Taste preferences and sensory perceptions in female varsity swimmers

Appetite, 1995,24, 25-36

Taste Preferences and Sensory Perceptions in Female Varsity Swimmers SUSAN CRYSTAL, CHERYL A. FRYE and ROBIN B. KANAREK Department of Psychology, Tufts University

Taste preferences and sensory estimates of sweetness and fat content of 16 dairy stimuli with varying levels of fat (0%, 3-5%, 10'5% and 37-6%) and sucrose (0%, 5%, 10% and 20%) were compared in members of a Division I college women's swim team and women who did not engage in any organized sports. No differences in taste preferences or sensory estimates were observed for swimmers across the athletic season. However, swimmers had significantly lower preference ratings for high-sucrose and high-fat stimuli than controls. Controls who reported exercising more than 3 h a week also displayed decreased preference ratings for high-sucrose and high-fat stimuli relative to controls who reported exercising less than 3 h a week. With respect to sensory estimates, swimmers reported that high-sucrose stimuli were sweeter, low-fat stimuli were less fatty, and high-fat stimuli were more fatty than controls. The preference ratings and sensory estimates of these athletes were similar to those previously seen in individuals with anorexia nervosa and bulimia.

As exercise gains popularity in our society, the line between normal and excessive levels of activity becomes less discernable. It has been estimated that one-third of female athletes may have a diagnosable eating disorder and that a larger percentage exhibit behaviors associated with eating disorders (Brownell & Rodin, 1992; Szymanski & Chrisler, 1991; Smith, 1980). Recent research has begun to explore the role of exercise in eating disorders, the similarities between athletes and individuals diagnosed with eating disorders, and the increased occurrence of eating disorders in athletic populations (Brownell & Rodin, 1992; Brownell et al., 1992; Enns et al., 1987; Smith, 1980). One way in which individuals with eating disorders have been distinguished from normal individuals is in terms of their tastes preferences (Drewnowski et al., 1987a, 1987b, 1988; Simon et al., 1993; Sunday & Halmi, 1990, 1991). In normal subjects, preferences for sucrose solutions increase directly as a function of concentration to a maximum level and then decline slightly, while preferences for fat rise concomitantly with fat content (Drewnowski & Greenwood, 1983). Physiological states related to weight and diet can affect these patterns. For example, persons who report recent This project was funded in part by a grant-in-aid of research from Sigma Xi to S.C. Donations of milk, sugar and paper were graciously provided by West Lynn Creamery, National Sugar Refinery and Bay Colony Paper Company. A portion of this paper was prepared at the Society for the Study of Ingestive Behavior Meeting, Princeton, NJ, June 1992. The present address of Susan Crystal is the Department of Psychology,University of Washington, Seattle, WA, U.S.A. and the present address of Cheryl Frye is the Department of Biology, Behavioral Endocrinology Laboratory, Boston University, 2 Cummington Street, Boston, MA 02215, U.S.A. Address correspondence to: Robin Kanarek, Research Building, Psychology Department, Tufts University, 490 Boston Avenue, Medford, MA 02155, U.S.A. 0195-6663/95/010025 + 12 $08.00/0

© 1995 Academic Press Limited

26

S. CRYSTALET AL.

weight fluctuations rate stimuli with varying fat and sucrose contents as more pleasant than weight-stable subjects regardless of present weight (Drewnowski & Greenwood, 1983; Kleinfield & Lowe,1991). Additionally, anorectic and bulimic women display increased preferences for stimuli high in sucrose and low in fat, and decreased preferences for stimuli high in fat, or high in both fat and sucrose, and stimuli without sucrose relative to normal controls (Drewnowski et al., 1988; Sunday & Halmi, 1991). Differences in sensory estimates of sweetness and fat content have rarely been found among subject groups (Drewnowski & Greenwood, 1983; Drewnowski et al., 1988; Drewnowski, 1989). However, both anorectic and bulimic women have been reported to rate low sucrose, low fat stimuli as having a greater fat content than control subjects (Drewnowski et al., 1988; Simon et al., 1993; Sunday & Halmi, 1991). This altered perception may be attributed to the use of the adjectives fat and creamy as more than an indicator of the percentage of fat. The adjectives fat and creamy can suggest taste, texture, appearance or caloric content (Drewnowski & Greenwood, 1983). Although taste perceptions and hedonics have been well characterized in a number of different populations, little is known about taste preferences in athletes. To determine if the intensity of athletic involvement influences taste perceptions and hedonics, the present experiment compared taste preferences and sensory ratings of stimuli with varying levels of sucrose and fat of varsity female athletes with those of women who did not participate in organized sports. Athletes were tested at the beginning and the end of the athletic season to determine if degree of training would alter taste perceptions and/or preferences.

METHOD Subjects

The experimental group comprised 17 members of a Division I varsity women's swim team, who were 17 to 21 years of age. Although 17 swimmers were tested, data from one swimmer were not included because of a reported history of bulimia. Twenty eight normal-weight 17- to 20-year-old females, who did not participate in organized athletics were used as control subjects. All subjects in the control group were fulfilling a requirement for an introductory psychology course. None of the subjects had a reported history of eating disorders. Additionally, all of the subjects indicated having "normal" 24-32 day menstrual cycles over the previous 6 months. All subjects were told that the intent of the experiment was to investigate the ability to differentiate artificial and non-artificial fats and sweeteners. Procedure

The first period of testing for the experimental group began in the first week of the athletic season. To control for potential effects of menstrual cycle and changes in taste and sensory ratings due to repeated testing, subjects were tested on the same day of the week for four consecutive weeks. At the end of the athletic season, subjects were tested again for 4 weeks. Because control subjects participated in this study as a part of a course requirement, and the athletic season spanned two semesters, a

TASTE PREFERENCEIN ATHLETES

27

separate control group was run concurrently with each testing session for the experimental subjects. There were 17 subjects in the fall control group and 11 subjects in the winter control group. All subjects were debriefed at the end of their participation in the study. Interview

Prior to testing, the experimenter met with each group of participants. At this meeting, the supposed intent of the study and the methods were explained to the subjects. Because body energy status can affect food preference (Cabanac, 1979; Esses & Herman, 1984), the subjects were instructed that if they agreed to participate, compliance with special dietary guidelines on the days of testing was essential. These guidelines included refraining from consumption of monosodium glutamate, caffeine, quinine, excessive sugar, and excessive fat for 24 h before each taste test. The subjects were also required to eat a low-fat, low-sucrose lunch at least 30 min prior to the taste test and to refrain from brushing their teeth or chewing gum in the 30 min prior to participation. After signing a consent form, subjects filled out a detailed questionnaire on diet, weight, exercise and medical history and a restraint of eating scale (Herman & Polivy, 1980). Subjects were told not to answer any question that made them feel uncomfortable and were advised that they could discontinue participation at any time. Taste Stimuli

Sixteen sensory stimuli were made daily from skim milk (0% fat), whole milk (3"5% fat), half and half (10-5% fat) and heavy cream (37"6% fat) with either 0%, 5%, 10% or 20% sucrose (by weight) diluted in each milk product. Taste Tests

Before the subjects arrived, 10-ml paper cups with 5 m! of each taste stimulus at 3°C were placed in a random order on a tray. The two extreme stimuli were placed in the upper left comer of the tray with the least sweet least fatty (skim milk with no sucrose) above the most sweet most fatty sample (heavy cream with 20% sucrose). Upon entering the room, the subjects picked up their daily questionnaire and sixteen preference rating sheets. The daily questionnaire asked about the subject's diet, exercise, physical and mental health over the previous 24 h, and the beginning date of last menstrual period. The subjects then sampled but did not rate the two extreme stimuli. The subjects were told these stimuli represented an indication of the range of the stimuli to come. The subjects then proceeded at their own pace from left to right across the tray. The subjects were instructed to take the sample stimulus in their mouth and rate it on separate linear, 160-mm analog rating scales for pleasantness, sweetness and fatness. The pleasantness scale was anchored at one end with the term "extremely unpleasant" and at the other with the term "extremely pleasant". The sweetness and fatness scales were anchored with the terms "not at all sweet (fatty)" and "extremely sweet (fatty)". Subjects were instructed to mark at any point along each scale their perception of the pleasantness, sweetness, and fatness of each particular stimulus while the stimulus was still in their mouth. The sample was then expectorated into

S. CRYSTAL ET AL.

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TABLE 1

Subjects

Numbers Age (years) Range Mean BMI (kg/m 2) Range Mean Restraint of Eating (Median = 14) Range Mean Exercise (h/week) Range Mean

Swimmers

Controls (Fall)

Controls (Winter)

16

17

11

17-21 19.1

17-20 18-2

17-20 18.2

18-7--24-4 21.6

18.4--25-7 20.9

18.7-25.6 21.3

6-26 16.8

3-22 13-3

4-23 13-1

14-17 15"

1-7 3-3

0-6 1-5

* Exercise level of swimmers significantly(p<0.01) greater than that of controls.

a cup and the subjects rinsed their mouths with room temperature water and proceeded to the next sample.

Debriefing Debriefing occurred in the fourth week of the end of season test session for the experimental group, and during the last week of testing for each control group. Once all daily questionnaires and stimuli ratings had been completed, subjects were informed that the true intent of the study was to determine if taste preference and sensory perception of sugar and fats varied between athletes and non-athletes. All procedures were approved by the review committee for human subjects.

Statistical Analysis Preference and intensity ratings were collapsed across the 4 weeks of testing to control for menstrual cycle and changes in ratings due to repeated testing. Independent t-tests were used to assess hedonic and intensity rating differences between the two control groups. Multiple analysis of variance with Tukey's Studentized Range post hoe t-tests were used to assess whether exercise or season influenced performance and intensity ratings of stimuli. All data that are reported to be significant have a significance level of p <0"05.

RESULTS Descriptive data for all subjects are indicated in Table 1. There were no differences in age or body mass index (BMI) between the swimmers and controls. Additionally, although swimmers did have higher scores on the restraint of eating scale, this

29

TASTE P R E F E R E N C E IN A T H L E T E S 120

120

(A) I00

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(B)

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(C)

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100 80

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5

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0 Sucrose (%)

0

5

10

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FIGURE 1. Preference ratings for groups of control subjects tested during the fall (*) and winter (F1). (A) no fat; (B) 3'5% fat; (C) 10.5% fat; (D) 37.6% fat. *=preference ratings of controls tested during the winter significantly (p <0"05) greater than ratings of controls tested during the fall. t = preference ratings of controls tested during the fall significantly (p<0.05) greater than ratings of controls tested during the winter.

difference was not significant. Swimmers, however, did exercise significantly more hours a week than controls. None of the subjects who were included in the study reported a history of eating disorders or the use of any medication or drugs.

Taste Preference For the experimental group, no differences in taste preferences were observed across the athletic season. However, significant differences in taste preference were observed between the fall and winter control groups. As shown in Figure 1, controls tested in the fall had lower preference ratings for eight of the 16 stimuli than controls tested in the winter. Across fat levels controls tested in the fall rated stimuli containing 10% and 20% sucrose as less preferable than controls tested in the winter, t-tests indicated controls tested in the fall had significantly lower preference ratings for the stimuli with 0% fat/20% sucrose (t=3.00, p<0.01), 3"5% fat/10% sucrose (t=2.63, p<0.01), 3"5% fat/20% sucrose (t=4.28, p<0.01), 10.5% fat/10% sucrose (t=3"77, p<0"01), 10"5% fat/20% sucrose (t=4.86, p<0"01), 37"6% fat/0% sucrose (t=2"10, p<0"05), 37-6% fat/10% sucrose (t=3"58, p<0"01) and 37.6% fat/20% sucrose ( t = 4-71, p<0.01) than controls in the winter. Controls tested in the fall had significantly

30

S. CRYSTAL E T AL.

higher preference ratings for only the sample with 3'5% fat/0% sucrose when compared to the group of controls tested in the winter (t = 2.09, p <0.05). The differences in preference ratings between control groups led to an examination of factors which are known to affect taste preference (e.g. restraint of eating and body weight) (Drewnowski et al., 1985; Frye et al., 1993; Kleinfeld and Lowe, 1991; Martin and Bellisle, 1983). Groups did not differ in mean restraint of eating scores or mean BMI, however, the controls tested in the fall, reported they exercised more (3-3 h/week) than the controls tested in the winter (1"5 h/week) (see Table 1). To test the hypothesis that exercise played a role in determining the differences in preference ratings between the two control groups, control subjects were categorized into three groups according to report of weekly exercise. Controls who reported that they did not engage in any form of aerobic exercise were placed in the no-exercise group (n = 5), those that reported 1-3 h/week of aerobic exercise were categorized in the low exercise group (n = 12), and those registering 3-7 h/week were placed in the high-exercise group (n = 11). Because the preference ratings of the swimmers did not differ across the season, data for the swimmers were combined across the season. To examine the effects of exercise on taste preferences, a repeated measures ANOVA was performed. Preference ratings varied significantly as a function of the sucrose concentration, df=3,120; F=55"39, p<0-001, and the fat concentration, d f = 3,120; F = 2"86; p <0-05, of the taste stimuli. Across the groups, preference ratings varied directly as a function of the sucrose concentration of the stimuli. In comparison, across the groups, preference ratings were significantly (p<0-05) higher for stimuli containing either 3-5% or 10.5% fat than for stimuli containing 37.6% fat. Although there was no overall effect of exercise level on taste preferences, significant interactions between exercise level and the sucrose content, df=9,120; F=3-30; p<0-01, and exercise levels and the fat content of the stimuli, d f = 9,120; F = 1.97, p <0.05, were observed. With respect to sucrose concentration, taste preferences of athletes increased as the sucrose content of the taste stimuli increased from 0 to 10% sucrose, and then decreased for the 20%-sucrose-containing stimuli. As Figure 2 illustrates, this pattern was most pronounced for stimuli containing 37-6% fat. In contrast, taste preference for women who engaged in little or no exercise increased directly as a function of the sucrose concentration of the taste stimuli. With respect to fat concentration, taste preference of athletes and women who reported any exercise peaked in response to stimuli containing lower levels of fat. In comparison, taste preferences of women who did not exercise peaked in response to stimuli containing 10.5% or 37.6% fat. Post hoe tests indicated differences in taste preference among the groups for 10 of the 16 sensory stimuli (Figure 2). Swimmers rated stimuli containing 20% sucrose as significantly less pleasant than women who reported no structured exercise or 1-3 hours of exercise per week. Women who reported exercising for 3-7 h per week rated the high-sucrose samples as significantly less pleasant than controls who reported not exercising. For both swimmers and controls exercising 3-7 h per week, this aversion was most pronounced for the 37.6% fat/20% sucrose sample. In contrast, the swimmers reported the 0% fat/0% sucrose and 0% fat/10% sucrose stimuli as being significantly more pleasant than controls who did not exercise. Women who exercised for 1-3 h per week rated samples with 10"5% fat/5% sucrose and 10.5% fat/10-5% sucrose as significantly more pleasant than those who exercised for 3-7 hours per week.

31

TASTE PREFERENCE IN ATHLETES 120

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FIGURE 2. Preference ratings for swimmers and control groups divided by level of reported exercise. II, no exercise; +, 1-3 h exercise; *, 3-7 h exercise; I-I, swimmers. (A) no fat; (B) 3.5% fat; (C) 10-5% fat; (D) 37-6% fat. * = significant (p<0.05) differences in preference ratings among groups.

Sensory Ratings Figure 3 illustrates differences in perceived sweetness ratings. Sweetness ratings did not differ when swimmers were tested at the beginning or end of the athletes season, or between the two control groups. At low (0%) and moderate (10-5%) fat concentrations, swimmers perceived samples containing 20% sucrose as significantly sweeter than subjects in the other groups. Additionally, swimmers rated the 0% fat/ 10% sucrose and 10.5% fat/10% sucrose samples as significantly sweeter than the non-exercising controls. Both swimmers and high-exercise controls rated the 10.5% fat/5% sucrose and 37"6% fat/5% sucrose samples as significantly sweeter than nonexercising controls. Figure 4 illustrates ratings of perceived fat intensity. No differences in fat intensity ratings were observed for swimmers across the athletic season or between the two control groups. Irrespective of sucrose concentrations, at low-fat concentrations (0% and 3.5°,/0 fat), swimmers rated the stimuli as containing significantly less fat than low-exercise controls. At the highest fat concentration, however, the swimmers perceived stimuli as containing significantly more fat than all other groups. Post hoc tests also showed that high-exercise controls perceived the 10-5% fat/5% sucrose as significantly more fatty than athletes and no-exercise controls.

32

S. CRYSTAL E T AL. 140

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FIGURE 3. Sweetness ratings for swimmers and controls divided by level of reported exercise. HI, no exercise; +, 1-3 h exercise; *, 3-7 h exercise; V1, swimmers• (A) no fat; (B) 3-5% fat; (C) 10-5% fat; (D) 37-6% fat. *--significant (p <0.05) differences in sweetness ratings among groups.

DISCUSSION

The results of this experiment demonstrated differences in preference ratings as a function of physical activity. Varsity athletes and women who reported exercising three or more hours a week displayed decreased preferences for high-sucrose and high-fat stimuli relative to women who exercise less. In contrast, women who reported not exercising had the highest preference ratings for the 20% sucrose stimuli across all levels of fat. Preference ratings similar to those observed in swimmers have been reported for anorectics, bulimics and anorectic-bulimics (Drewnowski et al., 1987a, 1987b, 1988; Sunday & Halmi, 1990, 1991). It has been suggested that taste preferences may reflect dietary intake and may be related to the biological needs of the body, and/ or psychological beliefs about foods and tastes (Drewnowski & Greenwood, 1983; Drewnowski et al., 1985; Moskowitz, 1978). For example, concomitant to taste preference, anorectic women report consumption of a lower fat diet than normal weight controls (Beaumont et al., 1981), aversions to sweet and fatty foods (Drewnowski et al., 1988; Sunday & Halmi, 1991), and an increased preference for foods low in fat and calories (Sunday et al., 1992). To facilitate performance, athletes are often encouraged to eat a low-fat diet (Meridith & Stem, 1992). In the present study, analysis of 24-h dietary records revealed very structured eating patterns (one or

33

TASTE P R E F E R E N C E IN ATHLETES 140

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FIGURE 4. Fat ratings for swimmers and controls divided by level of reported exercise. . , no exercise; +, I-3 h exercise; *, 3-7 h exercise; I-1, swimmers. (A) no sucrose; (B) 5% sucrose; (C) 10% sucrose; (D) 20% sucrose. *=significant (p<0"05) differences in fat ratings among groups.

more meals containing the same foods, or the same food items appearing consistently on all diet records) in nine of the 16 swimmers. Taste stimuli which are similar to tastes found in the athlete's diet may then be very limited. Alterations from these limited tastes may be associated with a decrease in pleasantness ratings. Further analysis of dietary intake to determine if there is a direct relationship between food choice and taste preferences in athletes. The swimmer's decreased preference for high-sucrose/high-fat stimuli may be related to cognitive variables influencing food choice. Subjects diagnosed with eating disorders classify foods as "good", "dangerous" or "forbidden" differently than noneating-disorders controls. Normal control subjects indicate foods are forbidden or bad when they are nutritionally unbalanced or when they contain high amounts of food additives (Kales, 1990; Knight & Boland, 1987). In contrast, restrained eaters and those with eating disorders consider forbidden foods those which are high in calories, fat and/or sugar (Kales, 1990; Knight & Boland, 1987; Sunday et al., 1992). For restrained eaters and individuals with eating disorders," ingestion of perceived high-calorie foods can lead to guilt, and hence, can perpetuate aversions to these tastes (Sunday et al., 1992). It is possible that the swimmers perceive food in the same manner as restrained eaters or eating-disordered subjects. In support of this possibility, swimmers had higher mean restraint scores than non-athletes. Athletes' cognitive beliefs about foods should be examined to determine if they classify foods in the same way as individuals with eating disorders.

34

S. CRYSTALET AL.

In the present study, not only did preference ratings differ as a function of exercise but also sensory estimates of sweetness and fat content. With respect to sweetness ratings, in general, swimmers indicated high-sucrose stimuli as sweeter than did control subjects. With respect to fatness, swimmers rated low-fat stimuli as less fatty, and stimuli containing 37.6% fat as more fatty than controls. Studies on taste acuity of individuals with eating disorders generally have not reported differences between patients and controls (Drewnowski et al., 1987a, 1987b; Sunday & Halmi, 1991). However, at least one study has reported that bulimics rate taste stimuli as containing more fat than controls. This difference was most pronounced for stimuli made of half and half and heavy cream (Sunday & Halmi, 1990). Similarly, swimmers rated stimuli made of heavy cream as more fatty than controls. Several possibilities can be proposed for the similarities in taste preference and acuity between swimmers and individuals with eating disorders. It is possible that some of the swimmers suffered from undiagnosed eating disorders. Female athletes have been identified as one of the highest risk groups for the development of eating disorders (e.g. Borgan & Cobin, 1987; Brownell et al., 1992; Huber, 1993). Athletes might be less likely to admit aberrant eating behavior and might not respond truthfully on questionnaires. Athletes may be concerned that their feeding problems will be realized by coaches and teammates and that they will be barred from competition (Brownell et al., 1992; Dummer et al., 1987; Wilson & Eldredge, 1992). Additionally, because of their increased muscle mass, female athletes may be less likely to fall 15% below their expected weight and thus fulfill one of the diagnostic criterion for anorexia nervosa (American Psychiatric Association, 1987). Even if the swimmers did not have diagnosable eating disorders, they may have shared some commonalities with individuals with eating disorders. For example, dieting, vomiting and the use of laxatives and diuretics have been reported to be used by athletes in attempts to lose weight (Dummer et al., 1987). Future studies should employ measures such as the Eating Attitudes Test or the Eating Disorder Inventory to determine the prevalence of disordered eating among athletes. Further evidence that exercise influences taste preference comes from comparing controls tested in the fall and winter. Controls tested in the fall reported higher levels of exercise and showed decreased preferences for taste stimuli high in fat and sucrose. Because of the differences between the control groups, subjects were subdivided according to self-reported level of exercise. Taste preferences of controls who reported the greatest amount of exercise were most similar to swimmers. It is clearly recognized that post-hoe grouping and self-report are not optimal means of evaluating the effects of exercise on taste preference and acuity. However, these techniques allowed the collection of preliminary data and suggest that dividing subjects into groups according to exercise levels may be a useful approach in future studies. Similarities in preference and acuity ratings between athletes and individuals with eating disorders could also reflect physiological similarities such as body fat content. Sensory preference for fat has been found to vary directly as a function of body fat percentage (Mela & Sacchetti, 1991). It is possible that because both athletes and individuals with anorexia nervosa have lower levels of body fat than control subjects (Brownell et al., 1987; Malina, 1992) they displayed an aversion to high-fat stimuli. In conclusion, taste preferences and sensory perceptions of athletes differed from those of controls. Whether these differences reflect psychological or physiological variables remains to be tested. Future research should explore whether taste preferences and intensity ratings vary as a function of gender, athletic event, intensity

TASTE PREFERENCE IN ATHLETES

35

of exercise or body fat content. Additionally, profiles of taste hedonics and acuity should be examined at different time points after the athlete has ended their competitive career, as well as when they are injured. REFERENCES American Psychiatric Association (1987) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. Beaumont, P. J. V., Chambers, T. L., Rouse, L. & Abraham, S. F. (1981) The diet composition and nutritional knowledge of patients with anorexia nervosa. Journal of Human Nutrition, 35, 265-73. Borgan, J. S. & Corbin, C. B. (1987) Eating disorder among female athletes. The Physician and Sports Medicine, 15, 89-95. Brownell, K. D. & Rodin, J. (1992) Prevalence of eating disorders in athletes. In: K. D. Brownell, J. Rodin & J. H. Wilmore (Eds.), Eating, Body Weight and Performance in Athletes,, pp. 128-145. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. Brownell, K. D., Steen, S. N. & Wilmore, J. H. (1987) Weight regulation practices in athletes: analysis of metabolic and health effects. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 19, A16-126. Brownell, K. D., Rodin, J. & Wilmore, J. H. (1992) Eating, body weight, and performance in athletes: an introduction. In: K. D. Brownell, J. Rodin & J. H. Wilmore (Eds.), Eating, Body Weight and Performance in Athletes,, pp. 3-15. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. Cabanac, M. (1979) Sensory pleasure. Quarterly Review of Biology, 54, 1-29. Drewnowski, A. (1989) Sugar and fat: sensory and hedonic evaluation of liquid and solid foods. Physiology and Behavior, 45, 177-83. Drewnowski, A. & Greenwood, M. R. C. (1983) Cream and sugar preference for high-fat food. Physiology and Behavior, 30, 629-33. Drewnowski, A., Pierce, B. & Halmi, K. A. (1988) Fat aversion in eating disorders. Appetite, 10, 119-31. Drewnowski, A., Bellisle, F., Aimez, P. & Remy, B. (1987a) Taste and bulimia. Physiology

and Behavior, 41,621~. Drewnowski, A., Brunzell, J. D., Sancle, K., Iverius, P. H. & Greenwood, M. R. C. (1985) Sweet tooth reconsidered: taste preference in human obesity. Physiology and Behavior, 35, 617-22. Drewnowski, A., Halmi, K. A., Pierce, B., Gibbs, J. & Smith, G. P. (1987b) Taste and eating disorders. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 46, 442-50. Dummer, G. M., Rosen, L. W., Heusner, W. W., Roberts, P. J. & Counsilman, J. E. (1987) Pathogenic weight-control behaviors of young competitive swimmers. The Physician and Sports Medicine, 15, 75-84. Enns, M. P., Drewnowski, A. & Grinker, J. A. (1987) Body composition, body size estimation, and attitudes towards eating in male college athletes. Psychosocial Medicine, 49, 56-64. Esses, V. M. & Herman, P. H. (1984) Palatability of sucrose before and after glucose ingestion in dieters and nondieters. Physiology and Behavior, 32, 711-4. Frye, C. A., Crystal, S., Ward, K. D. & Kanarek, R. B. (1994) Menstrual cycle and dietary restraint influence taste preference in young women. Physiology and Behavior, in press. Herman, P. C. & Polivy, J. (1980) Restrained eating. In: A. J. Stunkard (Ed.), Obesity,. pp. 208-225. Philadelphia: H. B. Saunders. Huber, S. (1983) Starving for competition. Sports Nutrition News, 2, 1-4. Kales, E. T. (1990) Macronutrients analysis of binge eating in bulimia: Physiology and Behavior, 48, 837-40. Kleinfield, E. I. & Lowe, M. R. (1991) Weight loss and sweetness preference: the effects of recent versus past weight loss. Physiology and Behavior, 49, 1037-42. Knight, L. L. & Boland, F. J. (1989) Restrained eating: an experimental disentanglement of the disinhibiting variables of perceived calories and food type. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 98, 412-20. Malina, R. M. (1992) Physique and body composition: effects on performance and effects of training, semistarvation, and overtraining. In: K. D. Brownell, J. Rodin and J. H. Wilmore

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