
16
4 N/A 13 3 9 15
Journal rank order
x
x
x
N/A
A
x
x
x
x
x
N/A x
P
Strong1 agreement
x
x
x
x
x
N/A
A
x
x
x
x
x
N/A
P
Strongs disagreement
,‘Ratings are the mean Likert ratings for each category by group. ‘)Rank orders are the rankings within each group.
16. 17. 18. 19.
9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
8.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Research
Authors
Table 2 Authors’ and Practitioners’ Ratings of Categories of Needed Research and Comparison with Actual Publications
Journal of School Psychology
8 vs. journal between
content).
rank-orders
and Clark
and journal
showed strong ment issues, personality
third most frequent Both authors the journals
difference
category
socioeducational
enhancement as the number
an underemphasis
active authors
one research
Au-
identity
of
were the
in 1974-1980. authors
perceived
on research
in the journals
on
an overemphasis
and current on higher
on early education,
and practitioners Research
in nonidentified
in
problems
mental
in
processes.
and an overemphasis
closely agreed on perceived on prevention
populations
need. Quite unexpectedly,
research
identity. 16 categories
on
issues research.
in school psychology.
published
of the original
and evaluation,
an underemphasis
of functioning
contributed
development
pro-
was found on several
a strong underemphasis
In addition,
(b) ethi-
mental
being in the area of professional
perceived
and instructional
In summary, future research
on higher
disagreement
of actual publications
education.
perceived
Strong
on clinical/
agreed with the
and evaluation,
(d) research
as the least important
and practitioners
but perceived
Practitioners
high emphasis
development
au-
and manage-
issues. Practitioners
issues,
authors’
Practitioners In general,
ranked it 15th. Yet articles on professional
on instrument
education,
between
organization
with the journals’
preparation.
identity
compensatory/remedial
of articles),
with only the origi-
on seven categories.
on research
and referral
the most striking and practitioners
or disagreement
(frequency
agreement
on classroom
on (a) instrument
(c) assessment
and (e) professional
research
Strong
contents
emphasis
and low emphasis
degree of emphasis
categories,
included.
with journal
thors ranked professional
contents
ratings were recalculated
and both groups concurred research
areas of agreement
was found on only 3 of the 16 categories.
with the journals’
cal/legal issues, cesses,
specific
needs and journal
categories
contents
agreement
thors concurred
journals’
perceived
of authors’ and practitioners’
nal 16 Reynolds ratings
In order to identify
professionals’
needs for
of school problems
was perceived
or the
by both groups
the authors who themselves
did not agree with the priorities
historically
had
accorded
by the journals.
Open-Ended Questions Half to three-quarters Responses between
researchers
was very little agreement questions
between relative frequencies ly zero. The small number sons difficult
(Table
kinds of collaborative demands
intervention
with an agreement
on open-ended
for direct
the three open-ended of possible
(nonspecific),
doctoral
between the responses
of responses
research
needs.
research
consensus
would be fruitful.
from practicing
research
interests
that practitioners
research
findings.
Echoing
“real world” concerns,
what was needed was “practical
catego-
by Cohen’s kappa.
of the authors The
and the practi-
correlation
made item-by-item
among
practitioners
One respondent
school psychologists
only wanted
and mis-
(t.= - .04)
by the two groups was essential-
in each category
was little
research
19 categories
neuropsychology,
rate of .89 as measured
about
questions.
collaborative
student in school psychology
assigned to each category
3). There service
(areas
were sorted into 17 of the original
The author and an advanced
rized each response There
categories:
answered
question
and practitioners)
plus three additional cellaneous.
tioners
of the respondents
to the first open-ended
greater another
ideas, simple to implement
compariabout
suggested
so overshadowed
communication practitioner
what
that heavy any
of available responded
that
that get quick results.” The
Strein
Areas
Table 3 Most Often Mentioned
Research
for Collaborative
9
by Authors
and Practitioners
Practitioners Research
category
h:
Rank
Practice Consultation Professional preparation Professional identity Ethical/legal issues Compensatory/remedial education Instrument development and evaluation Assessment and referral Research issues Current problems in education Clinical-personality Special education/exceptional children Classroom organization and management Socioeducational Instructional issues Higher mental processes Prevention/enhancement Intervention (nonspecific) Neuropsychology Miscellaneous
Authors
order
Ai
6 9 13.5 6 13.5 19
Rank
12 9 2 2 0 2 9 12 4
13.5 19 13.5 3.5 2 6 17 13.5 3.5 13.5 19 9 9
order
2.5 6.5 14.5 14.5 19.5 14.5 6.5 2.5 10 17.5 19.5 8 12 10 5 14.5 4 1 17.5 10
1 0 8 3 4 10 2 11 14 1 4
Note; N= 93 respondents
very
embodied
position
in the latter
about the future direction school psychologists Authors
want “simpler and simpler
and practitioners
enced the respondent’s hen’s kappa = .98),
work. After the responses
a correlation responses
tests, developmental
methods
rized as “miscellaneous,”
problems.”
categorizations
psychology/learning
a substantial
indicating
most influ-
were sorted into 11 categories
(Table 4). Both groups identified
as having been influential
of topics mentioned,
for pessimism
who believed that most
of which research
of .81 was found between
related to psychometric and behavioral
was a cause
answers to complex
did agree on the question
thors’ and practitioners’
diversity
however,
statement,
of the field for one of the researchers
research
on topics
theory, consultation,
on their work. Owing
proportion
(Co-
of the au-
of the responses
that both groups were influenced
to the large were catego-
by a wide variety
of sources. The third question, produced
which asked for up to live “must readings”
a wide array of responses,
tioned by more than one person. more mentions
(Table
1980; Kaufman, recent,
research.
1979; Sattler,
providing
mentioned was needed
respondents,
as “must readings”
references
or topics were men-
(all books)
received
three of the books dealt with testing & Gutkin,
a wide variety of topics. Although
references
reference
in school psychology
references
1982), and the fourth (Reynolds
covering
numerous
were general Several
Five specific
5). Interestingly,
general reference
scholarly,
and few specific
to the literature,
books or textbooks
both authors
1982) was a
all live books were
the three books most often
rather
than in-depth
reviews of
commented
that what
and practitioners,
was not any specific
four or (Jensen,
publication
but rather
a broad
Journal of School Psychology
10
Table 4 Areas of Research Most Often Mentioned by Authors and Practitioners as Influential in Their Work Authors
Practitioners
Research category
A’
Rank order
N
Rank order
Professional issues Neuropsychology Personality research Social psychology Minority issues Test development, validation, and use Developmental psYchology/learning theory Research on learnmg disabilities Consultation Behavioral assessment and intervrntion Miscellaneous
1 5 3 1 0 8 14 5 3 8 20
9.5 5.5 7.5 9.5 11 3.5 2 5.5 7.5 3.5 1
6 9 7 11 3 23 17 3 12 10 27
9 7 8 5 10.5 2 3 10.5 4 6 1
.%e.- h’= 82 respondents
exposure
to ideas in general psychology.
research
as “narrow” or even “mundane,”
thorough
understanding
minded respondent
Characterizing
of basic psychological
even included
traditional
these respondents
philosophy
school psychology
emphasized
knowledge and literature
the need for a
and research. as essential
One broad-
reading.
DISCUSSION Although
it is often
differently,
it is clear
future research more
assumed
empirical
is substantial
in school psychology.
prevention-oriented
support
that practitioners
that there
or refute
approach
the effectiveness
work on preventive
and researchers agreement
Practitioners
and researchers
are faced with a relative of such approaches.
interventions
perceive
the world
on the best directions
Clearly,
is a very high priority
for
seeking to apply a
scarcity
of research
both conceptual
to and
for school psychology
research. Table 5 Most Frequently Mentioned “Must Readings” in School Psychology Practitioners
Authors
T0tZll
11
Strein In addition
to the need
school psychologists accent
a more
knowledge
preventive
regarding
used, because
classroom
states,
interventions,
Overall,
research
however,
and authors
instrument
the substantial
agreement Increased
priority
showed so little agreement
even though collectively and Raykovitz psychology search.
look outside
It is interesting
both practitioners (e.g.,
school psychology
actual
journals.
1979),
due to editorial conceptual
Perhaps
policies
or practical
appropriate
produced
enough
until
useable
the information
already
occurred
respondents.
the most influence
rather
priorities
1968;
knowledge
on journal
contents
currently
articles
or and
of the higher-priority 1968)
and consultation
and statistical
may be rigor over
1979).
research
of neededfuture research
that the traditional areas
of heavy
that new priorities provided
whereas
during the intervening
research
some of the discrepancy
complexity
now, and that present
have ‘Addi-
between currently
being published
and Clark
in the present
actually
published
(1984)
study
were
may have
expressed
perceived
may be smaller
content
may emerge.
by Reynolds
the data
in school
journal publication
5 years toward the priorities
If this is so, the discrepancy
in the
books and
for needed research
Glidewell,
Additionally,
that
methods)
categories
than specific
between
due to the fact that much
in 1980,
their re-
on their work
this is the reason why general reference
(Gelso,
French
in school
behavioral
occurring
5 years later. A shift in types of studies
and types of research
Perhaps
researchers
consultation,
may have perceived
only the years ending about
theory,
that favor methodological
The respondents
collected
as exerting
(Bloom,
for
published,
press in order to publish
the most frequently
to conduct.
relevance
that
some
as to priorities
of that research.
were asked to rate the importance
has been tionally,
prevention
between
so essential
of studies of tests, areas of research
as “must readings”
is difficult
The respondents psychology.
among
is undoubtedly
for example,
(Medway,
identified
Some of the discrepancy
publications
research,
covers
been
were identified
lines of research.
psychology
psychology/learning
have not traditionally textbooks
of the school
priorities
research,
of studies actually
conclusions
that with the exception
and authors
developmental
in their
the critical and practi-
as a group,
with the frequency
were correct
and valida-
is not likely to occur without
they were the very producers
(1984)
on pragmat-
researchers
on research
dynamic leadership from one or both groups. It is remarkable that the preferences of the authors,
in
Practi-
illustrates
collaborative
results are to be useful to practitioners,
(p. 119).
of research
development
both university-based
is encouraging.
is not fully
and special education.
This differing
involving
importance
to
relevant
of a profession”
than did the researchers
issues,
in education.
prevention,
we do have some
on the relative
placed a higher priority
problems
need for collaborative
research
regarding
but “our knowledge
and management,
issues such as ethical/legal
tion, and current
if research
knowledge
of how to change their profession
(1985)
also agreed
organization
not surprisingly,
ic, day-to-day
tioners.
As Alpert
effective preventive
and authors
consultation,
practitioners
role.
content
understanding
little is known about how to change the practice
Practitioners tioners,
for increased
need a greater
by the
needed research
than the data suggest.
/mplications The results of this study have several direct implications ogy. 1. There emotional
is a clear need for research problems,
oriented
or the enhancement
for research
toward the prevention
of functioning
in school psycholof academic
in “normal”
children.
and The
12
Journal
traditional
research
emphasis
on after-the-fact
ened to include more proactive 2. Given the substantial researchers,
workers.
and the relevance
agreement
Increased
of research.
ing representation
practice.
both relevance
problem
of research
research
on how change
such change crease
posed typically
occurs
the participation
journals
published
and and
both the quality
by two national
a joint APA-NASP
interest
organiin joint
task force includ-
could identify
and mobilize
the
need to be aware of the types of research
prevention), needed
by the discrepancy occurs
can only increase
and practitioners.
encourage
could reduce
practitioners
university-based
efforts could be increased.
areas (e.g.,
and rigor would
between
between
is represented
Similarly,
by both authors
issues devoted to high-need
research
and researchers
research
school psychology
to be important
must be broad-
16, which have shown considerable
from practitioners
3. The primary
and treatment
priorities
research
School psychology
means by which collaborative
4. The
on research
collaborative
work on issues of professional
types
diagnosis
approaches.
NASP and APA Division
deemed
Psychology
the field is ripe for collaborative
field-based zations,
of School
within
school
use of theme
policies
that stress
efforts.
perceived
needed
to Alpert’s (1985)
a profession.
the discrepancy
of field-based
research
between
lends support
Occasional
and editorial
A better
between
psychologists
research
and
call for increased
understanding
values and action in collaborative
of how and inresearch
efforts.
REFERENCES
Alpert, J. L. (1985). Change within a profession: Change, future, prevention, and school psychology. Am&an Psychologist, 40, 111 Z- 112 1. Bloom, B. L. (1968). Evaluation of prevention programs. In L. M. Roberts, N. S. Greenfield, & M. H. Miller (Eds.), Comprehensive mental health- The challen,~eofeualualion. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 117-136 French, J. L., & Raykovitz, J, (1984). D‘rssertation research in school psychology, 1978-1980. Journal ofSchool Psychology, 22, 73-82. Gelso, C. J. (1979). Research in counseling: Counseling Psychology, 8, 7-35.
Methodological
and professional
issues. Jourmi
of
Glidewell, J. C. (1968). Some methodological problems in the evaluation of school mental health programs. In L. M. Roberts, N. S. Greenfield, & M. H. Miller (Eds.), Comprehensive mental hmlth. The challenge ofevaluation. Madison, WI: Universrty of Wisconsin Press, 195-220 Jensen, A. R. (1980). Bias in mental testing-. New York: Free Press. Kaufman, A. S. (1979). Intelligent testin! with the WZSC-R. New York: Wiley. Medway, F. J. (1979). How effective is school consultation? A review of recent research. Journal of School Psycholqgy, 17, 275-282.
O’Callaghan,
S. (1974).
Publication
trends
in school psychology.
1963-1973.
Joumal
of School
Psychology, 12, X9-275.
Reynolds,
C. R., &Clark,
ofSchoolPsychology, Reynolds, Reynolds,
J. H. (1984). Trends in school psychology
research:
1974-1980.~Jourml
22, 43-52.
C. R., & Gutkin, T. B. (1982). The handbook ofschoolpsycholo~. New York: Wiley. C. R., Gutkin, T. B., Elliott, S. N., & Witt, J. C. (1984). SchoolpsycholoQ: Essentzals of theory andpractice. New York: Wiley. Samson, S. B. (1971). Theculture oftheschool and tlwpmblem ofchange. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Sat&r, J. M. (1982). Assessment ofchzldwn’s inlelli~eme and special abilities (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Ysseldyke, J. E., & Pickholtz, H. (1975). Dissertation research in school psychology: 1967-1973. Journal ofSchool Psycho&y, 13, 264-27 1.
Strein
William Strein Division of Human and Community University of Maryland College Park, MD 20742
Resources
Manuscript received: November 8, 1985 Final revision received: March 23. 1986
13