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New insights on the wooden weapons from the Paleolithic site of Schöningen
Journal of Human Evolution xxx (2015) 1e12
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Journal of Human Evolution journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhevol
New insights on the wooden weapons from the Paleolithic site of € ningen Scho € hner c, Pascale Richter c, Thomas Terberger c, * Werner H. Schoch a, Gerlinde Bigga b, Utz Bo a
Laboratory for Quaternary Wood Research, Langnau a.A., Switzerland Institute for Archaeological Sciences, University of Tübingen, Germany c Lower Saxony State Service for Cultural Heritage, Hannover, Germany b
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 4 February 2014 Accepted 23 August 2015 Available online xxx
€ ningen is famous for the earliest known, completely preserved wooden The Paleolithic site of Scho weapons. Here we present recent results of an ongoing analysis of the nine spears, one lance, a double pointed stick, and a burnt stick dating to the Holsteinian, c. 300 kyr. Macroscopic and microscopic analyses, as well as studies of thin sections, contribute to a better understanding of the manufacture of the wooden weapons. They were deposited in organic sediments at a former lakeshore among numerous bones of butchered horses. In general, the spears are extremely well-preserved and show no or little sign of taphonomic alteration, although some of the weapons are broken and parts were slightly moved, probably by water action. The excellent preservation conditions provide considerable information on the operational sequence of production. The hunters selected thin trunks of spruce or pine and initially stripped off the bark. Traces of cutting, scraping, and smoothing can be observed on the spear surfaces in detail. In the case of spear X, repeated use of the weapon is implied by re-sharpening of the tip. Analyses of wood anatomy provide information on climatic conditions and contribute to the better understanding of the development of the site. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Wooden artifacts Spears Hunting technology
1. Introduction Between 1994 and 1999 excavation in the open-cast mine of € ningen revolutionized our perspective on the Lower PaleoScho €ningen 13 II-4, a series of wooden tools lithic. At the site Scho and weapons were uncovered together with several butchered horse remainsdat least 35 individuals based on the number of teethdon a former lakeshore (van Kolfschoten, 2014). For the first time, unquestionable evidence for systematic large herbivore hunting with wooden spears was provided in Europe (e.g., Thieme, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2007). After ongoing discussions on the chronological position of the find layer, new chronometric data provided by the uranium-thorium method and thermoluminescence (TL) dating places the site at c.
* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (T. Terberger).
300 kyrs ago (MIS 9; Sierralta et al., 2012; Urban and Sierralta, 2012; D. Richter, pers. comm.). Here we attribute the find layer to the Holsteinian (Bittmann, 2012), being aware that the correlation of the Holsteinian with MIS 9 is controversial (Geyh and Müller, 2005; in contrast e.g., Turner, 1998; de Beaulieu et al., 2001). €ningen 13 II-4, On the basis of the dating results for Scho € hner (2012) suggest that the hominins that proSerangeli and Bo duced and used the wooden implements were likely Homo heidelbergensis. However, it is also possible that early Neanderthals €ningen spears might have been the makers of the Scho (Stringer, 2012). Pollen diagrams and numerous organic remains from different layers at the lakeshore form a basis for the environmental reconstruction and the evaluation of the role of plant use by the €ningen (Bigga et al., 2015). There is varied evihumans of Scho dence of woodworking in addition to the spears and the double € ningen 13 II-4, including worked bases of pointed stick from Scho
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.08.004 0047-2484/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
€ ningen, Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Schoch, W.H., et al., New insights on the wooden weapons from the Paleolithic site of Scho Human Evolution (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.08.004
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W.H. Schoch et al. / Journal of Human Evolution xxx (2015) 1e12
€ ningen 13 II-4: Image maps of spear I, II, III, and VI. Graphics: E. Behrens. Photo: C.S. Fuchs. (Both Lower Saxony State Service for Cultural Heritage) Figure 1. Scho
€ningen, Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Schoch, W.H., et al., New insights on the wooden weapons from the Paleolithic site of Scho Human Evolution (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.08.004
Implement
Throwing stick
Identification no.
1779
Burnt wooden 15677 artifact (“Bratspieß”) Spear I 4690, 5138, 5721, 5748, 5739
Quadrant þ find no.
Age of wood þ season No. of of tree felling fragments
Preservation
Metrics: max length max diameter in cm
Archaeological record
1994
Spruce (Picea sp.) Not examined
1
Entire
77.5 3.0
In association
690/21-60
1995
Spruce (Picea sp.) Not examined
2
Almost entire, base damaged
87.7 3.6
690/16-4; 691/16-4; 692/15-4; 692/16-4; 692/16-2 696/16-10; 697/16-10; 697/15-10; 698/15-10
1995
Spruce (Picea sp.) At least 53
5
Entire
1995
Spruce (Picea sp.) 45e55, early summer
4
1995
Spruce (Picea sp.) At least 33, summer
6
Almost entire, base slightly damaged Entire
1996
Pine (Pinus sylvestris)
5
1997
Spruce (Picea sp.) At least 49, summer
4
1997
Spruce (Picea sp.) At least 57, late summer
3
7170
Spear III
17153, 7611, 7756 697/19-7; 698/19-1; 699/19-1 7852, 7854, 7656 699/9-4; 699/9-6; 698/8-6
Spear V
Wood species
684/31-6
Spear II
Spear IV
Year of finding
At least 18
Spear/Lance VI
9613, 9670, 9668, 9669 9311, 9277, 9202
708/1-1; 708/3-12; 708/3-10; 708/3-11 706/4-1; 706/3-1; 706/2-1
Spear VII
15678, 18221
705/5-5; 706/6-8
1997
Spruce (Picea sp.) At least 31, summer
4
Spear VIII
14852
713/-990-1
1999
Spruce (Picea sp.) At least 21
2
Spear IX?
12074
726/19-1
1998
Spruce (Picea sp.) Not examined
4
Spear X
7702, 7691, 7693, 18235
700/12-9; 699/12-9; 699/12-12; 699/12-14;
1996
Spruce (Picea sp.) 60
4 (þ1?)
Layer
Feature
Pointed double-sided
In association
From SW 4b to NE 4c 4b/4c (?)
221.0 4.7
Mostly in association
Point 4c þ Base 4b
Pointed base
228.8 3.7
In association
4b/4c
Insect caused damage
184.1 2.9
In association
4b/4c
Pointed base
Incomplete, point 118.5 3.1 and shaft fragments Entire 206.0 3.0
Not in association 4b/4c
Not in association Point Pointed base 4b þ Base 4b/4c Almost entire, 253.1 4.0 In association 4b Spear or base þ point lance with “kink,” pointed slightly damaged base Incomplete, base 202.8 3.0 In association 4b (?) Insect caused damaged damage Fragments in 4b Incomplete, point 58.3 2.6 fragment association Incomplete, point 25.6 (2.2 1.4) Fragments in 4b/4c fragment association Incomplete, base 141.5 2.4 In association Point damaged 4b/4c þ Base 4b
W.H. Schoch et al. / Journal of Human Evolution xxx (2015) 1e12
€ ningen, Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Schoch, W.H., et al., New insights on the wooden weapons from the Paleolithic site of Scho Human Evolution (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.08.004
Table 1 € ningen 13 II-4: Detailed information on the wooden artifacts (see also Thieme, 1996, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2007). Scho
3
4
W.H. Schoch et al. / Journal of Human Evolution xxx (2015) 1e12
€ ningen 13 II-4: a) Spear IX (?), b) spear X, c) throwing stick, and d) distribution of the spears and the throwing stick in layer 4b/c (grid scale on each axis in meters). Figure 2. Scho €hner. Graphics: U. Bo
€ningen 12 B branches (so-called “Klemmsch€ afte”) from site Scho that may have been used as hafting implements (Schoch, 1995; Thieme, 1997, 2000, 2005, 2007). This paper summarizes evidence of ongoing research on the wooden artifacts from € ningen 13 II-4 together with the geological context of the Scho spears. 2. Materials and methods € ningen Our study focuses on the wooden artifacts from Scho 13 II-4. Following excavation, the wooden objects were stored in tubs with distilled water in the Lower Saxony State Service for Cultural Heritage, Hannover. In 2012, the tools and weapons were carefully conserved in the workshop of the RomanoGermanic Central Museum in Mainz, Germany, and since June 2013 they are on display in the research and exhibition center € € ningen site. The only exception is PALAON, neighboring the Scho spear VII, which is preserved in its original condition in order to allow future investigations. Information on the restoration of the objects will be published elsewhere. Before the restoration, the wooden tools and weapons underwent a process of detailed analysis. General photographic documentation of the artifacts, computer tomography (Somatom Emotion, Siemens company), and a 3D spatial model of the spears by laser scanning were carried out by the Arctron Company (www. arctron.de). These operations were under the auspices of the Lower
Saxony State Service for Cultural Heritage in Hannover (Behrens et al., 2007). Furthermore, W.H. Schoch described the spears in detail using macroscopic and microscopic inspection under low magnification by W.H. Schoch. After this part of documentation, which included the collections of macroscopic photographs, he collected small thin sections by hand with a razor blade. We were able to conduct botanical identification of the trees to genus or even species level by comparing the bark with recent reference material and by wood anatomy of central European species (Schoch et al., 2004).
€ ningen 13 II-4 3. Results on the wooden artifacts from Scho To date, we have identified the following worked wooden ob€ ningen 13 II-4 (Fig. 1, Table 1): jects from Scho - nine spears/spear fragments (spear IeV, VIIeX; spear fragment IX uncertain) - one lance (“spear VI”) - one double pointed rod - one burnt worked wooden stick. Work is in progress on the analysis of smaller wooden remains from this level. It is possible that the total number of worked wooden objects will increase following completion of the analysis.
€ningen, Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Schoch, W.H., et al., New insights on the wooden weapons from the Paleolithic site of Scho Human Evolution (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.08.004
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€ ningen 13 II-4: a) Spear I, b) spear II, c) spear III, with part A damaged during excavation, and d) spear IV (grid scale on each axis in meters). Graphics: U. Bo € hner. Figure 3. Scho
3.1. Find context and taphonomic aspects The horizontal distribution of the weapons is limited to a comparably small area (Fig. 2d) that corresponds to the hori€ hner et al., 2015). zontal distribution of bones and flint (see Bo Except for two spear fragments (nos. VIII and IX) and the double pointed stick, which were found further apart, the other spears are concentrated in an area of c. 10 25 m at the former lakeshore. A conspicuous observation is that bigger wooden fragments in the horizon 13 II-4 are often modified. Additionally, splinters of a few centimeters in length were found here; work is in progress to evaluate their context. The horizontal orientation of the weapons does not show a uniform pattern. Two spears (V and VII) and the lance (“spear VI”) lie next to each other with a similar northeastsouthwest orientation, while some meters to the north, spears III, IV, and X lie in an east-west direction (Fig. 2d). It is possible that the different orientations reflect phases of small-scale water action at the lakeshore. This observation is in accordance with evidence from the vertical position of the finds. The spears from level 4 came from the lower peat layer (4b), as well as the underlying chalk mud or marl (4c). In the transitional layers between the peat and marl there are peat-containing marls (4b/c) that cannot be clearly separated. In layer 4a there were almost no finds. The spears sometimes cross two horizons and reach from the organic sediments (4b) down to the marl sediments (4c),
€ hner suggesting small scale post-depositional movement (see Bo et al., 2015). At the time of discovery, the fragments of most weapons were in the original, unchanged position (Figs. 2e7). Spear IV and V were found in fragments scattered on a small area (Figs. 2d, 4a, and 6a, b). The position of spear 4 was likely influenced by post-depositional processes, given that it was found vertically at 45 (Schoch, 2007b). The spearhead fragment of spear V was found horizontally turned by 180 degrees (Figs. 4a and 6b), so that the spearhead pointed towards the spear shaft. This situation was created either at the time of deposition by humans, or the turning of the spearhead happened later but before final sedimentation. It is also plausible that breakage of spear V was caused by trampling. In conclusion, the find context suggests that the spears and the lance were only marginally displaced after deposition by water action and following some post-depositional disturbance. In accordance with these results, the weapon surfaces provide a unique state of preservation (Fig. 8) that allow detailed analysis of the findings. 3.2. Dimension of the weapons Most of the weapons were found in fragments but are complete (spears I, III, V; Figs. 1, 5a, d, and 6b) or nearly complete (spear II and the lance “spear VI”; Figs. 1, 5b, c, and 6c and Table 1) in their dimensions. Spears VII and X (Figs. 6d and 7c)
€ ningen, Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Schoch, W.H., et al., New insights on the wooden weapons from the Paleolithic site of Scho Human Evolution (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.08.004
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W.H. Schoch et al. / Journal of Human Evolution xxx (2015) 1e12
€ningen 13 II-4: a) Spear V, b) spear/lance VI, c) spear VII, and d) spear VIII (grid scale on each axis in meters). Graphics: U. Bo € hner. Figure 4. Scho
€ningen, Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Schoch, W.H., et al., New insights on the wooden weapons from the Paleolithic site of Scho Human Evolution (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.08.004
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€ ningen 13 II-4: a) Spear I, b) detail of spear II, c) spear II, and d) spear III. Photo: P. Pfarr. (Lower Saxony State Service for Cultural Heritage) Figure 5. Scho
simply have a damaged base. On the other hand, some significant parts are missing from spears IV, VIII, and IX (Figs. 6a and 7a, b). The identification of the latter find as a spear (spear IX) is not yet completely verified. The length of spears II, III, and the lance (“spear VI”) was measured with the help of new equalized photographs. Measurements of the complete or nearly complete spears suggest that the lengths of the complete weapons vary between 1.84 and 2.53 m (Fig. 9). The preferred size of complete spears is between 2.1 and 2.4 m, while the lance is longer. The maximum diameter of all weapons is between 2.4 and 4.7 cm. If we consider the complete pieces only, the maximum diameter varies between 2.9 and 4.7 cm (Fig. 10). However, the wooden finds were exposed to an enormous load of sediment and glacial ice that led to minor secondary changes. The largest
diameter, and therefore the center of gravity, is always found at the front of the shaft. Only the lance (“spear VI”) differs from this scheme. The spears in their dimensions and design resemble modern championship javelins (Rieder, 2001; Thieme, 2007), which are c. 2.25 m (female type, c. 600 g) or 2.75 m long (male type, 800 g). 3.3. Operational sequence The anatomical analysis of the wood suggests that the choice of material for the carving of the spears and the lance was standardized. In almost all cases the raw material was spruce. Only spear IV deviates from that scheme as it is made of pine. As the width of the tree rings of the spruce trunks are very small, one can assume a slow growth of the wood and therefore probably
€ ningen, Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Schoch, W.H., et al., New insights on the wooden weapons from the Paleolithic site of Scho Human Evolution (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.08.004
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W.H. Schoch et al. / Journal of Human Evolution xxx (2015) 1e12
€ningen 13 II-4. a) Part of spear IV, b) spear V, c) spear/lance VI, and d) spear VII. Photo: P. Pfarr. (Lower Saxony State Service for Cultural Heritage) Figure 6. Scho
€ningen 13 II-4. a) Spear VIII, b) spear IX (?), c) spear X, and d) throwing stick. Photo: P. Pfarr. (Lower Saxony State Service for Cultural Heritage) Figure 7. Scho
€ningen, Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Schoch, W.H., et al., New insights on the wooden weapons from the Paleolithic site of Scho Human Evolution (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.08.004
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€ ningen 13 The analysis of small splinters of wood from Scho II-4 is still in progress. However, it is possible that these may indicate some processing of the spears on site. In the case of spear X, reworking of the weapon can be demonstrated. The tip is broken and several cut marks indicate renewal of the point.
4. Discussion
€ningen 13 II-4: Spearhead of spear II in detail with cut marks. Photo: C.S. Figure 8. Scho Fuchs (Lower Saxony State Service for Cultural Heritage)
cooler environmental conditions. The slow growth of the spruce resulted in a particularly hard wood at the same time. In contrast, the pine wood of spear IV shows significantly wider tree rings that, according to Schoch (2007b), speaks for a different habitat with more favorable growing conditions. We were able to determine the age or minimum age of the trunks used for spear production (see Table 1, Fig. 11). Therefore, the growing period can be demonstrated for up to 60 years and the complete pieces indicate a preferred growing period of c. 50e60 years; only spear III is made of a much younger tree (33 years). The lowest number of 18 tree rings is found in the incomplete pine spear (no. IV). As far as it was possible to determine the season by the character of the last tree ring, the spruce trunks were felled in the summer months (spear III, V, VII), varying from early (spear II) to late summer (lance “spear VI”). All spears were made on thin trunks. After felling, all the bark was completely stripped off and the underlying fiber (the inner bark) mostly removed. Numerous knots were cut off as indicated by the tool marks (Figs. 12 and 13). The spear- and lance-heads were made using a flint tool out of the base of the trunks, an especially hard wood. The worked ends of spears I and II show tool marks over a length of c. 60 cm, whereas spear III shows tool marks at the point over 25 cm. Similarly, tool marks are found on the spear bases of spear I and III, but only over c. 10 cm. The base of spear II was too damaged to identify any evidence for working. The spear- and lance-heads were not made from wood at the very center of the trunk, but instead from that slightly to the side. This was done to avoid the central pith that, due to its lesser hardness, is not suitable as a point.
The analyses demonstrate a sophisticated sequence of production steps implying experience in the manufacturing of wooden tools and weapons. At first glance, it might seem sur€ningen decided to use spruce and prising that the humans of Scho pine as raw material for their artifacts since they are both rather soft woods. Yew (Taxus), an elastic but hard wood, was the material of choice for the lance tip from Clacton-on-Sea, England and the much younger lance of Lehringen, Germany (Warren, 1911; Movius, 1950; Oakley et al., 1977; Thieme and Veil, 1985; Buckingham et al., 1996). Similarly, yew was also used for bow construction in the Neolithic, as seen at the site of Schnidejoch (Hafner, 2010). Fragments of Taxus baccata have only been found at €ningen 13 DB and 12 II-1. The chronological pothe sites of Scho € ningen 13 II-4, sition of these sites is expected to be older than Scho and thus yew was probably not available during the late interglacial times of the spear horizon, when cool and dry conditions formed a rather open woodland landscape with species such as birch and pine (Urban, 2007). €ningen spears include: the Common features of all of the Scho use of small trunks as raw material, the removal of branches and polishing of the surface, and the placing of the tip away from the central axis of the trunk. These characteristics demonstrate a high degree of sophistication in the production of the spears (Haidle, 2009). Throwing experiments with replications demonstrated that the spears are well-balanced and suitable for hunting. In a range up to c. 35 m, the accuracy is enough to hit larger animals. Penetration depth, thrown from 5 m distance into a gelatinous block, lies between 22.5 and 25.5 cm and would thus significantly harm the animal (Rieder, 2000, 2001); however, a short distance is more favorable to successfully hit and penetrate the animal. The decentralized and, therefore harder, tip prevents the spear from breaking (Schoch, 2007a). €ningen spears can be Based on these observations the Scho identified as distance weapons, namely throwing spears. Of course, a spear can also function for short distance attacks or defense and is, along with fire, an effective weapon against €ningen 13 II-4, the predators. In the open landscape of Scho humans had to protect their prey and themselves against hyenas and big cats (Serangeli et al., 2014). An occasional function as digging stick is theoretically conceivable, but because of their extensive length and the missing use-wear traces, the spears were likely not made for this purpose. An application as distance hunting and defense weapon seems more obvious. The double pointed stick is less clear in its interpretation. The curved stick is 78 cm long and the tip is decentralized in the same manner as the spears. This kind of preparation is reminiscent of the spears and it was carefully produced, but both ends are less pointed than the tips of the spears. Thieme (1997, 2007) argues for parallels between this object and Aboriginal non-returning boomerangs or hunting clubs, and interprets it as a weapon for hunting ducks in the high reed vegetation along the lakeshore. It is also comparable with the rabbit sticks of the Hopi, Apache, or Navajo of southwestern North America. The range of these non-returning sticks lies
€ ningen, Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Schoch, W.H., et al., New insights on the wooden weapons from the Paleolithic site of Scho Human Evolution (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.08.004
spear X
spear (almost) enƟre
spear IX?
spear incomplete
spear VIII
lance enƟre
spear VII lance VI spear V spear IV spear III spear II spear I 0
50
100
150
200
250
300
€ ningen 13 II-4: The length of all weapons. Figure 9. Scho
between 60 to about 200 m distance (Jones, 1997; Koerper, 1998; Koerper et al., 1998). The differences between boomer€ ningen angs and rabbit sticks and the throwing stick from Scho are the pointed ends. Besides the curved shape caused by sediment pressure, it looks like a small spear. Considering the shape, it could have been used as a digging stick. Hadza digging sticks have sizes between 4 and 5 cm in diameter and 1.20e1.50 m in length. They get shorter during ongoing use (Porr and Müller-Beck, 1997; Porr, 2008). Sandgathe and Hayden (2003) point out that this so-called ‘throwing stick’ from €ningen resembles ethnographic bark peelers. Whatever the Scho case may be, no traces of sediment abrasion or other use wear on the tips of the artifact could be recognized. The idea of a children's spear for practicing purposes is also possible. However, to date, no conclusive interpretation of this artifact can be proposed. €ningen. BeThere are further unusual wooden tools from Scho sides the double pointed stick mentioned above (Figs. 2c and 7d), a burnt wooden artifact is remarkable and more wooden artifacts are waiting for conclusive interpretation (Thieme, 2007). €ningen are The completely preserved weapons of Scho outstanding and there are no direct parallels. The tip of a spear found at Clacton-on-Sea in southeastern England was found about 100 years ago and probably provides the closest parallel for the € ningen finds (Oakley et al., 1977). The original 38.7 cm long Scho piece (Taxus) was collected in fluviatile deposits and is supposed to originate from interglacial deposits of the Hoxnian. The Hoxnian can probably be correlated with MIS 11 (Bridgland, 1994; Ashton
et al., 2008; Schreve, 2012), which if correct would make the spear from Clacton-on-Sea about 100,000 years older than those €ningen. from Scho In 1948, a completely preserved lance was found at Lehringen in lower Saxony. The weapon was made of yew (Taxus) and had a maximum diameter of 3.1 cm and a length of 2.38 m. The lance is dated to the Eemian (MIS 5e; 120 kyr) on the basis of pollen analysis and was found neighboring or possibly inside the skeleton of an elephant. Today the lance is poorly preserved (11 pieces), however, a considerable number of details of the manufacturing processdnotably the decentralized tipdcould be observed (Thieme and Veil, 1985). The site Cannstatt I, Stuttgart, Germany, offered a 2.2 m long and 4 cm thick wooden stick, broken in three pieces. It has a tip of 45 cm and is made of acer (Acer campestre). The excavator describes it as a possible lance. The wood was very fragmentary and it could not be preserved (Wagner, 1995). The size corresponds with the di€ningen spears, but the very limited informamensions of the Scho tion for the Cannstatt I object, which probably dates to MIS 7, makes it difficult to interpret as a wooden weapon (Wagner, 1995; € hner, 2012). Serangeli and Bo Possible wooden weapons were also reported from the site of Bilzingsleben (Mania and Mania, 1998), which is dated to the Hol€ ningen 13 II steinian and is probably about the same age as site Scho (MIS 9). Unfortunately, the pieces are poorly preserved and closer inspection is not possible. As with the Cannstatt I object, the wooden objects from Bilzingsleben are difficult to interpret given the vague evidence.
spear X
spear (almost) enƟre spear incomplete lance enƟre
spear IX? spear VIII spear VII lance VI spear V spear IV spear III spear II spear I 0
10
20
30
40
50
€ ningen 13 II-4: The maximum diameter of all weapons. Figure 10. Scho
€ningen, Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Schoch, W.H., et al., New insights on the wooden weapons from the Paleolithic site of Scho Human Evolution (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.08.004
W.H. Schoch et al. / Journal of Human Evolution xxx (2015) 1e12
11
spear X spear (almost) enƟre
spear IX?
spear incomplete
spear VIII
lance enƟre
spear VII lance VI spear V spear IV spear III spear II spear I 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
€ningen 13 II-4: The number/minimum number of tree rings of all weapons. Figure 11. Scho
5. Conclusion
€ ningen 13 II-4: Detail of spear III with cut marks on a truncated branch Figure 12. Scho and smoothed surface. Photo: W. H. Schoch.
Recently, Gaspari et al. (2011) reported a stray find from Ljubljansko Barje, Slovenia which they claim to be a weapon from the Middle Paleolithic. The find is much better preserved than those from Cannstatt and Bilzingsleben, but, in our opinion, the piece does not show convincing evidence of wood processing.
€ningen spears and lance, the tip of Clacton-onOnly the Scho Sea, and the lance of Lehringen (Eemian) provide clear evidence of Early and Middle Paleolithic hunting weapons in Europe. €ningen 13 Considering the remarkable number of finds at Scho II-4, the site likely represents the repeated hunting of horses. The lakeshore attracted both animals and humans, but it was not by accident that hunting took place at this specific location. During MIS 9 (probably Holsteinian) the site was located at a narrowing between the lakeshore and the uplands of the Elm (Lang et al., 2012: Fig. 12b), providing a favorable area for hunting migrating horses. The geographic setting could have allowed the hunters to force the horses towards the lakeshore making them easier to attack. The wooden weapons and the location of the site support the idea that experienced humans carried out hunting activities € ningen around 300,000 with significant planning depth at Scho years ago.
Acknowledgment The authors would like to thank Christopher Miller, Tübingen, for improvement of the English and critical discussion of the text. Furthermore, we would like to thank two unknown reviewers for their very helpful comments on an earlier draft of this paper.
References
€ ningen 13 II-4: Detail of spear V with a truncated branch and emerging Figure 13. Scho tree rings as result of woodworking. Photo: W. H. Schoch.
Ashton, N., Lewis, S.G., Parfitt, S.A., Penkmann, K.E.H., Coope, G.R., 2008. New evidence for complex climate change in MIS 11 from Hoxne, Suffolk, UK. Quat. Sci. Rev. 27, 652e668. Behrens, E., Fuchs, C.S., Lehmann, M., 2007. Im nassen Element e Zur Doku€ninger Speere. Ein Befund von Weltbedeutung: Ein mentation der Scho € ninger Wildpferd-Jagdlager vor 400 000 Jahren. In: Thieme, H. (Ed.), Die Scho SpeeredMensch und Jagd vor 400 000 Jahren. Theiss Verlag, Stuttgart, pp. 162e165. €ningen. Insights Bigga, G., Schoch, W., Urban, B., 2015. Paleolithic plant use in Scho from botanical macro-remains. J. Hum. Evol. [this volume]. €ninger Pollendiagramme und ihre Stellung im mitteBittmann, F., 2012. Die Scho €ischen Mittelpleistoz€ leuropa an. In: Behre, K.-E. (Ed.), Die chronologische €olithischen Fundstellen von Scho €ningen. Forschungen zur Einordnung der pala € ningen 1. Verlag Ro € misch-GermaUrgeschichte aus dem Tagebau von Scho nisches Zentralmuseum, Mainz, pp. 97e112. €hner, U., Serangeli, S., Richter, P., 2015. The Spear Horizon. First spatial analysis of Bo €ningen site 13 II-4. J. Hum. Evol. [this volume]. the Scho Bridgland, D.R., 1994. Quaternary of the Thames. Chapman and Hall, London.
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Buckingham, C.M., Roe, D.A., Scott, K., 1996. A preliminary report on the Stanton Harcourt Channel Deposits (Oxfordshire, England): geological context, vertebrate remains and paleolithic stone artifacts. J. Quat. Sci. 11, 397e415. de Beaulieu, J.-L., Andrieu-Ponel, V., Reille, C., Grü ger, E., Tzedakis, C., Svobodova, H., 2001. An attempt at correlation between the Velay sequence and the Middle Pleistocene stratigraphy from central Europe. Quat. Sci. Rev. 20, 1593e1602. Gaspari, A., Eri c, M., Odar, B., 2011. A Paleolithic Wooden Point from Ljubljansko Barje, Slovenia. In: Benjamin, J., Bonsall, C., Pickard, C., Fischer, A. (Eds.), Submerged Prehistory. An offprint. Oxbow Books, Oxford, pp. 186e192. Geyh, M.A., Müller, H., 2005. Numerical 230Th/U dating and a palynological review of the Holsteinian/Hoxnian Interglacial. Quat. Sci. Rev. 24, 1861e1872. Haidle, M.N., 2009. How to think a simple spear? In: de Beaune, S.A., Frederick, L., Coolidge, T.W. (Eds.), Cognitive archaeology and human evolution. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 57e73. Hafner, A., 2010. Lenk, Schnidejoch (Schweiz, Berner Alpen) und andere arch€ aologische Funde aus alpinen Gletschern und Eismulden. Acta Archaeologica Carpathica 44, 5e20. Jones, P., 1997. Boomerang: behind an Australian icon. Ten Speed Press, Berkeley. Koerper, H.C., 1998. A game string and rabbit stick cache from Borrego Valley, San Diego County. J. Calif. Great Basin Anthropol. 20, 252e270. Koerper, H.C., Pinkston, B., Wilken, M., 1998. Nonreturning Boomerangs in Baja California Norte. PCASQ 34, 65e82. €ningen (Germany): A review van Kolfschoten, T., 2014. The Palaeolithic locality Scho of the mammalian record. Quart. Int. 326e327, 469e480. €hner, U., Serangeli, J., Lang, J., Winsemann, J., Steinmetz, D., Polom, U., Pollok, L., Bo € ningen, Brandes, C., Hampel, A., Winghart, S., 2012. The Pleistocene of Scho Germany: a complex tunnel valley fill revealed from 3D subsurface modelling and shear wave seismics. Quat. Sci. Rev. 39, 1e20. Mania, D., Mania, U., 1998. Ger€ ate aus Holz von der altpal€ aolithischen Fundstelle bei Bilzingsleben. Praehistoria Thuringica 2, 32e72. Movius Jr., H.L., 1950. A wooden spear of third interglacial age from Lower Saxony. Southwest. J. Anthropol. 6, 139e142. Oakley, K., Andrews, P., Keeley, L.H., 1977. A reappraisal of the Clacton spear point. Proc. Prehist. Soc. 43, 13e30. €ologie und die Ursprünge der Porr, M., 2008. Grenzwissenschaft: Ethnoarcha modernen Kognition. EAZ 49, 1e12. Porr, M., Müller-Beck, H., 1997. Hadzapi, Hadza, Hatza, Hadzabe, Wahadzabe, Wakindiga, WaTindiga, Tindiga, Kindiga, Hadzapi?: Eine Wildbeuter-Kultur in Ostafrika. Mo Vince, Tübingen. €olithischen Wurfspeere von Scho € ningen, ihre Erprobung Rieder, H., 2000. Die altpala und ihre Bedeutung für die Lebensumwelt des Homo erectus. Praehistoria Thuringica 5, 68e75. €ningen (400 000 Jahre) und Rieder, H., 2001. Erprobung der Holzspeere von Scho Folgerungen daraus. In: Wagner, G.A., Mania, D. (Eds.), Frühe Menschen in Mitteleuropa: Chronologie, Kultur, Umwelt. Shaker Verlag, Aachen, pp. 91e95. Sandgathe, D.M., Hayden, B., 2003. Did Neanderthals eat inner bark? Antiquity 77, 709e718. € lzer aus der Fundschicht 1 des altpal€ Schoch, W.H., 1995. Ho aolithischen € ningen 12 (Reinsdorf-Interglazial). In: Thieme, H., und Fundplatzes Scho Maier, R. (Eds.), Arch€ aologische Ausgrabungen in Braunkohlentagebau € ningen, Landkreis Helmstedt. Verlag Hahnsche Buchhandlung, HannScho over, pp. 73e84. Schoch, W., 2007a. Holz e Das Archiv aus dem Pal€ aolithikum. In: Thieme, H. (Ed.), €ninger Speere. Mensch und Jagd vor 400 000 Jahren. NieDie Scho ders€ achsisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege, Hannover. Theiss Verlag, Stuttgart, pp. 202e210. Schoch, W., 2007b. Holzanatomische und klimatische Bemerkungen zu den Speeren € ningen. In: Thieme, H. (Ed.), Die Scho € ninger Speere. Mensch und Jagd von Scho €chsisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege, Hannvor 400 000 Jahren. Niedersa over. Theiss Verlag, Stuttgart, pp. 158e159.
Schoch, W.H., Heller-Kellenberger, I., Schweingruber, F., Kienast, F., 2004. Wood anatomy of central European Species. Online version: www.woodanatomy.ch. Last access: 06/2013. €ningen II) Mammalian AssemSchreve, D., 2012. The Reinsdorf Interglacial (Scho blage in ist European Context. In: Behre, K.-E. (Ed.), Die chronologische €ningen. Forschungen zur Einordnung der pal€ aolithischen Fundstellen von Scho €ningen 1. Verlag Ro € misch-GermaUrgeschichte aus dem Tagebau von Scho nisches Zentralmuseum, Mainz, pp. 129e142. €hner, U., 2012. Die Artefakte von Scho €ningen und deren zeitliche Serangeli, J., Bo Einordnung. In: Behre, K.-E. (Ed.), Die chronologische Einordnung der € ningen. Forschungen zur Urgeschichte aus pal€ aolithischen Fundstellen von Scho €ningen 1. Verlag Ro € misch-Germanisches Zentralmudem Tagebau von Scho seum, Mainz, pp. 23e38. Serangeli, J., van Kolfschoten, T., Conard, N., 2014. 300.000 Jahre alte Funde einer €belzahnkatze aus Scho € ningen e Die gefa €hrlichste Raubkatze der Eiszeit Sa erstmals für Norddeutschland belegt. Berichte zur Denkmalpflege in Niedersachsen 1, 10e12. Sierralta, M., Frechen, M., Urban, B., 2012. 230U/Th dating results from opencast €ningen. In: Behre, K.-E. (Ed.), Die chronologische Einordnung der mine Scho € ningen. Forschungen zur Urgeschichte aus pal€ aolithischen Fundstellen von Scho €ningen 1. Verlag Ro € misch-Germanisches Zentralmudem Tagebau von Scho seum, Mainz, pp. 143e154. Stringer, C.B., 2012. The status of Homo heidelbergensis (Schoetensack 1908). Evol. Anthropol. 21, 101e107. €olithischer Lagerplatz aus der Zeit des Urmenschen von Thieme, H., 1995. Ein altpala € ningen 13 II (Reinsdorf-Interglazial). In: Thieme, H., Maier, R. (Eds.), Scho €ningen. Landkreis Arch€ aologische Ausgrabungen im Braunkohlentagebau Scho Helmstedt, Hahnsche Buchhandlung, Hannover, pp. 95e106. €olithische Wurfspeere aus Scho €ningen, NieThieme, H., 1996. Altpala dersachsen.dEin Vorbericht. Arch€ aologisches Korrespondenzblatt 26, 377e393. Thieme, H., 1997. Lower Paleolithic hunting spears from Germany. Nature 385, 807e810. €olithische Holzger€ € ningen, Lkr. Helmstedt: Thieme, H., 1999. Altpala ate aus Scho Bedeutsame Funde zur Kulturentwicklung des frühen Menschen. Germania 77, 451e487. €ningen, Germany.dThe Thieme, H., 2000. Lower Paleolithic Weapons from Scho Oldest Spears in the World. Acta Anthropol. Sinica 19, 136e143. Thieme, H., 2005. The Lower Paleolithic art of hunting. The hominid individual in context. Archaeological investigations of Lower and Middle Paleolithic landscapes, locales and artifacts. Routledge, London New York, pp. 115e132. €ninger Speere. Mensch und Jagd vor 400 000 JahThieme, H. (Ed.), 2007. Die Scho ren. Nieders€ achsisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege, Hannover. Theiss Verlag, Stuttgart. Thieme, H., Veil, S., 1985. Neue Untersuchungen zum eemzeitlichen ElefantenJagdplatz Lehringen. Ldkr. Verden. Die Kunde 36, 11e58. Turner, C., 1998. Volcanic maars, long Quaternary sequences and the work of the INQUA subcommission on European Quaternary stratigraphy. Quat. Int. 47/48, 41e49. €re Vegetations- und Klimaentwicklung im Tagebau Urban, B., 2007. Quarta € ningen. In: Thieme, H. (Ed.), Die Scho €ninger Speere. Mensch und Jagd vor Scho 400 000 Jahren. Nieders€ achsisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege, Hannover. Theiss Verlag, Stuttgart, pp. 66e75. Urban, B., Sierralta, M., 2012. New palynological evidence and correlation of early €ningen 12B and 13 II, Scho €ningen open lignite mine. In: Paleolithic sites Scho Behre, K.-E. (Ed.), Die chronologische Einordnung der pal€ aolithischen Fund€ningen. Forschungen zur Urgeschichte aus dem Tagebau von stellen von Scho € ningen 1. Verlag Ro €misch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Mainz, Scho pp. 77e96. Wagner, E., 1995. Grosswildj€ ager im Travertingebiet. Theiss Verlag, Stuttgart. Warren, S.H., 1911. Palaeolithic wooden spear. Quart. J. Geol. Soc. London 67, 119.
€ningen, Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Schoch, W.H., et al., New insights on the wooden weapons from the Paleolithic site of Scho Human Evolution (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.08.004
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Human Evolution journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhevol
New insights on the wooden weapons from the Paleolithic site of € ningen Scho € hner c, Pascale Richter c, Thomas Terberger c, * Werner H. Schoch a, Gerlinde Bigga b, Utz Bo a
Laboratory for Quaternary Wood Research, Langnau a.A., Switzerland Institute for Archaeological Sciences, University of Tübingen, Germany c Lower Saxony State Service for Cultural Heritage, Hannover, Germany b
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 4 February 2014 Accepted 23 August 2015 Available online xxx
€ ningen is famous for the earliest known, completely preserved wooden The Paleolithic site of Scho weapons. Here we present recent results of an ongoing analysis of the nine spears, one lance, a double pointed stick, and a burnt stick dating to the Holsteinian, c. 300 kyr. Macroscopic and microscopic analyses, as well as studies of thin sections, contribute to a better understanding of the manufacture of the wooden weapons. They were deposited in organic sediments at a former lakeshore among numerous bones of butchered horses. In general, the spears are extremely well-preserved and show no or little sign of taphonomic alteration, although some of the weapons are broken and parts were slightly moved, probably by water action. The excellent preservation conditions provide considerable information on the operational sequence of production. The hunters selected thin trunks of spruce or pine and initially stripped off the bark. Traces of cutting, scraping, and smoothing can be observed on the spear surfaces in detail. In the case of spear X, repeated use of the weapon is implied by re-sharpening of the tip. Analyses of wood anatomy provide information on climatic conditions and contribute to the better understanding of the development of the site. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Wooden artifacts Spears Hunting technology
1. Introduction Between 1994 and 1999 excavation in the open-cast mine of € ningen revolutionized our perspective on the Lower PaleoScho €ningen 13 II-4, a series of wooden tools lithic. At the site Scho and weapons were uncovered together with several butchered horse remainsdat least 35 individuals based on the number of teethdon a former lakeshore (van Kolfschoten, 2014). For the first time, unquestionable evidence for systematic large herbivore hunting with wooden spears was provided in Europe (e.g., Thieme, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2007). After ongoing discussions on the chronological position of the find layer, new chronometric data provided by the uranium-thorium method and thermoluminescence (TL) dating places the site at c.
* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (T. Terberger).
300 kyrs ago (MIS 9; Sierralta et al., 2012; Urban and Sierralta, 2012; D. Richter, pers. comm.). Here we attribute the find layer to the Holsteinian (Bittmann, 2012), being aware that the correlation of the Holsteinian with MIS 9 is controversial (Geyh and Müller, 2005; in contrast e.g., Turner, 1998; de Beaulieu et al., 2001). €ningen 13 II-4, On the basis of the dating results for Scho € hner (2012) suggest that the hominins that proSerangeli and Bo duced and used the wooden implements were likely Homo heidelbergensis. However, it is also possible that early Neanderthals €ningen spears might have been the makers of the Scho (Stringer, 2012). Pollen diagrams and numerous organic remains from different layers at the lakeshore form a basis for the environmental reconstruction and the evaluation of the role of plant use by the €ningen (Bigga et al., 2015). There is varied evihumans of Scho dence of woodworking in addition to the spears and the double € ningen 13 II-4, including worked bases of pointed stick from Scho
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.08.004 0047-2484/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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€ ningen 13 II-4: Image maps of spear I, II, III, and VI. Graphics: E. Behrens. Photo: C.S. Fuchs. (Both Lower Saxony State Service for Cultural Heritage) Figure 1. Scho
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Implement
Throwing stick
Identification no.
1779
Burnt wooden 15677 artifact (“Bratspieß”) Spear I 4690, 5138, 5721, 5748, 5739
Quadrant þ find no.
Age of wood þ season No. of of tree felling fragments
Preservation
Metrics: max length max diameter in cm
Archaeological record
1994
Spruce (Picea sp.) Not examined
1
Entire
77.5 3.0
In association
690/21-60
1995
Spruce (Picea sp.) Not examined
2
Almost entire, base damaged
87.7 3.6
690/16-4; 691/16-4; 692/15-4; 692/16-4; 692/16-2 696/16-10; 697/16-10; 697/15-10; 698/15-10
1995
Spruce (Picea sp.) At least 53
5
Entire
1995
Spruce (Picea sp.) 45e55, early summer
4
1995
Spruce (Picea sp.) At least 33, summer
6
Almost entire, base slightly damaged Entire
1996
Pine (Pinus sylvestris)
5
1997
Spruce (Picea sp.) At least 49, summer
4
1997
Spruce (Picea sp.) At least 57, late summer
3
7170
Spear III
17153, 7611, 7756 697/19-7; 698/19-1; 699/19-1 7852, 7854, 7656 699/9-4; 699/9-6; 698/8-6
Spear V
Wood species
684/31-6
Spear II
Spear IV
Year of finding
At least 18
Spear/Lance VI
9613, 9670, 9668, 9669 9311, 9277, 9202
708/1-1; 708/3-12; 708/3-10; 708/3-11 706/4-1; 706/3-1; 706/2-1
Spear VII
15678, 18221
705/5-5; 706/6-8
1997
Spruce (Picea sp.) At least 31, summer
4
Spear VIII
14852
713/-990-1
1999
Spruce (Picea sp.) At least 21
2
Spear IX?
12074
726/19-1
1998
Spruce (Picea sp.) Not examined
4
Spear X
7702, 7691, 7693, 18235
700/12-9; 699/12-9; 699/12-12; 699/12-14;
1996
Spruce (Picea sp.) 60
4 (þ1?)
Layer
Feature
Pointed double-sided
In association
From SW 4b to NE 4c 4b/4c (?)
221.0 4.7
Mostly in association
Point 4c þ Base 4b
Pointed base
228.8 3.7
In association
4b/4c
Insect caused damage
184.1 2.9
In association
4b/4c
Pointed base
Incomplete, point 118.5 3.1 and shaft fragments Entire 206.0 3.0
Not in association 4b/4c
Not in association Point Pointed base 4b þ Base 4b/4c Almost entire, 253.1 4.0 In association 4b Spear or base þ point lance with “kink,” pointed slightly damaged base Incomplete, base 202.8 3.0 In association 4b (?) Insect caused damaged damage Fragments in 4b Incomplete, point 58.3 2.6 fragment association Incomplete, point 25.6 (2.2 1.4) Fragments in 4b/4c fragment association Incomplete, base 141.5 2.4 In association Point damaged 4b/4c þ Base 4b
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Table 1 € ningen 13 II-4: Detailed information on the wooden artifacts (see also Thieme, 1996, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2007). Scho
3
4
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€ ningen 13 II-4: a) Spear IX (?), b) spear X, c) throwing stick, and d) distribution of the spears and the throwing stick in layer 4b/c (grid scale on each axis in meters). Figure 2. Scho €hner. Graphics: U. Bo
€ningen 12 B branches (so-called “Klemmsch€ afte”) from site Scho that may have been used as hafting implements (Schoch, 1995; Thieme, 1997, 2000, 2005, 2007). This paper summarizes evidence of ongoing research on the wooden artifacts from € ningen 13 II-4 together with the geological context of the Scho spears. 2. Materials and methods € ningen Our study focuses on the wooden artifacts from Scho 13 II-4. Following excavation, the wooden objects were stored in tubs with distilled water in the Lower Saxony State Service for Cultural Heritage, Hannover. In 2012, the tools and weapons were carefully conserved in the workshop of the RomanoGermanic Central Museum in Mainz, Germany, and since June 2013 they are on display in the research and exhibition center € € ningen site. The only exception is PALAON, neighboring the Scho spear VII, which is preserved in its original condition in order to allow future investigations. Information on the restoration of the objects will be published elsewhere. Before the restoration, the wooden tools and weapons underwent a process of detailed analysis. General photographic documentation of the artifacts, computer tomography (Somatom Emotion, Siemens company), and a 3D spatial model of the spears by laser scanning were carried out by the Arctron Company (www. arctron.de). These operations were under the auspices of the Lower
Saxony State Service for Cultural Heritage in Hannover (Behrens et al., 2007). Furthermore, W.H. Schoch described the spears in detail using macroscopic and microscopic inspection under low magnification by W.H. Schoch. After this part of documentation, which included the collections of macroscopic photographs, he collected small thin sections by hand with a razor blade. We were able to conduct botanical identification of the trees to genus or even species level by comparing the bark with recent reference material and by wood anatomy of central European species (Schoch et al., 2004).
€ ningen 13 II-4 3. Results on the wooden artifacts from Scho To date, we have identified the following worked wooden ob€ ningen 13 II-4 (Fig. 1, Table 1): jects from Scho - nine spears/spear fragments (spear IeV, VIIeX; spear fragment IX uncertain) - one lance (“spear VI”) - one double pointed rod - one burnt worked wooden stick. Work is in progress on the analysis of smaller wooden remains from this level. It is possible that the total number of worked wooden objects will increase following completion of the analysis.
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€ ningen 13 II-4: a) Spear I, b) spear II, c) spear III, with part A damaged during excavation, and d) spear IV (grid scale on each axis in meters). Graphics: U. Bo € hner. Figure 3. Scho
3.1. Find context and taphonomic aspects The horizontal distribution of the weapons is limited to a comparably small area (Fig. 2d) that corresponds to the hori€ hner et al., 2015). zontal distribution of bones and flint (see Bo Except for two spear fragments (nos. VIII and IX) and the double pointed stick, which were found further apart, the other spears are concentrated in an area of c. 10 25 m at the former lakeshore. A conspicuous observation is that bigger wooden fragments in the horizon 13 II-4 are often modified. Additionally, splinters of a few centimeters in length were found here; work is in progress to evaluate their context. The horizontal orientation of the weapons does not show a uniform pattern. Two spears (V and VII) and the lance (“spear VI”) lie next to each other with a similar northeastsouthwest orientation, while some meters to the north, spears III, IV, and X lie in an east-west direction (Fig. 2d). It is possible that the different orientations reflect phases of small-scale water action at the lakeshore. This observation is in accordance with evidence from the vertical position of the finds. The spears from level 4 came from the lower peat layer (4b), as well as the underlying chalk mud or marl (4c). In the transitional layers between the peat and marl there are peat-containing marls (4b/c) that cannot be clearly separated. In layer 4a there were almost no finds. The spears sometimes cross two horizons and reach from the organic sediments (4b) down to the marl sediments (4c),
€ hner suggesting small scale post-depositional movement (see Bo et al., 2015). At the time of discovery, the fragments of most weapons were in the original, unchanged position (Figs. 2e7). Spear IV and V were found in fragments scattered on a small area (Figs. 2d, 4a, and 6a, b). The position of spear 4 was likely influenced by post-depositional processes, given that it was found vertically at 45 (Schoch, 2007b). The spearhead fragment of spear V was found horizontally turned by 180 degrees (Figs. 4a and 6b), so that the spearhead pointed towards the spear shaft. This situation was created either at the time of deposition by humans, or the turning of the spearhead happened later but before final sedimentation. It is also plausible that breakage of spear V was caused by trampling. In conclusion, the find context suggests that the spears and the lance were only marginally displaced after deposition by water action and following some post-depositional disturbance. In accordance with these results, the weapon surfaces provide a unique state of preservation (Fig. 8) that allow detailed analysis of the findings. 3.2. Dimension of the weapons Most of the weapons were found in fragments but are complete (spears I, III, V; Figs. 1, 5a, d, and 6b) or nearly complete (spear II and the lance “spear VI”; Figs. 1, 5b, c, and 6c and Table 1) in their dimensions. Spears VII and X (Figs. 6d and 7c)
€ ningen, Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Schoch, W.H., et al., New insights on the wooden weapons from the Paleolithic site of Scho Human Evolution (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.08.004
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€ningen 13 II-4: a) Spear V, b) spear/lance VI, c) spear VII, and d) spear VIII (grid scale on each axis in meters). Graphics: U. Bo € hner. Figure 4. Scho
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€ ningen 13 II-4: a) Spear I, b) detail of spear II, c) spear II, and d) spear III. Photo: P. Pfarr. (Lower Saxony State Service for Cultural Heritage) Figure 5. Scho
simply have a damaged base. On the other hand, some significant parts are missing from spears IV, VIII, and IX (Figs. 6a and 7a, b). The identification of the latter find as a spear (spear IX) is not yet completely verified. The length of spears II, III, and the lance (“spear VI”) was measured with the help of new equalized photographs. Measurements of the complete or nearly complete spears suggest that the lengths of the complete weapons vary between 1.84 and 2.53 m (Fig. 9). The preferred size of complete spears is between 2.1 and 2.4 m, while the lance is longer. The maximum diameter of all weapons is between 2.4 and 4.7 cm. If we consider the complete pieces only, the maximum diameter varies between 2.9 and 4.7 cm (Fig. 10). However, the wooden finds were exposed to an enormous load of sediment and glacial ice that led to minor secondary changes. The largest
diameter, and therefore the center of gravity, is always found at the front of the shaft. Only the lance (“spear VI”) differs from this scheme. The spears in their dimensions and design resemble modern championship javelins (Rieder, 2001; Thieme, 2007), which are c. 2.25 m (female type, c. 600 g) or 2.75 m long (male type, 800 g). 3.3. Operational sequence The anatomical analysis of the wood suggests that the choice of material for the carving of the spears and the lance was standardized. In almost all cases the raw material was spruce. Only spear IV deviates from that scheme as it is made of pine. As the width of the tree rings of the spruce trunks are very small, one can assume a slow growth of the wood and therefore probably
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€ningen 13 II-4. a) Part of spear IV, b) spear V, c) spear/lance VI, and d) spear VII. Photo: P. Pfarr. (Lower Saxony State Service for Cultural Heritage) Figure 6. Scho
€ningen 13 II-4. a) Spear VIII, b) spear IX (?), c) spear X, and d) throwing stick. Photo: P. Pfarr. (Lower Saxony State Service for Cultural Heritage) Figure 7. Scho
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€ ningen 13 The analysis of small splinters of wood from Scho II-4 is still in progress. However, it is possible that these may indicate some processing of the spears on site. In the case of spear X, reworking of the weapon can be demonstrated. The tip is broken and several cut marks indicate renewal of the point.
4. Discussion
€ningen 13 II-4: Spearhead of spear II in detail with cut marks. Photo: C.S. Figure 8. Scho Fuchs (Lower Saxony State Service for Cultural Heritage)
cooler environmental conditions. The slow growth of the spruce resulted in a particularly hard wood at the same time. In contrast, the pine wood of spear IV shows significantly wider tree rings that, according to Schoch (2007b), speaks for a different habitat with more favorable growing conditions. We were able to determine the age or minimum age of the trunks used for spear production (see Table 1, Fig. 11). Therefore, the growing period can be demonstrated for up to 60 years and the complete pieces indicate a preferred growing period of c. 50e60 years; only spear III is made of a much younger tree (33 years). The lowest number of 18 tree rings is found in the incomplete pine spear (no. IV). As far as it was possible to determine the season by the character of the last tree ring, the spruce trunks were felled in the summer months (spear III, V, VII), varying from early (spear II) to late summer (lance “spear VI”). All spears were made on thin trunks. After felling, all the bark was completely stripped off and the underlying fiber (the inner bark) mostly removed. Numerous knots were cut off as indicated by the tool marks (Figs. 12 and 13). The spear- and lance-heads were made using a flint tool out of the base of the trunks, an especially hard wood. The worked ends of spears I and II show tool marks over a length of c. 60 cm, whereas spear III shows tool marks at the point over 25 cm. Similarly, tool marks are found on the spear bases of spear I and III, but only over c. 10 cm. The base of spear II was too damaged to identify any evidence for working. The spear- and lance-heads were not made from wood at the very center of the trunk, but instead from that slightly to the side. This was done to avoid the central pith that, due to its lesser hardness, is not suitable as a point.
The analyses demonstrate a sophisticated sequence of production steps implying experience in the manufacturing of wooden tools and weapons. At first glance, it might seem sur€ningen decided to use spruce and prising that the humans of Scho pine as raw material for their artifacts since they are both rather soft woods. Yew (Taxus), an elastic but hard wood, was the material of choice for the lance tip from Clacton-on-Sea, England and the much younger lance of Lehringen, Germany (Warren, 1911; Movius, 1950; Oakley et al., 1977; Thieme and Veil, 1985; Buckingham et al., 1996). Similarly, yew was also used for bow construction in the Neolithic, as seen at the site of Schnidejoch (Hafner, 2010). Fragments of Taxus baccata have only been found at €ningen 13 DB and 12 II-1. The chronological pothe sites of Scho € ningen 13 II-4, sition of these sites is expected to be older than Scho and thus yew was probably not available during the late interglacial times of the spear horizon, when cool and dry conditions formed a rather open woodland landscape with species such as birch and pine (Urban, 2007). €ningen spears include: the Common features of all of the Scho use of small trunks as raw material, the removal of branches and polishing of the surface, and the placing of the tip away from the central axis of the trunk. These characteristics demonstrate a high degree of sophistication in the production of the spears (Haidle, 2009). Throwing experiments with replications demonstrated that the spears are well-balanced and suitable for hunting. In a range up to c. 35 m, the accuracy is enough to hit larger animals. Penetration depth, thrown from 5 m distance into a gelatinous block, lies between 22.5 and 25.5 cm and would thus significantly harm the animal (Rieder, 2000, 2001); however, a short distance is more favorable to successfully hit and penetrate the animal. The decentralized and, therefore harder, tip prevents the spear from breaking (Schoch, 2007a). €ningen spears can be Based on these observations the Scho identified as distance weapons, namely throwing spears. Of course, a spear can also function for short distance attacks or defense and is, along with fire, an effective weapon against €ningen 13 II-4, the predators. In the open landscape of Scho humans had to protect their prey and themselves against hyenas and big cats (Serangeli et al., 2014). An occasional function as digging stick is theoretically conceivable, but because of their extensive length and the missing use-wear traces, the spears were likely not made for this purpose. An application as distance hunting and defense weapon seems more obvious. The double pointed stick is less clear in its interpretation. The curved stick is 78 cm long and the tip is decentralized in the same manner as the spears. This kind of preparation is reminiscent of the spears and it was carefully produced, but both ends are less pointed than the tips of the spears. Thieme (1997, 2007) argues for parallels between this object and Aboriginal non-returning boomerangs or hunting clubs, and interprets it as a weapon for hunting ducks in the high reed vegetation along the lakeshore. It is also comparable with the rabbit sticks of the Hopi, Apache, or Navajo of southwestern North America. The range of these non-returning sticks lies
€ ningen, Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Schoch, W.H., et al., New insights on the wooden weapons from the Paleolithic site of Scho Human Evolution (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.08.004
spear X
spear (almost) enƟre
spear IX?
spear incomplete
spear VIII
lance enƟre
spear VII lance VI spear V spear IV spear III spear II spear I 0
50
100
150
200
250
300
€ ningen 13 II-4: The length of all weapons. Figure 9. Scho
between 60 to about 200 m distance (Jones, 1997; Koerper, 1998; Koerper et al., 1998). The differences between boomer€ ningen angs and rabbit sticks and the throwing stick from Scho are the pointed ends. Besides the curved shape caused by sediment pressure, it looks like a small spear. Considering the shape, it could have been used as a digging stick. Hadza digging sticks have sizes between 4 and 5 cm in diameter and 1.20e1.50 m in length. They get shorter during ongoing use (Porr and Müller-Beck, 1997; Porr, 2008). Sandgathe and Hayden (2003) point out that this so-called ‘throwing stick’ from €ningen resembles ethnographic bark peelers. Whatever the Scho case may be, no traces of sediment abrasion or other use wear on the tips of the artifact could be recognized. The idea of a children's spear for practicing purposes is also possible. However, to date, no conclusive interpretation of this artifact can be proposed. €ningen. BeThere are further unusual wooden tools from Scho sides the double pointed stick mentioned above (Figs. 2c and 7d), a burnt wooden artifact is remarkable and more wooden artifacts are waiting for conclusive interpretation (Thieme, 2007). €ningen are The completely preserved weapons of Scho outstanding and there are no direct parallels. The tip of a spear found at Clacton-on-Sea in southeastern England was found about 100 years ago and probably provides the closest parallel for the € ningen finds (Oakley et al., 1977). The original 38.7 cm long Scho piece (Taxus) was collected in fluviatile deposits and is supposed to originate from interglacial deposits of the Hoxnian. The Hoxnian can probably be correlated with MIS 11 (Bridgland, 1994; Ashton
et al., 2008; Schreve, 2012), which if correct would make the spear from Clacton-on-Sea about 100,000 years older than those €ningen. from Scho In 1948, a completely preserved lance was found at Lehringen in lower Saxony. The weapon was made of yew (Taxus) and had a maximum diameter of 3.1 cm and a length of 2.38 m. The lance is dated to the Eemian (MIS 5e; 120 kyr) on the basis of pollen analysis and was found neighboring or possibly inside the skeleton of an elephant. Today the lance is poorly preserved (11 pieces), however, a considerable number of details of the manufacturing processdnotably the decentralized tipdcould be observed (Thieme and Veil, 1985). The site Cannstatt I, Stuttgart, Germany, offered a 2.2 m long and 4 cm thick wooden stick, broken in three pieces. It has a tip of 45 cm and is made of acer (Acer campestre). The excavator describes it as a possible lance. The wood was very fragmentary and it could not be preserved (Wagner, 1995). The size corresponds with the di€ningen spears, but the very limited informamensions of the Scho tion for the Cannstatt I object, which probably dates to MIS 7, makes it difficult to interpret as a wooden weapon (Wagner, 1995; € hner, 2012). Serangeli and Bo Possible wooden weapons were also reported from the site of Bilzingsleben (Mania and Mania, 1998), which is dated to the Hol€ ningen 13 II steinian and is probably about the same age as site Scho (MIS 9). Unfortunately, the pieces are poorly preserved and closer inspection is not possible. As with the Cannstatt I object, the wooden objects from Bilzingsleben are difficult to interpret given the vague evidence.
spear X
spear (almost) enƟre spear incomplete lance enƟre
spear IX? spear VIII spear VII lance VI spear V spear IV spear III spear II spear I 0
10
20
30
40
50
€ ningen 13 II-4: The maximum diameter of all weapons. Figure 10. Scho
€ningen, Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Schoch, W.H., et al., New insights on the wooden weapons from the Paleolithic site of Scho Human Evolution (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.08.004
W.H. Schoch et al. / Journal of Human Evolution xxx (2015) 1e12
11
spear X spear (almost) enƟre
spear IX?
spear incomplete
spear VIII
lance enƟre
spear VII lance VI spear V spear IV spear III spear II spear I 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
€ningen 13 II-4: The number/minimum number of tree rings of all weapons. Figure 11. Scho
5. Conclusion
€ ningen 13 II-4: Detail of spear III with cut marks on a truncated branch Figure 12. Scho and smoothed surface. Photo: W. H. Schoch.
Recently, Gaspari et al. (2011) reported a stray find from Ljubljansko Barje, Slovenia which they claim to be a weapon from the Middle Paleolithic. The find is much better preserved than those from Cannstatt and Bilzingsleben, but, in our opinion, the piece does not show convincing evidence of wood processing.
€ningen spears and lance, the tip of Clacton-onOnly the Scho Sea, and the lance of Lehringen (Eemian) provide clear evidence of Early and Middle Paleolithic hunting weapons in Europe. €ningen 13 Considering the remarkable number of finds at Scho II-4, the site likely represents the repeated hunting of horses. The lakeshore attracted both animals and humans, but it was not by accident that hunting took place at this specific location. During MIS 9 (probably Holsteinian) the site was located at a narrowing between the lakeshore and the uplands of the Elm (Lang et al., 2012: Fig. 12b), providing a favorable area for hunting migrating horses. The geographic setting could have allowed the hunters to force the horses towards the lakeshore making them easier to attack. The wooden weapons and the location of the site support the idea that experienced humans carried out hunting activities € ningen around 300,000 with significant planning depth at Scho years ago.
Acknowledgment The authors would like to thank Christopher Miller, Tübingen, for improvement of the English and critical discussion of the text. Furthermore, we would like to thank two unknown reviewers for their very helpful comments on an earlier draft of this paper.
References
€ ningen 13 II-4: Detail of spear V with a truncated branch and emerging Figure 13. Scho tree rings as result of woodworking. Photo: W. H. Schoch.
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€ningen, Journal of Please cite this article in press as: Schoch, W.H., et al., New insights on the wooden weapons from the Paleolithic site of Scho Human Evolution (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.08.004