- Email: [email protected]
Nutrition Claims Influence Health Perceptions and Taste Preferences in Fourth- and Fifth-Grade Children
Research Brief Nutrition Claims Influence Health Perceptions and Taste Preferences in Fourth- and Fifth-Grade Children Jessica Soldavini, MPH; Patricia Crawford, DrPH, RD; Lorrene D. Ritchie, PhD, RD ABSTRACT Objective: To determine whether children perceive food with nutrition claims as healthier and tasting differently than those without claims. Methods: Fourth- and fifth-graders (n ¼ 47) from 3 California schools participated. Two identical products (cookies, crackers, or juice) were placed in front of product packages, 1 with a nutrition claim, the other without. Each child was asked which product was healthier and which tasted better. Results: The percentage of children who identified the reduced-fat cookie, whole-grain cracker, or 100% juice as healthier was 81%, 83% and 81%, respectively. The taste of the ‘‘healthier’’ product (ie, with nutrition claim) was preferred by 72%, 67%, and 54%, respectively. Conclusions and Implications: A convenience sample of children perceived products with a nutrition claim as healthier and identified the ‘‘healthier’’ cookies and crackers as tasting better. Future research should examine whether food labeling can be used to encourage children to consume healthier diets. Key Words: food preferences, food labeling, health knowledge, health attitudes, health practice, child (J Nutr Educ Behav. 2012;44:624-627.)
INTRODUCTION Nutrition claims are a form of marketing often used by manufacturers to make their products appear healthier.1 These claims have been shown to be effective in influencing adults' preferences and purchase intentions for the advertised items.2,3 Children have difficulty understanding the persuasive intent of product marketing, which may make them more susceptible than adults to manufacturers' nutrition claims.4-6 Studies involving children have shown that food advertising increases their requests for food from their parents (the so-called ‘‘nag factor’’ or ‘‘pester power’’),7,8 as well as children's preferences for and consumption of advertised food.9 For example, in 1 study, approximately 40% of children asked their parents to purchase items they saw on TV advertisements.10 However, relatively little research has examined the impact of nutrition claims per se on children.
The few studies that have examined the influence of nutrition claims on children have had disparate results. A study done in England with 9- to 11-year-olds showed that children's perceptions of the taste of a beverage changed and their willingness to buy a new beverage decreased when they were told that it was a ‘‘health drink.’’11 However, in another study, when 10-year-old children were told that a cookie was low fat, they were more likely to choose it over a cookie that was presented as not low fat.12 The present study was designed to test: (1) whether fourth- and fifthgrade children believe that products that feature a nutrition claim are healthier than those without such claims; and (2) whether or not the presence of a nutrition claim as an indicator of product healthiness affects the way a child perceives the taste of that product. It was hypothesized that: (1) if 2 products are placed in front of a child—1 with a nutrition claim and the other without (but
Dr. Robert C. and Veronica Atkins Center for Weight and Health, University of California–Berkeley, Berkeley, CA Address for correspondence: Lorrene D. Ritchie, PhD, RD, 119 Morgan Hall, University of California–Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-3104; Phone: (510) 642-8210; Fax: (510) 6428206; E-mail: [email protected] Ó2012 SOCIETY FOR NUTRITION EDUCATION AND BEHAVIOR http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2012.04.009
624
otherwise identical)—the child will perceive the one with the nutrition claim as being healthier; and (2) the product portrayed as healthier (with a nutrition claim) would be perceived as not tasting as good as the product without the nutrition claim.
METHODS Participants consisted of a convenience sample of fourth- and fifth-grade students recruited from 3 classrooms whose teachers agreed to participate. All students in the selected classrooms were eligible to participate; however, students were required to have a signed parent permission form. The 3 classrooms were from 3 different public elementary schools, 2 in Oakland, California and 1 in Milpitas, California. Before beginning the study, students were told by a researcher (JS) that the study was designed to learn more about what children know about nutrition and which products they think taste better. Study procedures were briefly described, including product tasting and questionnaire completion. After signing a child assent form, participating students were individually placed at an isolated table that was separated from the view of other students and their teacher by a display board. The
Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior Volume 44, Number 6, 2012
Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior Volume 44, Number 6, 2012 study was reviewed and approved by the University of California, Berkeley Office for the Protection of Human Subjects on an expedited basis. Three nutrition claims were tested. For each claim, 2 similar-sized product packages—1 with a nutrition claim and 1 without—were placed in front of the child. The product comparisons were Reduced Fat Chips A'hoy vs regular Chips A'hoy, Whole Grain Cheddar Goldfish vs regular Cheddar Goldfish, and Minute Maid 100% Juice Fruit Punch vs Minute Maid Coolers Fruit Punch. Product packages were similar, except for the nutrition claim. Each package had a food item placed in front of it. The food or beverage items tasted in each paired comparison were identical (both were the same product), although the child was led to believe that the products were from the different packages. For some product comparisons, children were presented with food items from the package with a nutrition claim, whereas in other cases, children were presented with food items from the package without a nutrition claim. Which product was provided for tasting (whether actually from the package with or without the nutrition claim) was randomized for each child in each product comparison. Also randomized was the order in which the products (cookies, crackers, and juice) were presented to each child and which product the child tasted first (whether in front of the package with or without the nutrition claim). Samples of products to be tasted were placed on napkins in front of each package for the cookie and cracker comparisons, and in small cups placed in front of the juice packaging for the juice comparison. For each comparison, children were asked, ‘‘Which product do you think is healthier?’’ and the researcher recorded the answer. No definition of ‘‘healthier’’ was provided because the intention of the study was to examine children's perceptions. If a child selected the product with the nutrition claim as ‘‘healthier,’’ he or she was then asked to taste both products. If a child selected the one without the nutrition claim as ‘‘healthier,’’ he or she was told that the product from the package with the nutrition claim was the healthier product and was then asked to taste both products. After tast-
ing both products, the child was asked, ‘‘Which one do you think tastes better?’’ and the researcher recorded the answer. After completing the taste test portion of the study, each participant completed a questionnaire providing demographic information. Data were analyzed using SPSS (version 12.0.1, SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL, 2003). Responses to the questions ‘‘Which product do you think is healthier?’’ and ‘‘Which one do you think tastes better?’’ were scored separately for each child. Products selected with a nutrition claim were scored as þ1, products selected without a nutrition claim were scored as -1, and products indicated as the same or if the respondent was not sure were scored as 0. Each child's answers for the 3 products (cookies, crackers, and juice) were averaged to create an overall perceived healthfulness score and an overall perceived taste score. A positive overall score indicates that on average, students considered the product with the nutrition claim as healthier or tasting better. For each individual product, as well as the overall scores, medians were analyzed against the null hypothesis that children would report that the products were the same (ie, assigned a score of 0) using a Wilcoxon signedrank test. Results with P < .05 were considered statistically significant.
RESULTS A total of 47 students (out of a total of 85 approached) had completed parent permission forms and agreed to participate in the study. All 47 of the students answered the questions about which products they thought were healthier. Forty-three of the 47 students tasted both products in the reduced-fat cookie comparison, 45 tasted both products in the wholegrain cracker comparison, and 46 tasted both products in the 100% juice comparison. A total of 42 students completed all 3 comparison taste tests. Fewer than 47 responses for taste test comparisons were recorded because some students declined to taste certain products. Table 1 lists the demographic characteristics of the study participants, as self-reported, compared to the schools from which they came, as reported by the California Department of Education.13 The
Soldavini et al 625 mean standard deviation (SD) age of the study participants was 9.5 0.7 years old. The mean SD of the percentage of students eligible for free and reduced-price lunch at the 3 schools was 68 21%.13 In 82% of all product comparisons (responses for cookies, crackers, and juice combined), students chose the product with a nutrition claim as being healthier. The mean SD for the overall perceived healthfulness score was 0.67 0.49 (median: 1.00; interquartile range: 0.33-1.00; P < .001 for testing medians against the null hypothesis that the products were the same), indicating that on average, students identified products with a nutrition claim as being healthier. When responses to the cookies, crackers, and juice were examined separately, a significantly greater proportion of children identified the product with a nutrition claim as being healthier than the product without a nutrition claim (Table 2). In 64% of all product comparisons, students chose the product with a nutrition claim as tasting better; the mean SD for the overall perceived taste score was 0.34 0.57 (median: 0.33; interquartile range: -0.33-1.00; P ¼ .001 for testing medians) indicating that on average children preferred the taste of the products with a nutrition claim. More children said they preferred the taste of the product in front of the package with a nutrition claim for each of the 3 products tested. However, only the scores for the reduced-fat cookie and whole-grain cracker claims, and not the 100% juice claim, were statistically significant (Table 3).
DISCUSSION This study found that the fourth- and fifth-grade children in this study perceived products in packages containing a nutrition claim as being healthier than those in packages without such claims. This study also found that a child's evaluation of the taste of a product was influenced by the healthfulness of the product. Even though the 2 products presented in each set of taste tests (cookies, crackers, or juice) were identical and no actual taste differences existed, the children in this study perceived healthier cookies and crackers as
Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior Volume 44, Number 6, 2012
626 Soldavini et al
Table 1. Characteristics of Participating Children and Their Schools
Number of Students (n) Grades
Study Participantsa 47 4 and 5
Participants’ Schoolsb,c 431 39.7 K-6
%
Mean ± SD
Sex Male Female Ethnicityd Asian Black Hispanic Indian White Other/Not Reported
48 52
55 2 45 2
17 6 36 6 9 26
25 27 14 15 51 32 01 35 64
a Obtained from student self-report; bObtained from the California Department of Education;13 cMean SD from the 3 schools from which participants were recruited; dPercentages may not add up to 100% because of rounding.
tasting better because they were led to believe that the products were different (that is, the product with the nutrition claim was healthier). This finding is opposite to the hypothesis that children would perceive the products in front of packages with a nutrition claim as not tasting as good as products from packages without claims and suggests that nutrition claims have the potential to influence children's product preference. Certain nutrition claims may be more influential than others on taste preference, or nutrition claims may be more influential on certain types of products than others. For both of the snack food items (cookies and
crackers) in this study, the children preferred the taste of the product with the nutrition claim. The claims tested in this study may have been characteristics of products that the students in this study considered healthy. The finding that children prefer the taste of the reduced-fat cookie agrees with a previous study in which a sample of thirty 10-year-old children were more likely to choose low-fat cookies over high-fat cookies when presented with information about the fat content of the cookies.12 However, in another recent study of sixty-eight 8- to 14-year-olds that examined snack food products labeled as containing vegetables, children preferred the taste
Table 2. Fourth- and Fifth-Grade Students’ Responses to the Question, ‘‘Which Product Do You Think is Healthier?’’ Same or Without Sample Nutrition Not Sure, Nutrition Claim Size Claim, n (%) n (%) Claim, n (%) P (2-tailed)a Reduced-fat 47 38 (81) 3 (6) 6 (13) < .001 cookie Whole-grain 47 39 (83) 2 (4) 6 (13) < .001 cracker 100% Juice 47 38 (81) 0 (0) 9 (19) < .001 Responses were scored as þ1 for the product with the nutrition claim, -1 for the product without the nutrition claim, and 0 for the same or not sure. A Wilcoxon signed rank test was used on the median scores to test the data against the null hypothesis that both products compared would be reported as the same (ie, assigned a score of 0). a
of a cookie labeled as ‘‘chickpea chocolate chip’’ less than a cookie labeled simply ‘‘chocolate chip.’’ No statistically significant differences in taste preferences were found for other vegetable-labeled (zucchini or broccoli) products. The majority of participants reported having tried zucchini or broccoli in the past year but had not tried chickpeas in the past year. The study authors suggested that the differential preference responses may be related to food neophobia.14 In this study, children's preferences for the taste of the juice with a nutrition claim vs without a nutrition claim were not statistically significant. Previous research involving forty 9- to 11-year-olds found that children's perceptions of taste and their willingness to buy a new beverage decreased when they were told it was a ‘‘health drink.’’11 It is possible that children associate food choices with having more of an influence on health than beverage choices. Understanding how nutrition claims influence children is important, as nutrition marketing is frequently used on products marketed to children. Although these claims have the potential to help consumers make healthier choices, they may also be misleading. A recent study of packaged items in 6 grocery stores found that 71% of products marketed to children contained nutrition marketing; 59% of these products were high in saturated fat, sodium, and/or sugar.15 This study was limited by its use of a relatively small convenience sample. The response rate for parental consent was relatively low and the demographics of the sample do not necessarily match the demographics of the overall population from which the sample was drawn. Furthermore, the results may not apply to children younger or older than the 9- to 11year-olds who participated in this study or to children of other ethnic and socioeconomic groups. This study took place in a classroom setting, where the teacher and other students were present. Even though products were shown to individual students at an isolated table separated from the view of others, some students may still have believed that their teacher and classmates would find out their responses, causing them to want to give responses that they felt their
Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior Volume 44, Number 6, 2012 Table 3. Fourth- and Fifth-Grade Students’ Responses to the Question, ‘‘Which Product Do You Think Tastes Better?’’ Without Same Nutrition P or Not Sample Nutrition Claim Size Claim, n (%) Sure, n (%) Claim, n (%) (2-tailed)a Reduced-fat 43 31 (72) 2 (5) 10 (23) .002 cookie Whole-grain 45 30 (67) 2 (4) 13 (29) .01 cracker 100% Juice 46 25 (54) 3 (7) 18 (39) .29 a Responses were scored as þ1 for the product with the nutrition claim, -1 for the product without the nutrition claim, and 0 for the same or not sure. A Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used on the median scores to test the data against the null hypothesis that both products compared would be reported as the same (ie, assigned a score of 0).
teacher and classmates would view favorably. Student responses may also have been affected by a desire to please the researcher by selecting the ‘‘correct’’ answer. This was a particular concern, especially for the children who incorrectly identified the healthier product, as they were told the correct answer was the product with the nutrition claim.
IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH AND PRACTICE Overall, the results of this study suggest that children in this study selected cookie and cracker products they perceived or were told were healthier as tasting better. This finding implies that they might choose such products on the basis of perceived health. Future research should look at whether similar results are obtained in other populations of children. Additional studies should be conducted on the impact of nutrition claims on child perceptions and preferences using methodology that offers the children neutral answer options in an environment in which peer influences are minimized. It will also be important to examine the role of other factors that may influence child food and beverage preferences in response to nutrition claims, such as age, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, knowledge, television and social media advertising, exposure to nutrition education, and parental influences.
Future research should also examine how various nutrition claims can influence choice of beverages and how nutrition claims on different types of products or food items differentially influence preference. Although it was found that children preferred the taste of cookies labeled as reduced-fat to regular cookies, for example, it is unclear whether they would prefer a healthy food such as an apple to a cookie with a nutrition claim.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work was conducted at the Dr. Robert C. and Veronica Atkins Center for Weight and Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA. This project was funded by a Sponsored Projects for Undergraduate Research Program grant from the University of California, Berkeley College of Natural Resources. The authors would like to acknowledge Ginny Gildengorin, Tasha Peart, Lauren Heim Goldstein, Susan Kishi, Claudia Olague, and Nori Grossmann for their assistance in completing this project. The authors would also like to thank the schools, teachers, and students who participated.
REFERENCES 1. Story M, French S. Food advertising and marketing directed at children and adolescents in the US. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2004;1:3. http://www.ijbnpa. org/content/1/1/3. Accessed June 22, 2012.
Soldavini et al 627 2. Kozup JC, Creyer EH, Burton S. Making healthful food choices: the influence of health claims and nutrition information on consumers’ evaluation of packaged food products and restaurant menu items. Journal of Marketing. 2003; 67:19-34. 3. Labiner-Wolfe J, Jordan Lin CT, Verril L. Effect of low-carbohydrate claims on consumer perceptions about food products’ healthfulness and helpfulness for weight management. J Nutr Educ Behav. 2010;42:315-320. 4. Brucks M, Armstrong GM, Goldberg ME. Children’s use of cognitive defenses against television advertising: a cognitive response approach. Journal of Consumer Research. 1988;14: 471-482. 5. Oates C, Blades M, Gunter B. Children and television advertising: when do they understand persuasive intent? J Consum Behav. 2006;1:238-245. 6. Strasburger VC. Children and TV advertising: nowhere to run, nowhere to hide. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2001;22:179-184. 7. Harris JL, Pomeranz JL, Lobstein T, Brownell KD. A crisis in the marketplace: how food marketing contributes to childhood obesity and what can be done. Annu Rev Public Health. 2009;30:211-225. 8. McNeal J. The Kids Market: Myth and Realities. Ithaca, NY: Paramount Market Publishing; 1999. 9. Coon KA, Tucker KL. Television and children’s consumption patterns. A review of the literature. Minerva Pediatr. 2002;54:423-436. 10. Aktas Arnas Y. The effects of television food advertisement on children’s food purchasing requests. Pediatr Int. 2006; 48:138-145. 11. Wardle J, Huon G. An experimental investigation of the influence of health information on children’s taste preferences. Health Educ Res. 2000;15:39-44. 12. Engell D, Bordi P, Borja M, Lambert C, Rolls B. Effects of information about fat content on food preferences of pre-adolescent children. Appetite. 1998;30:269-282. 13. California Department of Education. DataQuest Web site. http://data1.cde.ca. gov/dataquest/. Accessed June 14, 2012. 14. Pope L, Wolf R. The influence of labeling the vegetable content of snack food on children’s taste preferences: a pilot study. J Nutr Educ Behav. 2012;44:178-182. 15. Colby SE, Johnson L, Scheett A, Hoverson B. Nutrition marketing on food labels. J Nutr Educ Behav. 2010; 42:92-98.
INTRODUCTION Nutrition claims are a form of marketing often used by manufacturers to make their products appear healthier.1 These claims have been shown to be effective in influencing adults' preferences and purchase intentions for the advertised items.2,3 Children have difficulty understanding the persuasive intent of product marketing, which may make them more susceptible than adults to manufacturers' nutrition claims.4-6 Studies involving children have shown that food advertising increases their requests for food from their parents (the so-called ‘‘nag factor’’ or ‘‘pester power’’),7,8 as well as children's preferences for and consumption of advertised food.9 For example, in 1 study, approximately 40% of children asked their parents to purchase items they saw on TV advertisements.10 However, relatively little research has examined the impact of nutrition claims per se on children.
The few studies that have examined the influence of nutrition claims on children have had disparate results. A study done in England with 9- to 11-year-olds showed that children's perceptions of the taste of a beverage changed and their willingness to buy a new beverage decreased when they were told that it was a ‘‘health drink.’’11 However, in another study, when 10-year-old children were told that a cookie was low fat, they were more likely to choose it over a cookie that was presented as not low fat.12 The present study was designed to test: (1) whether fourth- and fifthgrade children believe that products that feature a nutrition claim are healthier than those without such claims; and (2) whether or not the presence of a nutrition claim as an indicator of product healthiness affects the way a child perceives the taste of that product. It was hypothesized that: (1) if 2 products are placed in front of a child—1 with a nutrition claim and the other without (but
Dr. Robert C. and Veronica Atkins Center for Weight and Health, University of California–Berkeley, Berkeley, CA Address for correspondence: Lorrene D. Ritchie, PhD, RD, 119 Morgan Hall, University of California–Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-3104; Phone: (510) 642-8210; Fax: (510) 6428206; E-mail: [email protected] Ó2012 SOCIETY FOR NUTRITION EDUCATION AND BEHAVIOR http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2012.04.009
624
otherwise identical)—the child will perceive the one with the nutrition claim as being healthier; and (2) the product portrayed as healthier (with a nutrition claim) would be perceived as not tasting as good as the product without the nutrition claim.
METHODS Participants consisted of a convenience sample of fourth- and fifth-grade students recruited from 3 classrooms whose teachers agreed to participate. All students in the selected classrooms were eligible to participate; however, students were required to have a signed parent permission form. The 3 classrooms were from 3 different public elementary schools, 2 in Oakland, California and 1 in Milpitas, California. Before beginning the study, students were told by a researcher (JS) that the study was designed to learn more about what children know about nutrition and which products they think taste better. Study procedures were briefly described, including product tasting and questionnaire completion. After signing a child assent form, participating students were individually placed at an isolated table that was separated from the view of other students and their teacher by a display board. The
Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior Volume 44, Number 6, 2012
Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior Volume 44, Number 6, 2012 study was reviewed and approved by the University of California, Berkeley Office for the Protection of Human Subjects on an expedited basis. Three nutrition claims were tested. For each claim, 2 similar-sized product packages—1 with a nutrition claim and 1 without—were placed in front of the child. The product comparisons were Reduced Fat Chips A'hoy vs regular Chips A'hoy, Whole Grain Cheddar Goldfish vs regular Cheddar Goldfish, and Minute Maid 100% Juice Fruit Punch vs Minute Maid Coolers Fruit Punch. Product packages were similar, except for the nutrition claim. Each package had a food item placed in front of it. The food or beverage items tasted in each paired comparison were identical (both were the same product), although the child was led to believe that the products were from the different packages. For some product comparisons, children were presented with food items from the package with a nutrition claim, whereas in other cases, children were presented with food items from the package without a nutrition claim. Which product was provided for tasting (whether actually from the package with or without the nutrition claim) was randomized for each child in each product comparison. Also randomized was the order in which the products (cookies, crackers, and juice) were presented to each child and which product the child tasted first (whether in front of the package with or without the nutrition claim). Samples of products to be tasted were placed on napkins in front of each package for the cookie and cracker comparisons, and in small cups placed in front of the juice packaging for the juice comparison. For each comparison, children were asked, ‘‘Which product do you think is healthier?’’ and the researcher recorded the answer. No definition of ‘‘healthier’’ was provided because the intention of the study was to examine children's perceptions. If a child selected the product with the nutrition claim as ‘‘healthier,’’ he or she was then asked to taste both products. If a child selected the one without the nutrition claim as ‘‘healthier,’’ he or she was told that the product from the package with the nutrition claim was the healthier product and was then asked to taste both products. After tast-
ing both products, the child was asked, ‘‘Which one do you think tastes better?’’ and the researcher recorded the answer. After completing the taste test portion of the study, each participant completed a questionnaire providing demographic information. Data were analyzed using SPSS (version 12.0.1, SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL, 2003). Responses to the questions ‘‘Which product do you think is healthier?’’ and ‘‘Which one do you think tastes better?’’ were scored separately for each child. Products selected with a nutrition claim were scored as þ1, products selected without a nutrition claim were scored as -1, and products indicated as the same or if the respondent was not sure were scored as 0. Each child's answers for the 3 products (cookies, crackers, and juice) were averaged to create an overall perceived healthfulness score and an overall perceived taste score. A positive overall score indicates that on average, students considered the product with the nutrition claim as healthier or tasting better. For each individual product, as well as the overall scores, medians were analyzed against the null hypothesis that children would report that the products were the same (ie, assigned a score of 0) using a Wilcoxon signedrank test. Results with P < .05 were considered statistically significant.
RESULTS A total of 47 students (out of a total of 85 approached) had completed parent permission forms and agreed to participate in the study. All 47 of the students answered the questions about which products they thought were healthier. Forty-three of the 47 students tasted both products in the reduced-fat cookie comparison, 45 tasted both products in the wholegrain cracker comparison, and 46 tasted both products in the 100% juice comparison. A total of 42 students completed all 3 comparison taste tests. Fewer than 47 responses for taste test comparisons were recorded because some students declined to taste certain products. Table 1 lists the demographic characteristics of the study participants, as self-reported, compared to the schools from which they came, as reported by the California Department of Education.13 The
Soldavini et al 625 mean standard deviation (SD) age of the study participants was 9.5 0.7 years old. The mean SD of the percentage of students eligible for free and reduced-price lunch at the 3 schools was 68 21%.13 In 82% of all product comparisons (responses for cookies, crackers, and juice combined), students chose the product with a nutrition claim as being healthier. The mean SD for the overall perceived healthfulness score was 0.67 0.49 (median: 1.00; interquartile range: 0.33-1.00; P < .001 for testing medians against the null hypothesis that the products were the same), indicating that on average, students identified products with a nutrition claim as being healthier. When responses to the cookies, crackers, and juice were examined separately, a significantly greater proportion of children identified the product with a nutrition claim as being healthier than the product without a nutrition claim (Table 2). In 64% of all product comparisons, students chose the product with a nutrition claim as tasting better; the mean SD for the overall perceived taste score was 0.34 0.57 (median: 0.33; interquartile range: -0.33-1.00; P ¼ .001 for testing medians) indicating that on average children preferred the taste of the products with a nutrition claim. More children said they preferred the taste of the product in front of the package with a nutrition claim for each of the 3 products tested. However, only the scores for the reduced-fat cookie and whole-grain cracker claims, and not the 100% juice claim, were statistically significant (Table 3).
DISCUSSION This study found that the fourth- and fifth-grade children in this study perceived products in packages containing a nutrition claim as being healthier than those in packages without such claims. This study also found that a child's evaluation of the taste of a product was influenced by the healthfulness of the product. Even though the 2 products presented in each set of taste tests (cookies, crackers, or juice) were identical and no actual taste differences existed, the children in this study perceived healthier cookies and crackers as
Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior Volume 44, Number 6, 2012
626 Soldavini et al
Table 1. Characteristics of Participating Children and Their Schools
Number of Students (n) Grades
Study Participantsa 47 4 and 5
Participants’ Schoolsb,c 431 39.7 K-6
%
Mean ± SD
Sex Male Female Ethnicityd Asian Black Hispanic Indian White Other/Not Reported
48 52
55 2 45 2
17 6 36 6 9 26
25 27 14 15 51 32 01 35 64
a Obtained from student self-report; bObtained from the California Department of Education;13 cMean SD from the 3 schools from which participants were recruited; dPercentages may not add up to 100% because of rounding.
tasting better because they were led to believe that the products were different (that is, the product with the nutrition claim was healthier). This finding is opposite to the hypothesis that children would perceive the products in front of packages with a nutrition claim as not tasting as good as products from packages without claims and suggests that nutrition claims have the potential to influence children's product preference. Certain nutrition claims may be more influential than others on taste preference, or nutrition claims may be more influential on certain types of products than others. For both of the snack food items (cookies and
crackers) in this study, the children preferred the taste of the product with the nutrition claim. The claims tested in this study may have been characteristics of products that the students in this study considered healthy. The finding that children prefer the taste of the reduced-fat cookie agrees with a previous study in which a sample of thirty 10-year-old children were more likely to choose low-fat cookies over high-fat cookies when presented with information about the fat content of the cookies.12 However, in another recent study of sixty-eight 8- to 14-year-olds that examined snack food products labeled as containing vegetables, children preferred the taste
Table 2. Fourth- and Fifth-Grade Students’ Responses to the Question, ‘‘Which Product Do You Think is Healthier?’’ Same or Without Sample Nutrition Not Sure, Nutrition Claim Size Claim, n (%) n (%) Claim, n (%) P (2-tailed)a Reduced-fat 47 38 (81) 3 (6) 6 (13) < .001 cookie Whole-grain 47 39 (83) 2 (4) 6 (13) < .001 cracker 100% Juice 47 38 (81) 0 (0) 9 (19) < .001 Responses were scored as þ1 for the product with the nutrition claim, -1 for the product without the nutrition claim, and 0 for the same or not sure. A Wilcoxon signed rank test was used on the median scores to test the data against the null hypothesis that both products compared would be reported as the same (ie, assigned a score of 0). a
of a cookie labeled as ‘‘chickpea chocolate chip’’ less than a cookie labeled simply ‘‘chocolate chip.’’ No statistically significant differences in taste preferences were found for other vegetable-labeled (zucchini or broccoli) products. The majority of participants reported having tried zucchini or broccoli in the past year but had not tried chickpeas in the past year. The study authors suggested that the differential preference responses may be related to food neophobia.14 In this study, children's preferences for the taste of the juice with a nutrition claim vs without a nutrition claim were not statistically significant. Previous research involving forty 9- to 11-year-olds found that children's perceptions of taste and their willingness to buy a new beverage decreased when they were told it was a ‘‘health drink.’’11 It is possible that children associate food choices with having more of an influence on health than beverage choices. Understanding how nutrition claims influence children is important, as nutrition marketing is frequently used on products marketed to children. Although these claims have the potential to help consumers make healthier choices, they may also be misleading. A recent study of packaged items in 6 grocery stores found that 71% of products marketed to children contained nutrition marketing; 59% of these products were high in saturated fat, sodium, and/or sugar.15 This study was limited by its use of a relatively small convenience sample. The response rate for parental consent was relatively low and the demographics of the sample do not necessarily match the demographics of the overall population from which the sample was drawn. Furthermore, the results may not apply to children younger or older than the 9- to 11year-olds who participated in this study or to children of other ethnic and socioeconomic groups. This study took place in a classroom setting, where the teacher and other students were present. Even though products were shown to individual students at an isolated table separated from the view of others, some students may still have believed that their teacher and classmates would find out their responses, causing them to want to give responses that they felt their
Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior Volume 44, Number 6, 2012 Table 3. Fourth- and Fifth-Grade Students’ Responses to the Question, ‘‘Which Product Do You Think Tastes Better?’’ Without Same Nutrition P or Not Sample Nutrition Claim Size Claim, n (%) Sure, n (%) Claim, n (%) (2-tailed)a Reduced-fat 43 31 (72) 2 (5) 10 (23) .002 cookie Whole-grain 45 30 (67) 2 (4) 13 (29) .01 cracker 100% Juice 46 25 (54) 3 (7) 18 (39) .29 a Responses were scored as þ1 for the product with the nutrition claim, -1 for the product without the nutrition claim, and 0 for the same or not sure. A Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used on the median scores to test the data against the null hypothesis that both products compared would be reported as the same (ie, assigned a score of 0).
teacher and classmates would view favorably. Student responses may also have been affected by a desire to please the researcher by selecting the ‘‘correct’’ answer. This was a particular concern, especially for the children who incorrectly identified the healthier product, as they were told the correct answer was the product with the nutrition claim.
IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH AND PRACTICE Overall, the results of this study suggest that children in this study selected cookie and cracker products they perceived or were told were healthier as tasting better. This finding implies that they might choose such products on the basis of perceived health. Future research should look at whether similar results are obtained in other populations of children. Additional studies should be conducted on the impact of nutrition claims on child perceptions and preferences using methodology that offers the children neutral answer options in an environment in which peer influences are minimized. It will also be important to examine the role of other factors that may influence child food and beverage preferences in response to nutrition claims, such as age, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, knowledge, television and social media advertising, exposure to nutrition education, and parental influences.
Future research should also examine how various nutrition claims can influence choice of beverages and how nutrition claims on different types of products or food items differentially influence preference. Although it was found that children preferred the taste of cookies labeled as reduced-fat to regular cookies, for example, it is unclear whether they would prefer a healthy food such as an apple to a cookie with a nutrition claim.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work was conducted at the Dr. Robert C. and Veronica Atkins Center for Weight and Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA. This project was funded by a Sponsored Projects for Undergraduate Research Program grant from the University of California, Berkeley College of Natural Resources. The authors would like to acknowledge Ginny Gildengorin, Tasha Peart, Lauren Heim Goldstein, Susan Kishi, Claudia Olague, and Nori Grossmann for their assistance in completing this project. The authors would also like to thank the schools, teachers, and students who participated.
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