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New method of magnetizing steel
182
.~lecha~tics, Ph~lsics~ and Chemist~'y. OF T~IE KELL.
The keel is lhat part of a boat or ship, which is situated at the bottom on the outside, anti extends in a direct line fi'om the cut-water at the head, to the post at the stern, descending perpendicularly down below the hull to the depth of several inches or feet according to the size of the vessel. Its uses are, tirst, to cause the floating body, say of a ship, to preserve a direct course in its passage through the water; second, to act as a check to lee-way; third, to moderate the rolling motion. Ships lbrmed with flat bottoms, and particularly if they be constructed with parallel sides, require little depth of keel to preserve a direct course; and in order to cheek the lee-way, a substitute tbr a keel is applied in the fi~rm of a sliding keel, suspended over the lee side, as seen in barges. But when the bottoms of vessels are not flat, or do not draw the same depth of water at the head and stern, particularly the latter, the keel becomes more essential, or the ship will have~a rotary motion and he under no command. With regard to the depths of keels, it will be needless to repeat what has already been given in the experiments, fi'Oln 48 to 58, Chapter XI. (To be Continued.)
Translated for the Journal of the Franklin Institute.
jVew ~']Iet]~odof J]laglzetizb~g Steel.
Letter of 5Ira Ha~t.~.x.-,'.
While studying t,he construction of electro-magnetic apparatus, I looked for the means of making very energetic magnets. I have discovered a new method of magnetizing steel dry-tempered, which is in some degree the opposite of the ordinary method. I magnetize first and temper alterwards. I cause a magnet or an electric current to act on the steel heated to redness, and I temper it while in this condition. The experiment is very simple; by taking a small bar of steel of 3 millimetres square by 6 eentimetres long, (0'1 in. by 2~ inches~) heated to redness with the pole or between tim poles of a magnet, to which at a certain temperature it will remain attached, and plunging the whole into water. In this w a y will be obtained a small magnet of considerable energy. English refined east steel, which tempers at a relatively low heat, appeared to me the most suitable for these experiments. I operated with advantage, as compared with other modes of magnetizing, upon bars 1"2 millimetres (0"4 in.) broad, 6 am. (0'2 in.) thick, and 17 centimetres (6'7 in.) long. I propose to follow up my experiments, and I believe that the simple fact of the magnetizing of steel before tempering it, is of a nature to interest those who occupy themselves in this branch of physical seienee.~Corr~ples Rendus de l'JYcademie des Scie~ces, (Pearls,) 29th 31arch, 1852. N o T £ . ~ I n Silli,ma~,'s Journal for 1839, Vol. x x x w . p. 335, will be found an interesting account by J. Lawrence Smith, of his experiments with the above process of magnetizing steel bars, in which he carried it further into successful praetiee than Mr. Hamann seems to have done, Something resembling it m u s t be also the method of Mr. Fabcr, by which the magnets ef his steam gauge are enabled to resist temperatures, at which the force of bars treated in 'the usual way, is altogether lost. It weuld be very desirable to have a detailed description of Mr. F.'s processes and experiments,
183
"i
For the Journal of the Franklin Institute.
On the Ielegraphw Lines of the World. By DR. L, TURN~'Lr.. rT
0
°
Continued from page 138. UNITED STATES.
Before concluding my list of the lines in the United States, I received the following interesting account~of the telegraph in Ohio, showing the rapid progress which ii is malting in tile West, for which account I am indebted to the politeness of J. tI. Wade, Esq., of the "Wade Telegraph Office," Columbus, Ohio. Miles. ('levcland and Cincimmti Telegraph Company, with two lines on separate routes, with an arm fi'om Newark to Zanesville, and another from Mansfield to Sandusky; length of line, . , . . . . Cinciimati and ,.~andusky Telegraph Company, line from Cincinnati to Sandusky, ~cioto Valley TeIcgraph Company, line fi'om Columbus to Portsmouth, Columbus and Lancaster Telegraph Company, line from Colmnbus to Lancaster, 25 miles, and an arm to Logansport, 15 miles, . . Pittsburg, Cincinnati, and Louisville 'lelegraph Company, fl.om Pittsburg to Louisville, two wires on same poles, 280 each, (in Ohio,) Cincinnati and St. Louis Telegraph Company, from Cincinnati to St. Louis, House Printing 'l?elegraph line, from Buflhlo to Cincinnati, . . I]rie and ?,{ichigan Telegraph Company, from BuflMo to Milwaukic, with two wires as tilt as Cleveland; length of wire in Ohio, . . . Lake Erie Telegraph Company, from Buffalo to Detroit, with branch to Pittsburg; length of wire in Ohio, . . . Cieveland, Wheeling, and Zanesville Telegraph Company, . Cleveland and Pittsburg Tele~aph Company; length of wire in Ohio, . New Orleans and Ohio Telegraph Company, from Pittsburg to New Orleans; length of wire in Ohio~ . . . . . . Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois Telegraph Company, from Cincinnati to Dayton and Chicago; length in Ohio, about . Line from Zancsville to Marietta, Total length of wire in Ohio,
610 218 90 40 560 50 325 260 28~ 225 90 260 100 66 3210
CANADA.
From O. S. Wood, Esq., Montreal Telegraph Company, I have received the list of the lines in Canada. Miles. The M:ontreal Telegraph Company's Line extends from Quebec to the Suspension ]3ridge at Niagara Falls; distance, . . • ]3ritish North American Electric Telegraph Association, from Quebec to New Brunswick fi'ontier; distance, . . . . The ~[outrcal and Troy Telegraph Company, fi'om Montreal to New York State line at Highgate; distance, . . . . . The Bytown and Montreal Telegraph Company, from Bytown to Montreal; distance, . . . . . The Western Telegraph Company, from Hamilton to Port Sarnia, at tim foot of Lake Huron; not now working; distance, . . Niagara and Chippewa Line, from Niagara to Chippewa; distance, . All the above lines have single wires. In course of construction, a line fi'om Brantford to Simcoe and Dover; distance, Also, a Iinc from Kingston to ttamilton, ";ia. Prince Edwards Co.; distance, Total length in Canada,
155 2~0 47 115 143 14 3.'1 256 983
&Iechanics, Physics, and C&misb'y.
18t
ENGLAND. The
English
t e l e g r a p h s c o m e n e x t in e x t e n t to t h o s e o f t h e U . S t a t e s ;
they were first established in 1845, and may be divided into two classes, the railway an d the commercial. The raihvay telegraphs are used for the purpose of sending communications relative to railway matters, while the commercial are employed for the transmission of public and private messages at fixed rates of charges. They are mostly built on the railroads, and m some instances a railroad company will construct a line, and give the use of it to a company, and as an equivalent, the telegraph lends its aid to expedite the business of the raih'oad. The telegraph company between London and Liverpool receives one thousand pounds a year for doing the business of the raih'oad company, and the railroad people afford them all the facilities tbr repaMng the line, even so Par as sending an extra engine, ,a,ithout charge, when there is not a regular train going out soon; and every man employed on the railroad is under instructions to report immediately to the nearest telegraph off%e, anything he may find to be out of order on the line. In fact, a line of telegraph is ahnost considered an indispensable part of the equipage of all well regulated roads in England. The instruments principally in use arc those of Messrs. Cook and Whcatsone, Jacob ];rett, and Brett and Little. There is a line of Bath's Electro-Chemical Telegraph fi'om London to Manchester, and fi'mrt Manchester to Liverpool. Also, a line of Bain's Electric Telegraph, connecting Edinburgh and Glasgow, a distance of 46 miles: the whole extent of telegraphic lines is estimated at 2225 miles. The principal ones are as follows: ]~NGLANI)~ SCOTLAND, AND IRELAND.
I extract fl'om lhe Manual of Mr. Walker, telegraphic engineer, a list of ttae linesof the Electric Telegraphs of England, fbr 1852. Miles. Wires. Apparatus. Edinburgh and Glasgow, l a n e of the Tunnel, . . Edinburgh aml the North 13ranch to Dundee, " " " Perth, Edinburgh and Granton, Line to ] , e i i h , Line of 'l'unncl, -North l}ritish, . J3ranch to Dalkeith, . " I-[addington, Li~w ,fft]~o Tunnel, . York, 2"Jew Ca.;tie, a~d l~erv,'ic],:. New Castle to Berwic];, York +,') ])arli,mlon, . Darli*~'4t,m to New Castle, ~Branch to Nhiehts, . "
~tllltl(~l'la
li
])tll'lltlelll~
.5
26
3
5
8 2 6 0 3 3 2 8
1:'5
g 2
2
6 3 J~
58
•
3 3 3
Gs½
5
45
7
as½
s 3
!l
ll(l, •
" I~.ichmo,,d, Fatfield and South 8ifichls," Branch to ~tockton, Carried up,
47"
9
g
19 ,5 3t5
o
7 15 14 2 1 1
1 1
4
64
86
On l]~e Telegraphic Lines of the World.
185
Miles. Wives. Apparatus. Brought up, York and "North Midland. Normanton to York, Vork to Searborough, Branch to Han'owgatc, Hull and Selby, Hull and Bridlington, . . Normanlon to llle junction at Milford, Manchester and Leeds, Preston and \Vvre, . Liverpool and ~outhport, East Lancashire, 3~idland llailway. Birmingham and Gloucester, " " Derby, " " Derby, Derby and Lincoln, " Rugby, " Rugby, . Leicester am] }'eterborough, "
])elerboroug}l~
"
Petcrborough, D e r b y and Leeds, Branch to Shcll'leld, Leeds and ]3radtbrd, . " Bradford, . " Bradford line of Tunnel, Branch to Sldpton, London and Norlh \Vestern. London to ]3irmingham, " Birmingham, . . " Birmingham line of Tunnel, " :Birmingham Inclined Plane, East Junction to London, Birmingham and Manchester, 1)o. do. do. Junction to Ardwick, Manchester and Liverpool, Do. do. line of Tunnel, South Devon. Branch to Torquay, Newmarket t~.ailway, . Eastern Union, Line of the Tunnel, . London to Southampton, Do. do. Branch to Portsmouth, " Gosport, . Southampton and Dorchester, Branch to Poole, Eastern Counties. London to Bran(Ion, " Stratford, . Line to Brick l~ane, Branch to Eniield, " Hertford, Cambridge and St. Ives, Ely mad Pcterborough, March and \~/isbeaeh, London and Colchester, Carried over,
345
64
86
24½ 42~
0 3
5 5
18 36 33 10 51 20
3 5 3 2 7 I 3
~a~ 12½
3 3
53 6,i
7
9
7
6
5 3
0 4
34~ 4S~ 24½ ,
24~
'23 25¼ 73 5 11
2 5 4 2 24 4
3 o
7
7
5 3 5
0 0
7
11 0
7 3 6 3 2 3
25 2 5 0 2 5
9 7
0 10
t
3
2
1~ 80
6 2 7
6 4 7
5
8
0
31½ 1½
6 2
5 3
4
3
2
17
~6~
5 5
7
74
4
4
6 22 5 62 2
6 4 4 3 3
2 4 1 7 2
ss3
7
40
z~
2
4
3}
2
2
7
3
3
14~
3
5
30 9
5 3
7 2
51~
5
13
298
368
15-I5 107~
16~I~
16,
,Mechanics, _Physics, and Chemistry.
186
Miles. Wires. Apparatus" Brought over, Forestgate and Stratford, Malden and Braintree, • • ~trattbrd and .lunction of the Thames, North Woohvich, Norfolk Railway. Brandon to Norwich, 19o. do. Norwich and Varmmlth, Branch to f,ow(:~toti, ~i
2L)(?I,(!~I fl ii1 i
Dercham and Fakeaha'.n, 2North 8tatlbrdshire. Stoke to Norton Bridge, Branch to Colwich, ~toke to llurton, " " I](p0t, North Sta ffordshirc. Stoke to Crcwe, Harecastlc lAue of the Tunnel, Branch to Macelesfield, Valley of Chnrnet, Soutl, Stattbrdshirc, Do. do, . Northampton find Peterborough, Northampton prolongated to \Volverton, London and Croydon, Great ~,~restern, . Line of lhe Streets of l,ondon, . Manchester and Shell~.ehl, . Manchester Lhle of thc Tunnel of ~.Voodb.ead, Ambergate, 31atlock, and Buxton, London and Blaekwall, Line of Cahlon 1,ow Quarr*, Mir, es of the coal of Moira, Maryport and Whitehaven Line of the Company of Don Mines of Buttcrley, South Eastern. London to Dover, . " Rochester, " BrieMayer's Arms, . Tunbridgc to Tunbrldge Wells, " Hastings Road, " Imboratory, • Paddock Wood to 3Iaidstone, Ashibrd to Ramsgate,~ Minster to Deal, Ramsgate to Margatc, Total,
1641¼
298
368
1:~
1
2
12
3
3
~
3
2
37~ lo~
7 1
1~ 7
20 12 12
9 5 3
0 0 2
1()~ ls~
a u
a
29}
3
5
2
2
14,-} 1
3 2
4 2
27
2
0
1,a½ 9¼
a
4
~
a
2 47
3 3
1 10
lo½
4
'2
8 19
3 4
4
variable,
10
2
3
3
l~} a,~ at½ ½ g,~
,2 o l o 4 1
3 0 4 g 4 g
88 31 4 5 1 0 10 30 9 . 4
0 4 2 3 2 1 a 3 3 3
:~9 1S 2 fi 2 2 5 5 6
420
558
2190~
'['heir m o d e of construction in England is very expensiv% amounting in
some cases to 8600 per mile. Posts of fir are ranged at convenient distances ahmg the side of the principal railways; each post is furnished with an insulator of earth enware, and also capped with a wooden roof havino" drinnin¢ 1
o
"vVheatstonCs instruments. The press of' England ~lse the telegraph hut littl% and pay heavily for what they get by it, rite London ~mes p a y s one thousand pounds
On the TelegraphicLines of the World.
18/
per annum for a certain amount daily, and in addition~ they pay for all extra communications of importance. The charge for transmis. sion of communications by the Electric Telegraph Company's telegraphs in England, is at the rate of one penny per mile for the first fifty miles, and one farthing per mile for any distance beyond one hundred miles. The Sottth Eastern Railway Company's charges for telegra!)hic eommuintentions are even much higher than those of the former. Ihus, twenty words transmitted eighty-eight miles is charged the large sum of $2'42. These i~ets show that telegraph companies, as well as the public at large, would derive much greater advantages fi'om their construction on a more economical plan, like that of the American system. In many parts of the United States where railways do not exist, the wires are stretched across the prairies without any protection whatever, except the general good will of the people at large. The cheap construction of these lines renders them liable to frequent disorder, and consequently needing continual repair, so that perhaps it might have been more economical to have expended more in the commencement. Its advantages are, however, abundantly proved, as the poorest person in the U. States or Canada, is enabled by the low rate of charges to use any of the telegraphs for domestic purposes. A message of twenty words can be sent a distance of 500 miles in the United States for 81, while in England the same would cost from 87 to 88. ,%b-;~larine Telegraph, 1852.--A London letter under date of June 4th, says: Tile chief event of the week has been the laying down of the submarine telegraph between the coasts of England and Ireland, a distance of 64 miles. On the 2(1 instant, at 4 o'clock in the morning, the operation commenced by the departure of a steamer from Holyhead, and at half past eight in the evening a gun was fired at Dublin by means of the electric wire. The process has been an inexpensive one~ and will probably prove remunerative, and lead to the establishment of many other lines. Among these, one of the first will be from the port of I,iarwich, on the east coast of England, to Holland, a concession for that purpose having lately been granted by the Dutch Government. A similar communication with Belgium, between Dover and Ostend, is also contemplated. These enterprises will all be carried out by separate interests. The company that first established the practicability of such a method of ocean communication, by laying down the wire between England and France, might have secured all the advantages of the extension of the principle, but their Board of Directors have been incessantly quarrelling among themselves, and have consequently brought their o~n shares to a discount. In June, 185~, the telegraph between Dover and Ostend was completed; it is seventy English miles long. Telegraph Extensions, June 27.~Private letters received per Atlantic .~tate that F. N. Gisborne, Esq., the agent of the Newfoundland Electric Telegraph Company, has contracted in England for the land wire, through Newfoundland, upon very favorable terms. Mr. Gisborne has also entered into contracts for the sub-marine line, eonnectin,g Newfoundland with Nova Scotia, upon terms much less than estimated. Messrs.Newall & Co. of London, the contractors for the submarine, have also entered into contract to lay down a line from the Hague to Harwieh, a distance
,~lechanics, Physics, and Chemidry.
188
of 135 miles, and are now negotiating with the French Government for a line fl'om France to Algiers; a stretch of 400. IRh;LAN.D.
An Irish Sub-marine I,ine Telegraph, between Fort Patrick and Donoughadee, was to be opened on tile 10th of June. A lille of telegraph has been opened between Dublin and Galway, and was in operation in June, 1852. PacrssI,~. The Prussian Telegraph system is characterized as simple, substantia], eft~clive and economical. A Royal Commission was appoi.uted in 184~, to ascertain the best method of constructing lines; lhe)', af'ter expcrhn(mt, (lct/'rlnined on that of copper wire enclosed in g,ltta pereha, and buried two feet beneath the surthce; they are generally made to tbllow the truck of railways, and in passing over bridges or mlued uets, are enclosed in iron piping, or when through rivers in chain pipes. They use but one wire, which terminates in an earth battery, consisting of a zinc plate 6 fe.et long, 2.~- feet wide, and ½-th of an inch in thickness. The instruments used are those of Morse, Siemens, Halske~ and Kramer, togelher with Daniel's battery. In the principal offices, a printing and a con loquial instrument are employed, but each in turn is worked bythe one wire only, notice being given that one or the other is to be used, according to circumstances. Morse's is the printing telegraph used, and diftbrs but very little from that used in llle U. States. Those of Siemens and Kramer are both colloquial telegraphs, but Siemens' is chiefly used. The whole cast, as determined from detailed estimates, is less than 8'200 per English mile. Besides the government lines of telegraph, most of the raihvay companies irl Prussia, have also tbeir own telegraphs, which are constructed according to the system in Ibis country by one wire suspended on poles along the railways. The average cost of this form of telegraph is about 8100 per mile; their whole length is estimated at 1493 miles, having their central point at Berlin, from whenee they radiate as follows: Instruments used.
Stations and points passed through.
Distance in miles. Siemens and Halske's Patent, From Berlin to Frankfort on the Main, established in February, 1849, . . . . . . 13.50 Kramer's Bell Telegraph, From Berlin throug[~ Cologne to Aehen, established ia June, 1 S 4 9 , . . . . . . 362 Stations are Potsdam, Magdebnrgh, Ochsertleben, ]lrunswick, tIanover, Minder, Haurm, Dusseldorf, Deutz, Cologne. Seimens and IIalske's Patent, From Dussehtorf to Elberfeld, . 16 Morse's Apparatus, From Berlin through Minder to Rolu, S1 Siemens and Halske's, . . . . to ]lamlmrgh, 142 " " " " Stettin, . . . . . 62 " " " " through to Oderburgh to Breslau, . 280 " " " Halle to Leipzie, 17 . . . . . ' Lcipzic to Berlin . . . . . 115 " " " Leipzie to Franklbrt on thc Main, 2t34 Siemens' Telegraph, " Berlin to Gross Bercen . . . . A contemplated one from Berlin to Konigsberg to Dantzle. Morse Instrument, From ttamburgh to Cuxhaven, . 80
The Prussian method of burying the wires beneath the surface, protects
On the Telegraphic Lines of the Worl&
189
them fi'om destruction by malice, and makes them less liable to injury by lightning. AvsTala. The Austrian Telegraphs diverge from Vienna, in the following manner: 1, From Vienna through Olmutz to Prague, 237 miles. 2, " " " Bumn " 211 " 3, " " toPressburgh, 35 " 4, ': " through Prevau to Oberberg, 140 " 5, " " " Bruek, Cilli, Layback to Trinte, 2S4 " 6, " ,c " Lintz to Saltzburg, 156 " 7, " Prague to tile boundary of Saxony, to connect with file line fl'om Dresden, is nearly complete as far as the boundary of Bohemia, on which Storer's apparatus will be used; on the other a modification of ~forse's by Robinson, printing about 600 words per hour; also, a modification of Bain's needle telegraph, by Ekling, of Vienna, containing an arrangement of 45 needles, averaging about 190 words of six letters each per hour. The Austrians have mlopted this system of correspondence, mostly since 1847; their network of telegraphs extends over a space of more than 1053 miles, having 106 stations, which will be increased to 200 stations, if the present projected lines are constructed. The line "1 W has a connexion with the Bavarian one fi'om from Liutz to Saltzber~,, M,mich to the latter place, and makes use of Stochriss' instrument. A line between Venice and Milan with its branches is already commenced. BAVAI~IA. Saxony and Bavaria have government lines which connect with the Prussian and Austrian lines, and establ sh a communication with Berlin, J)resden, 5,Iunich, and Vienna. Nearly all the railroad companies have private lines for their own use, and preparations are now making, which in no distant fllture will include every town of importance throughottt Germany in this network of communication. Those of Saxony extend over P65 miles, the principal of which are annexed: From Leipzig to Holt; 94 miles; from Leipzig to Dresden, 62 miles; Dresden to Konigstien, 15 miles; Dresden to the boundary of Bohemia; Dresden to HotI; 94 miles. Stoehriss' needle instrument is principally used in this country; likewise, in Bavaria his bell apparatus. The extent of lines in the latter" country is about 455 miles. From l\funich to Salzburg, 74 miies, connecting with the Austrian lines of Ling and Vienna; from Munich through Augsburgh to Hoff, 226 miles, connecting with the line to Dresden in Saxony; from Munich to Augsburg, 31 miles; one under construction from Augsburg, through Nuremburgh and Bamburgh to ttoff~ from Bamburgh to Wurzburg, Aschappeuburg, and Frankfort, 125 miles under eonstruetion. SAXONY .AND
TUSCANY.
The lines in Tuscany number 120 Italian miles, commenced in 1847, nnder the direction of Matteucci; they also follow the railroad. From Florence to Livourne; from Etnpoli to Sienne; from Pisa to Lucca, and t?om Florence to Patro; which makes in all, 120 Italian miles, or nearly
190
Jlfechay~ics, P@sics, and Cl~emisfry.
60 leagues. The total length of the wires is 121 leagues, weghing 70,000 pounds; 2488 posts. The expense of placing the wire which cost at first 400 pounds per mile, is reduced to 30 or 40 fi'ancs at present, that the wires are placed by the guardians of ltle telegraph. The telegraphic apt)aratus is furnished in part by M. Brequet, and part by the constructor of the University, M. Piemeei; a complete apparatus costs 600 livres. The following is a table of necessary expense for the establishment of the Tuscan lines:~ Iron Wire, Posts ol'l[r tree, Tenders, Pore¢~laln shield, \Yoodcn box, I~'arnimre, and supplies of the ofllce, . Laying of copper wire, varnish, . Machines arm piles, . . . Timber, cost of posts, administration, studies, and superintendance of the work, .
.
•
Total,
Livres. 23,348 °1,426 %347 2,627 1,'772 8,18:3 5,314 26,043
Sous. 8 1::1 4 13 t3 4 18 S 13 4 17
3,443
3
95,507
tO
4
GERS~ANY. The telegraph lines of Germany have chiefly been established within the last three years. Gauss and Weber at Gottingen, and Steinhiel at Munich, had short lines of telegraph, in 1834 and 1837; but the railroad companies were the first to make a proper appreciation of them, and establish lines tbr their own benefit. The first great line along the railway Item Nentz to t"rankfi~rt, was erected by Fardly, a mechanician of Manheim, with Wheatstone's index apparatus. It was this line that aroused the attention of the Prussian Government, and caused the appointment of a committee to experiment on the matter. No. 781 of the London ~l;~nir~gJournal for 1850, states that 2000 miles of telegraph are already open in Germany, and that 1000 more will he added in 1851; it works now from Cracow to Trieste, a distance of 700 miles, and a general union of the Austrian, Prussian, Saxon, and Bavarian lines was soon expected, with a tariff of charges nearly as low as that of the United States. (To be Cm~tlnued.)
Ex2lanalio~ of Diagrams lll,slralb~g lhe Mclion of the t'orces on lhe Cra~k ¢ja Steam E~gine. By W. POLE, C. E.* (With a Plate.) ['In the year 1849, the Soeiety of Arts offered a prize "for the best collection of diagrams (with exphmations,) to illustrate the action of the torees on a crank or cranks turned from a horizontal direct action steam cylinder or cylinders; the effect of various proportions of eolmeeting rods, and degrees of expansiofl of steam, being shown." The present paper was communicated to the Society in accordance with their invitation, and obtained the silver Isis medal. It is now first printed by the joint permission of the Society and the author.]
The 15 diagrams contained in plate II, illustrate the action of the forces From the London Journal of Arts and Sciences, April, 1852.
.~lecha~tics, Ph~lsics~ and Chemist~'y. OF T~IE KELL.
The keel is lhat part of a boat or ship, which is situated at the bottom on the outside, anti extends in a direct line fi'om the cut-water at the head, to the post at the stern, descending perpendicularly down below the hull to the depth of several inches or feet according to the size of the vessel. Its uses are, tirst, to cause the floating body, say of a ship, to preserve a direct course in its passage through the water; second, to act as a check to lee-way; third, to moderate the rolling motion. Ships lbrmed with flat bottoms, and particularly if they be constructed with parallel sides, require little depth of keel to preserve a direct course; and in order to cheek the lee-way, a substitute tbr a keel is applied in the fi~rm of a sliding keel, suspended over the lee side, as seen in barges. But when the bottoms of vessels are not flat, or do not draw the same depth of water at the head and stern, particularly the latter, the keel becomes more essential, or the ship will have~a rotary motion and he under no command. With regard to the depths of keels, it will be needless to repeat what has already been given in the experiments, fi'Oln 48 to 58, Chapter XI. (To be Continued.)
Translated for the Journal of the Franklin Institute.
jVew ~']Iet]~odof J]laglzetizb~g Steel.
Letter of 5Ira Ha~t.~.x.-,'.
While studying t,he construction of electro-magnetic apparatus, I looked for the means of making very energetic magnets. I have discovered a new method of magnetizing steel dry-tempered, which is in some degree the opposite of the ordinary method. I magnetize first and temper alterwards. I cause a magnet or an electric current to act on the steel heated to redness, and I temper it while in this condition. The experiment is very simple; by taking a small bar of steel of 3 millimetres square by 6 eentimetres long, (0'1 in. by 2~ inches~) heated to redness with the pole or between tim poles of a magnet, to which at a certain temperature it will remain attached, and plunging the whole into water. In this w a y will be obtained a small magnet of considerable energy. English refined east steel, which tempers at a relatively low heat, appeared to me the most suitable for these experiments. I operated with advantage, as compared with other modes of magnetizing, upon bars 1"2 millimetres (0"4 in.) broad, 6 am. (0'2 in.) thick, and 17 centimetres (6'7 in.) long. I propose to follow up my experiments, and I believe that the simple fact of the magnetizing of steel before tempering it, is of a nature to interest those who occupy themselves in this branch of physical seienee.~Corr~ples Rendus de l'JYcademie des Scie~ces, (Pearls,) 29th 31arch, 1852. N o T £ . ~ I n Silli,ma~,'s Journal for 1839, Vol. x x x w . p. 335, will be found an interesting account by J. Lawrence Smith, of his experiments with the above process of magnetizing steel bars, in which he carried it further into successful praetiee than Mr. Hamann seems to have done, Something resembling it m u s t be also the method of Mr. Fabcr, by which the magnets ef his steam gauge are enabled to resist temperatures, at which the force of bars treated in 'the usual way, is altogether lost. It weuld be very desirable to have a detailed description of Mr. F.'s processes and experiments,
183
"i
For the Journal of the Franklin Institute.
On the Ielegraphw Lines of the World. By DR. L, TURN~'Lr.. rT
0
°
Continued from page 138. UNITED STATES.
Before concluding my list of the lines in the United States, I received the following interesting account~of the telegraph in Ohio, showing the rapid progress which ii is malting in tile West, for which account I am indebted to the politeness of J. tI. Wade, Esq., of the "Wade Telegraph Office," Columbus, Ohio. Miles. ('levcland and Cincimmti Telegraph Company, with two lines on separate routes, with an arm fi'om Newark to Zanesville, and another from Mansfield to Sandusky; length of line, . , . . . . Cinciimati and ,.~andusky Telegraph Company, line from Cincinnati to Sandusky, ~cioto Valley TeIcgraph Company, line fi'om Columbus to Portsmouth, Columbus and Lancaster Telegraph Company, line from Colmnbus to Lancaster, 25 miles, and an arm to Logansport, 15 miles, . . Pittsburg, Cincinnati, and Louisville 'lelegraph Company, fl.om Pittsburg to Louisville, two wires on same poles, 280 each, (in Ohio,) Cincinnati and St. Louis Telegraph Company, from Cincinnati to St. Louis, House Printing 'l?elegraph line, from Buflhlo to Cincinnati, . . I]rie and ?,{ichigan Telegraph Company, from BuflMo to Milwaukic, with two wires as tilt as Cleveland; length of wire in Ohio, . . . Lake Erie Telegraph Company, from Buffalo to Detroit, with branch to Pittsburg; length of wire in Ohio, . . . Cieveland, Wheeling, and Zanesville Telegraph Company, . Cleveland and Pittsburg Tele~aph Company; length of wire in Ohio, . New Orleans and Ohio Telegraph Company, from Pittsburg to New Orleans; length of wire in Ohio~ . . . . . . Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois Telegraph Company, from Cincinnati to Dayton and Chicago; length in Ohio, about . Line from Zancsville to Marietta, Total length of wire in Ohio,
610 218 90 40 560 50 325 260 28~ 225 90 260 100 66 3210
CANADA.
From O. S. Wood, Esq., Montreal Telegraph Company, I have received the list of the lines in Canada. Miles. The M:ontreal Telegraph Company's Line extends from Quebec to the Suspension ]3ridge at Niagara Falls; distance, . . • ]3ritish North American Electric Telegraph Association, from Quebec to New Brunswick fi'ontier; distance, . . . . The ~[outrcal and Troy Telegraph Company, fi'om Montreal to New York State line at Highgate; distance, . . . . . The Bytown and Montreal Telegraph Company, from Bytown to Montreal; distance, . . . . . The Western Telegraph Company, from Hamilton to Port Sarnia, at tim foot of Lake Huron; not now working; distance, . . Niagara and Chippewa Line, from Niagara to Chippewa; distance, . All the above lines have single wires. In course of construction, a line fi'om Brantford to Simcoe and Dover; distance, Also, a Iinc from Kingston to ttamilton, ";ia. Prince Edwards Co.; distance, Total length in Canada,
155 2~0 47 115 143 14 3.'1 256 983
&Iechanics, Physics, and C&misb'y.
18t
ENGLAND. The
English
t e l e g r a p h s c o m e n e x t in e x t e n t to t h o s e o f t h e U . S t a t e s ;
they were first established in 1845, and may be divided into two classes, the railway an d the commercial. The raihvay telegraphs are used for the purpose of sending communications relative to railway matters, while the commercial are employed for the transmission of public and private messages at fixed rates of charges. They are mostly built on the railroads, and m some instances a railroad company will construct a line, and give the use of it to a company, and as an equivalent, the telegraph lends its aid to expedite the business of the raih'oad. The telegraph company between London and Liverpool receives one thousand pounds a year for doing the business of the raih'oad company, and the railroad people afford them all the facilities tbr repaMng the line, even so Par as sending an extra engine, ,a,ithout charge, when there is not a regular train going out soon; and every man employed on the railroad is under instructions to report immediately to the nearest telegraph off%e, anything he may find to be out of order on the line. In fact, a line of telegraph is ahnost considered an indispensable part of the equipage of all well regulated roads in England. The instruments principally in use arc those of Messrs. Cook and Whcatsone, Jacob ];rett, and Brett and Little. There is a line of Bath's Electro-Chemical Telegraph fi'om London to Manchester, and fi'mrt Manchester to Liverpool. Also, a line of Bain's Electric Telegraph, connecting Edinburgh and Glasgow, a distance of 46 miles: the whole extent of telegraphic lines is estimated at 2225 miles. The principal ones are as follows: ]~NGLANI)~ SCOTLAND, AND IRELAND.
I extract fl'om lhe Manual of Mr. Walker, telegraphic engineer, a list of ttae linesof the Electric Telegraphs of England, fbr 1852. Miles. Wires. Apparatus. Edinburgh and Glasgow, l a n e of the Tunnel, . . Edinburgh aml the North 13ranch to Dundee, " " " Perth, Edinburgh and Granton, Line to ] , e i i h , Line of 'l'unncl, -North l}ritish, . J3ranch to Dalkeith, . " I-[addington, Li~w ,fft]~o Tunnel, . York, 2"Jew Ca.;tie, a~d l~erv,'ic],:. New Castle to Berwic];, York +,') ])arli,mlon, . Darli*~'4t,m to New Castle, ~Branch to Nhiehts, . "
~tllltl(~l'la
li
])tll'lltlelll~
.5
26
3
5
8 2 6 0 3 3 2 8
1:'5
g 2
2
6 3 J~
58
•
3 3 3
Gs½
5
45
7
as½
s 3
!l
ll(l, •
" I~.ichmo,,d, Fatfield and South 8ifichls," Branch to ~tockton, Carried up,
47"
9
g
19 ,5 3t5
o
7 15 14 2 1 1
1 1
4
64
86
On l]~e Telegraphic Lines of the World.
185
Miles. Wives. Apparatus. Brought up, York and "North Midland. Normanton to York, Vork to Searborough, Branch to Han'owgatc, Hull and Selby, Hull and Bridlington, . . Normanlon to llle junction at Milford, Manchester and Leeds, Preston and \Vvre, . Liverpool and ~outhport, East Lancashire, 3~idland llailway. Birmingham and Gloucester, " " Derby, " " Derby, Derby and Lincoln, " Rugby, " Rugby, . Leicester am] }'eterborough, "
])elerboroug}l~
"
Petcrborough, D e r b y and Leeds, Branch to Shcll'leld, Leeds and ]3radtbrd, . " Bradford, . " Bradford line of Tunnel, Branch to Sldpton, London and Norlh \Vestern. London to ]3irmingham, " Birmingham, . . " Birmingham line of Tunnel, " :Birmingham Inclined Plane, East Junction to London, Birmingham and Manchester, 1)o. do. do. Junction to Ardwick, Manchester and Liverpool, Do. do. line of Tunnel, South Devon. Branch to Torquay, Newmarket t~.ailway, . Eastern Union, Line of the Tunnel, . London to Southampton, Do. do. Branch to Portsmouth, " Gosport, . Southampton and Dorchester, Branch to Poole, Eastern Counties. London to Bran(Ion, " Stratford, . Line to Brick l~ane, Branch to Eniield, " Hertford, Cambridge and St. Ives, Ely mad Pcterborough, March and \~/isbeaeh, London and Colchester, Carried over,
345
64
86
24½ 42~
0 3
5 5
18 36 33 10 51 20
3 5 3 2 7 I 3
~a~ 12½
3 3
53 6,i
7
9
7
6
5 3
0 4
34~ 4S~ 24½ ,
24~
'23 25¼ 73 5 11
2 5 4 2 24 4
3 o
7
7
5 3 5
0 0
7
11 0
7 3 6 3 2 3
25 2 5 0 2 5
9 7
0 10
t
3
2
1~ 80
6 2 7
6 4 7
5
8
0
31½ 1½
6 2
5 3
4
3
2
17
~6~
5 5
7
74
4
4
6 22 5 62 2
6 4 4 3 3
2 4 1 7 2
ss3
7
40
z~
2
4
3}
2
2
7
3
3
14~
3
5
30 9
5 3
7 2
51~
5
13
298
368
15-I5 107~
16~I~
16,
,Mechanics, _Physics, and Chemistry.
186
Miles. Wires. Apparatus" Brought over, Forestgate and Stratford, Malden and Braintree, • • ~trattbrd and .lunction of the Thames, North Woohvich, Norfolk Railway. Brandon to Norwich, 19o. do. Norwich and Varmmlth, Branch to f,ow(:~toti, ~i
2L)(?I,(!~I fl ii1 i
Dercham and Fakeaha'.n, 2North 8tatlbrdshire. Stoke to Norton Bridge, Branch to Colwich, ~toke to llurton, " " I](p0t, North Sta ffordshirc. Stoke to Crcwe, Harecastlc lAue of the Tunnel, Branch to Macelesfield, Valley of Chnrnet, Soutl, Stattbrdshirc, Do. do, . Northampton find Peterborough, Northampton prolongated to \Volverton, London and Croydon, Great ~,~restern, . Line of lhe Streets of l,ondon, . Manchester and Shell~.ehl, . Manchester Lhle of thc Tunnel of ~.Voodb.ead, Ambergate, 31atlock, and Buxton, London and Blaekwall, Line of Cahlon 1,ow Quarr*, Mir, es of the coal of Moira, Maryport and Whitehaven Line of the Company of Don Mines of Buttcrley, South Eastern. London to Dover, . " Rochester, " BrieMayer's Arms, . Tunbridgc to Tunbrldge Wells, " Hastings Road, " Imboratory, • Paddock Wood to 3Iaidstone, Ashibrd to Ramsgate,~ Minster to Deal, Ramsgate to Margatc, Total,
1641¼
298
368
1:~
1
2
12
3
3
~
3
2
37~ lo~
7 1
1~ 7
20 12 12
9 5 3
0 0 2
1()~ ls~
a u
a
29}
3
5
2
2
14,-} 1
3 2
4 2
27
2
0
1,a½ 9¼
a
4
~
a
2 47
3 3
1 10
lo½
4
'2
8 19
3 4
4
variable,
10
2
3
3
l~} a,~ at½ ½ g,~
,2 o l o 4 1
3 0 4 g 4 g
88 31 4 5 1 0 10 30 9 . 4
0 4 2 3 2 1 a 3 3 3
:~9 1S 2 fi 2 2 5 5 6
420
558
2190~
'['heir m o d e of construction in England is very expensiv% amounting in
some cases to 8600 per mile. Posts of fir are ranged at convenient distances ahmg the side of the principal railways; each post is furnished with an insulator of earth enware, and also capped with a wooden roof havino" drinnin¢ 1
o
"vVheatstonCs instruments. The press of' England ~lse the telegraph hut littl% and pay heavily for what they get by it, rite London ~mes p a y s one thousand pounds
On the TelegraphicLines of the World.
18/
per annum for a certain amount daily, and in addition~ they pay for all extra communications of importance. The charge for transmis. sion of communications by the Electric Telegraph Company's telegraphs in England, is at the rate of one penny per mile for the first fifty miles, and one farthing per mile for any distance beyond one hundred miles. The Sottth Eastern Railway Company's charges for telegra!)hic eommuintentions are even much higher than those of the former. Ihus, twenty words transmitted eighty-eight miles is charged the large sum of $2'42. These i~ets show that telegraph companies, as well as the public at large, would derive much greater advantages fi'om their construction on a more economical plan, like that of the American system. In many parts of the United States where railways do not exist, the wires are stretched across the prairies without any protection whatever, except the general good will of the people at large. The cheap construction of these lines renders them liable to frequent disorder, and consequently needing continual repair, so that perhaps it might have been more economical to have expended more in the commencement. Its advantages are, however, abundantly proved, as the poorest person in the U. States or Canada, is enabled by the low rate of charges to use any of the telegraphs for domestic purposes. A message of twenty words can be sent a distance of 500 miles in the United States for 81, while in England the same would cost from 87 to 88. ,%b-;~larine Telegraph, 1852.--A London letter under date of June 4th, says: Tile chief event of the week has been the laying down of the submarine telegraph between the coasts of England and Ireland, a distance of 64 miles. On the 2(1 instant, at 4 o'clock in the morning, the operation commenced by the departure of a steamer from Holyhead, and at half past eight in the evening a gun was fired at Dublin by means of the electric wire. The process has been an inexpensive one~ and will probably prove remunerative, and lead to the establishment of many other lines. Among these, one of the first will be from the port of I,iarwich, on the east coast of England, to Holland, a concession for that purpose having lately been granted by the Dutch Government. A similar communication with Belgium, between Dover and Ostend, is also contemplated. These enterprises will all be carried out by separate interests. The company that first established the practicability of such a method of ocean communication, by laying down the wire between England and France, might have secured all the advantages of the extension of the principle, but their Board of Directors have been incessantly quarrelling among themselves, and have consequently brought their o~n shares to a discount. In June, 185~, the telegraph between Dover and Ostend was completed; it is seventy English miles long. Telegraph Extensions, June 27.~Private letters received per Atlantic .~tate that F. N. Gisborne, Esq., the agent of the Newfoundland Electric Telegraph Company, has contracted in England for the land wire, through Newfoundland, upon very favorable terms. Mr. Gisborne has also entered into contracts for the sub-marine line, eonnectin,g Newfoundland with Nova Scotia, upon terms much less than estimated. Messrs.Newall & Co. of London, the contractors for the submarine, have also entered into contract to lay down a line from the Hague to Harwieh, a distance
,~lechanics, Physics, and Chemidry.
188
of 135 miles, and are now negotiating with the French Government for a line fl'om France to Algiers; a stretch of 400. IRh;LAN.D.
An Irish Sub-marine I,ine Telegraph, between Fort Patrick and Donoughadee, was to be opened on tile 10th of June. A lille of telegraph has been opened between Dublin and Galway, and was in operation in June, 1852. PacrssI,~. The Prussian Telegraph system is characterized as simple, substantia], eft~clive and economical. A Royal Commission was appoi.uted in 184~, to ascertain the best method of constructing lines; lhe)', af'ter expcrhn(mt, (lct/'rlnined on that of copper wire enclosed in g,ltta pereha, and buried two feet beneath the surthce; they are generally made to tbllow the truck of railways, and in passing over bridges or mlued uets, are enclosed in iron piping, or when through rivers in chain pipes. They use but one wire, which terminates in an earth battery, consisting of a zinc plate 6 fe.et long, 2.~- feet wide, and ½-th of an inch in thickness. The instruments used are those of Morse, Siemens, Halske~ and Kramer, togelher with Daniel's battery. In the principal offices, a printing and a con loquial instrument are employed, but each in turn is worked bythe one wire only, notice being given that one or the other is to be used, according to circumstances. Morse's is the printing telegraph used, and diftbrs but very little from that used in llle U. States. Those of Siemens and Kramer are both colloquial telegraphs, but Siemens' is chiefly used. The whole cast, as determined from detailed estimates, is less than 8'200 per English mile. Besides the government lines of telegraph, most of the raihvay companies irl Prussia, have also tbeir own telegraphs, which are constructed according to the system in Ibis country by one wire suspended on poles along the railways. The average cost of this form of telegraph is about 8100 per mile; their whole length is estimated at 1493 miles, having their central point at Berlin, from whenee they radiate as follows: Instruments used.
Stations and points passed through.
Distance in miles. Siemens and Halske's Patent, From Berlin to Frankfort on the Main, established in February, 1849, . . . . . . 13.50 Kramer's Bell Telegraph, From Berlin throug[~ Cologne to Aehen, established ia June, 1 S 4 9 , . . . . . . 362 Stations are Potsdam, Magdebnrgh, Ochsertleben, ]lrunswick, tIanover, Minder, Haurm, Dusseldorf, Deutz, Cologne. Seimens and IIalske's Patent, From Dussehtorf to Elberfeld, . 16 Morse's Apparatus, From Berlin through Minder to Rolu, S1 Siemens and Halske's, . . . . to ]lamlmrgh, 142 " " " " Stettin, . . . . . 62 " " " " through to Oderburgh to Breslau, . 280 " " " Halle to Leipzie, 17 . . . . . ' Lcipzic to Berlin . . . . . 115 " " " Leipzie to Franklbrt on thc Main, 2t34 Siemens' Telegraph, " Berlin to Gross Bercen . . . . A contemplated one from Berlin to Konigsberg to Dantzle. Morse Instrument, From ttamburgh to Cuxhaven, . 80
The Prussian method of burying the wires beneath the surface, protects
On the Telegraphic Lines of the Worl&
189
them fi'om destruction by malice, and makes them less liable to injury by lightning. AvsTala. The Austrian Telegraphs diverge from Vienna, in the following manner: 1, From Vienna through Olmutz to Prague, 237 miles. 2, " " " Bumn " 211 " 3, " " toPressburgh, 35 " 4, ': " through Prevau to Oberberg, 140 " 5, " " " Bruek, Cilli, Layback to Trinte, 2S4 " 6, " ,c " Lintz to Saltzburg, 156 " 7, " Prague to tile boundary of Saxony, to connect with file line fl'om Dresden, is nearly complete as far as the boundary of Bohemia, on which Storer's apparatus will be used; on the other a modification of ~forse's by Robinson, printing about 600 words per hour; also, a modification of Bain's needle telegraph, by Ekling, of Vienna, containing an arrangement of 45 needles, averaging about 190 words of six letters each per hour. The Austrians have mlopted this system of correspondence, mostly since 1847; their network of telegraphs extends over a space of more than 1053 miles, having 106 stations, which will be increased to 200 stations, if the present projected lines are constructed. The line "1 W has a connexion with the Bavarian one fi'om from Liutz to Saltzber~,, M,mich to the latter place, and makes use of Stochriss' instrument. A line between Venice and Milan with its branches is already commenced. BAVAI~IA. Saxony and Bavaria have government lines which connect with the Prussian and Austrian lines, and establ sh a communication with Berlin, J)resden, 5,Iunich, and Vienna. Nearly all the railroad companies have private lines for their own use, and preparations are now making, which in no distant fllture will include every town of importance throughottt Germany in this network of communication. Those of Saxony extend over P65 miles, the principal of which are annexed: From Leipzig to Holt; 94 miles; from Leipzig to Dresden, 62 miles; Dresden to Konigstien, 15 miles; Dresden to the boundary of Bohemia; Dresden to HotI; 94 miles. Stoehriss' needle instrument is principally used in this country; likewise, in Bavaria his bell apparatus. The extent of lines in the latter" country is about 455 miles. From l\funich to Salzburg, 74 miies, connecting with the Austrian lines of Ling and Vienna; from Munich through Augsburgh to Hoff, 226 miles, connecting with the line to Dresden in Saxony; from Munich to Augsburg, 31 miles; one under construction from Augsburg, through Nuremburgh and Bamburgh to ttoff~ from Bamburgh to Wurzburg, Aschappeuburg, and Frankfort, 125 miles under eonstruetion. SAXONY .AND
TUSCANY.
The lines in Tuscany number 120 Italian miles, commenced in 1847, nnder the direction of Matteucci; they also follow the railroad. From Florence to Livourne; from Etnpoli to Sienne; from Pisa to Lucca, and t?om Florence to Patro; which makes in all, 120 Italian miles, or nearly
190
Jlfechay~ics, P@sics, and Cl~emisfry.
60 leagues. The total length of the wires is 121 leagues, weghing 70,000 pounds; 2488 posts. The expense of placing the wire which cost at first 400 pounds per mile, is reduced to 30 or 40 fi'ancs at present, that the wires are placed by the guardians of ltle telegraph. The telegraphic apt)aratus is furnished in part by M. Brequet, and part by the constructor of the University, M. Piemeei; a complete apparatus costs 600 livres. The following is a table of necessary expense for the establishment of the Tuscan lines:~ Iron Wire, Posts ol'l[r tree, Tenders, Pore¢~laln shield, \Yoodcn box, I~'arnimre, and supplies of the ofllce, . Laying of copper wire, varnish, . Machines arm piles, . . . Timber, cost of posts, administration, studies, and superintendance of the work, .
.
•
Total,
Livres. 23,348 °1,426 %347 2,627 1,'772 8,18:3 5,314 26,043
Sous. 8 1::1 4 13 t3 4 18 S 13 4 17
3,443
3
95,507
tO
4
GERS~ANY. The telegraph lines of Germany have chiefly been established within the last three years. Gauss and Weber at Gottingen, and Steinhiel at Munich, had short lines of telegraph, in 1834 and 1837; but the railroad companies were the first to make a proper appreciation of them, and establish lines tbr their own benefit. The first great line along the railway Item Nentz to t"rankfi~rt, was erected by Fardly, a mechanician of Manheim, with Wheatstone's index apparatus. It was this line that aroused the attention of the Prussian Government, and caused the appointment of a committee to experiment on the matter. No. 781 of the London ~l;~nir~gJournal for 1850, states that 2000 miles of telegraph are already open in Germany, and that 1000 more will he added in 1851; it works now from Cracow to Trieste, a distance of 700 miles, and a general union of the Austrian, Prussian, Saxon, and Bavarian lines was soon expected, with a tariff of charges nearly as low as that of the United States. (To be Cm~tlnued.)
Ex2lanalio~ of Diagrams lll,slralb~g lhe Mclion of the t'orces on lhe Cra~k ¢ja Steam E~gine. By W. POLE, C. E.* (With a Plate.) ['In the year 1849, the Soeiety of Arts offered a prize "for the best collection of diagrams (with exphmations,) to illustrate the action of the torees on a crank or cranks turned from a horizontal direct action steam cylinder or cylinders; the effect of various proportions of eolmeeting rods, and degrees of expansiofl of steam, being shown." The present paper was communicated to the Society in accordance with their invitation, and obtained the silver Isis medal. It is now first printed by the joint permission of the Society and the author.]
The 15 diagrams contained in plate II, illustrate the action of the forces From the London Journal of Arts and Sciences, April, 1852.