Paleoenvironmental fluctuations as recorded in the loess-paleosol sequence of the Upper Paleolithic site Krems-Wachtberg

Quaternary International xxx (2013) 1e16

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Paleoenvironmental fluctuations as recorded in the loess-paleosol sequence of the Upper Paleolithic site Krems-Wachtberg B. Terhorst a, *, P. Kühn b, B. Damm c, U. Hambach d, S. Meyer-Heintze a, S. Sedov a,1 a

Institute of Geography and Geology, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, D-97074 Würzburg, Germany Research Area Geography, Chair of Physical Geography and Soil Science, Laboratory of Soil Science and Geoecology, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Rümelinstrabe 19-23, D-72070 Tübingen, Germany c Institute of Structural Research and Planning (ISPA), University of Vechta, Driverstraße 22, D-49377 Vechta, Germany d Chair of Geomorphology, Geosciences, University of Bayreuth, D-95440 Bayreuth, Germany b

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Available online xxx

The loess-paleosol sequence of Krems-Wachtberg is famous for its archeological findings, above all its Gravettian infant burials. It represents a complex system of paleoclimatic fluctuations which is nearly complete and thus, enables the correlation with global paleoclimatic records. This sequence comprises activity phases with dominant eolian and partly erosional processes as well as stable, short periods of weak pedogenesis. Periglacial environment with drier climate conditions and high eolian sedimentation rates characterize the upper part of the sequence and in periods with lower sedimentation rates, Cryosols and permafrost induced structures are developed. Although the Krems-Wachtberg site is situated at a slope position, intensive erosional phases/events can be excluded. The basal parts of the sequence show signs of decalcification, bioturbation, organic inclusions, as well as changes in element distribution. Pedogenic horizons are partly overprinted by permafrost-related structures and are disturbed by redepositional processes to a minor degree. Remarkably, the archeological horizon is not affected by permafrost, in contrast to the layers below and above. The focus of this study is deciphering stratigraphy by a combination of paleopedologicalesedimentological analyses with rock magnetic analyses. On the chronological scale, the sequence records a timespan from w35 ka to w20 ka. Altogether, there is evidence of five pedogenic units and one archeological layer, which are correlated with the Greenland Interstadials GI 7 to GI 2. However, an equivalent of a MIS 3 interstadial soil e comparable with the Lohne Soil or Stillfried B soil e could not be detected. Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

core samples. On that account, loess-paleosol sequences bridge the gap between global paleo-temperature records and regional paleoecological developments (Pécsi and Richter, 1996; Musil, 2010). Merging information from both types of archives provides general and even specific knowledge of how local geo-systems reacted to a change of global patterns, especially to climate change. These studies become even more complex when modern humans (Händel et al., 2009a; Velichko et al., 2009) or earlier hominids (Ranov, 1995, 2001) get involved and leave their traces in loess-paleosol sequences. This merging of archeological and pedosedimentary contexts provides a unique insight into precise chronological and paleoenvironmental settings of the Paleolithic cultures. At the same time archeological records can be linked to spatial and temporal paleoecological information of paleoenvironments. Lower Austria is well-known for its loess-paleosol sequences, for example in Stratzing, Göttweig, Stillfried and Willendorf (a.o. Fink, 1976; Zöller et al., 1994; Nigst et al., 2008a; Peticzka et al.,

The complex overlap of lithospheric, hydrospheric, biospheric, geomorphic, and atmospheric processes is recorded in loesspaleosol sequences. In particular, the pedosphere forms an interface between the different domains and contains pedogenic data as a valuable archive of paleoecology, paleoclimate, and paleotopography. Neither local nor the regional consequences of climate change can be extracted from globally relevant archives like deep sea or ice

* Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (B. Terhorst), peter.kuehn@ uni-tuebingen.de (P. Kühn), [email protected] (B. Damm), ulrich.hambach@ uni-bayreuth.de (U. Hambach), [email protected] (S. Meyer-Heintze), [email protected] (S. Sedov). 1 Present address: Instituto de Geología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cd. Universitaria, 04510 México, D.F., Mexico. 1040-6182/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.03.045

Please cite this article in press as: Terhorst, B., et al., Paleoenvironmental fluctuations as recorded in the loess-paleosol sequence of the Upper Paleolithic site Krems-Wachtberg, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.03.045

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2010; Thiel et al., 2011a). Detailed investigation has been conducted in loess records related to archeological findings (e.g. Antl-Weiser et al., 1997; Neugebauer-Maresch, 2008; Einwögerer et al., 2009; Händel et al., 2009a). However, the well-developed loess-paleosol sequences of Lower Austria have not experienced much attention since the studies of Fink (1956, 1976, 1978). The complete Krems-Wachtberg profile comprises a section of a loess-paleosol sequence of more than 8 m in total with a Gravettian find layer in the depth of 5.5 m below the surface (Einwögerer et al., 2006; Händel et al., 2009b, 2013). For the basal parts of the sequence, which include the archeological horizon, the age ranges between w26 and w29 ka BP (after Einwögerer et al., 2009). Based on results of environmental magnetic investigations and subsequent correlations with the North-GRIP ice core, Hambach (2010) suggests a time span between w20 and w40 ka for the entire sequence down to underlying gravels at a depth of about 8 m. Luminescence dating conducted by Lomax et al. (2012) supported the age estimations for the upper 5.5 m of the sequence in a time span between w21 and w31 ka. Thus, the studied KremsWachtberg profile comprises the upper part of MIS 3 as well as a major part of MIS 2. In general, a distinct paleosol can be identified for the upper Middle Würmian/Upper MIS 3 of W European loess sequences. In Germany it is designated as Lohne Soil (Schönhals et al., 1964; Semmel, 1968), whereas in Austria or the Czech Republic (Dolní stonice) it is referred to as Stillfried B (Fink, 1961, 1976) or as PKI Ve (Zöller et al., 1994; Frechen et al., 1999). With increasing continental climate to the East and Southeast, interstadial soils are difficult to detect by field methods (Markovi c et al., 2008; Zöller, 2010). In this context, paleosols designated to Stillfried B consist of a series of very weakly developed and initial horizons at its key section in E Austria (Peticzka et al., 2010), whereas the more humid areas in NW Austria record a well-developed paleosol for the upper Middle Würmian (Terhorst et al., 2002). The chronology of this pedocomplex, as well as its interregional and global correlation is still under discussion. The Lohne Soil or the Stillfried B interstadial soil could not be recognized to date in the western part of Lower Austria (Zöller et al., 1994; Terhorst et al., 2011). Relevant loesspalaeosol sequences, such as in Willendorf or Stratzing, show an alternation of several weak and thin paleosols, grayish cryic horizons, and sandy to silty layers for the period of interest (Nigst et al., 2008b; Thiel et al., 2011a,b). In this context, the time scale of the Krems-Wachtberg archeological site is of major relevance for paleopedological and pedostratigraphical approaches. The time span has already been characterized in different types of archives by numerous paleoclimate and paleoenvironmental fluctuations (Andersen et al., 2006; Spötl et al., 2006; Svensson et al., 2006; Ruth et al., 2007; Rasmussen et al., 2008; Antoine et al., 2009). The response of geo-systems to those changes is of major interest for the humaneenvironmental interaction during the time of occupation of an archeological site. Beside paleotemperature and paleoprecipitation, the occurrence of permafrost or deep soil freezing, soil humidity, vegetative cover, wind characteristics, and topography essentially influence human activities (cf. Musil, 2010). Any paleoenvironmental data as well as information on slope processes are crucial for an overview of the natural conditions in the context of an archeological excavation. The present study accompanies the archeological prospection (among others Einwögerer et al., 2006; Händel et al., 2009a,b, 2013) by paleopedological, micromorphological, sedimentological, pedochemical and environmental magnetic analyses in order to record paleoenvironmental fluctuations. In this context, there is a focus on paleopedological field analyses in order to detect signs of paleoclimatic influence, such as frost structures and initial pedogenic processes. The studied profile is well-known for its differentiated development

and in particular for the variable dynamics of slope processes and landscape formation (Händel et al., 2009a,b; Hambach, 2010). Micromorphological investigations were carried out close to the archeological horizon in order to sharpen and/or to strengthen the field results. In particular, micromorphological features in paleosols reflect soil forming processes that can be related to environments, in which processes like clay illuviation, calcification, decalcification, redoximorphosis or relocation took place (e.g. Bronger et al., 1994; Kemp,1998; Fedoroff et al., 2010). Micromorphology gives information on the intensity of soil forming processes and their succession, and also helps e e.g. by using pedogenic feature sets e to refine or support the pedostratigraphy of loess-paleosol sequences (e.g. Kühn et al., 2006a). Element analysis is widely used in loess-paleosol research (e.g. Yang et al., 2006; Muhs et al., 2008; Bokhorst et al., 2009; Buggle et al., 2011; Varga et al., 2011). It is frequently presented in the form of various “weathering indices”, which indicate the cumulative effect of leaching and mineral alteration. In the case of the Krems-Wachtberg profile advanced weathering cannot be supposed. Therefore, contents of selected elements, together with soil organic carbon content, carbonate content and contents of oxalate extractable, dithionite extractable, and total iron were used as indicators for an interaction of initial pedogenesis, different sedimentation processes, and human impact. 2. Study area The city of Krems in Lower Austria is located at the eastern boundary of the Wachau region, where the river Krems flows into the river Danube (Fig. 1). In terms of climate it is a transitional area between maritime and continental influences. Climate is characterized by a mean annual air temperature of 9.4
C and annual mean precipitation rates between 500 and 550 mm, a relatively dry climate (ZAMG, 2002). The study area represents a geomorphological transition between two landscapes. To the west of the city of Krems the Danube cuts a narrow valley into the basal complex of the Bohemian Massif, whereas to the east of the city of Krems the Danube forms an alluvial fan reaching into the Tullnerfeld basin. The Danube as well as the river Krems formed a complex system of terraces above their present-day river beds, which have been covered with loess sediments of different age. The oldest loess is only preserved in geomorphologically sheltered positions, for instance at foot slope positions between two terraces. The Upper Pleistocene loess is superimposed discordantly on older loess deposits and covers older land forms in the form of a sheet (Thiel et al., 2011b). The studied loess-paleosol sequence of Krems-Wachtberg is located on a spur, which is part of a Danube terrace above the city of Krems. It is situated in the lower part of the southeastern slope of Kuhberg (398 m a.s.l.). The loess-paleosol sequence lies on top of Lower Pleistocene gravel. The Wachtberg sequence is situated in a rich and well-developed section of the Upper Pleistocene loess at 257 m a.s.l. In 2007, the southern wall of the excavation exhibited an undisturbed loess-paleosol record of 5.5 m thickness, which is the focus of the present study. 3. Methods The field description is based on the standard procedures of the German Field Book for Soil Survey (Ad-hoc-AG Boden, 2005), and data were later transferred to the international schemes of the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2006). Munsell values are used to describe the colors of the dry samples under laboratory conditions and the soil moist color under field conditions (Table 1). Paleopedological field studies, sedimentological as well as pedochemical investigations were

Please cite this article in press as: Terhorst, B., et al., Paleoenvironmental fluctuations as recorded in the loess-paleosol sequence of the Upper Paleolithic site Krems-Wachtberg, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.03.045

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Fig. 1. Location of the Krems-Wachtberg profile in Lower Austria at the exit of the Wachau valley.

carried out in the S-profile, which was the only accessible part in 2007 due to the ongoing archeological excavation. Eight samples (horizons GH 18e21, GH 25, AH 4, GH 27) were taken for micromorphological investigations close to the archeological horizon in the W-profile. The air-dried samples were impregnated with Oldopal P80-21, cut and polished to 6 cm by 9 cm slices following the procedure of Beckmann (1997). Thin sections were described under a polarizing microscope, mainly using the terminology of Stoops (2003). For sedimentology and pedochemical analyses, bulk samples were taken by horizon. The samples were air-dried and sieved (<2 mm). One aliquot of the samples was digested with aqua regia under microwave radiation for analyses of the bulk chemical composition (Ca, Mg, Fe, Al, S). The extraction of oxalate soluble compounds (Fe) was performed according to the procedures described in DIN 19684-6 (Blume, 2000) and dithionite extraction for the elements Mn and Fe after Mehra and Jackson (1960) and Schlichting et al. (2011). Calcium acetateelactate (CAL) extraction for Phosphorus follows VDLUFA A 6.2.11 (Blume, 2000). The element content was measured using inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) at the facilities of the University of Göttingen. The content of CaCO3 was measured using a Carmhograph C12S (Wösthoff) device. For the determination of total organic carbon (TOC) a C/N analyzer (euro EA 3000 HEKAtech) was used. Grain size distribution was performed with a combined sieveand pipette-analysis according to Köhn. Coarse sand (2000e 630 mm), middle sand (630e200 mm) and fine sand (200e63 mm)

were determined by sieving. The fractions of coarse silt (63e 20 mm), medium silt (20e6.3 mm), fine silt (6.3e2 mm) and clay (<2 mm) were obtained by pipette-analysis. The methods used to gain the environmental magnetic data are described in detail in Hambach (2010). This paper gives an introduction into the methodological basics essential for understanding the results of the environmental magnetic investigations. Magnetic susceptibility (MS) roughly reflects the bulk amount of magnetic minerals in the sediment, and is largest for very fine so-called superparamagnetic particles (SP, <30e50 nm), whereas the anhysteretic remanent magnetisation (ARM) only reflects the amount of relatively fine-grained soft-magnetic remanence carriers, and is largest for socalled single domain (SD, roughly  30e50 nm) grains up to small multi domain (MD) grains (z100e200 nm). Consequently, the ratio of ARM to MS (ARM/MS) does not depend on concentration changes at all, but provides important information on composition and grain size distribution of magnetic mineral assemblages. 4. Results 4.1. Paleopedological field analyses This study comprises the horizons GH 6 to 28 of the S-profile 2005-7/10-11 (cf. Händel et al., 2013: Figs. 1 and 6), with the uppermost horizons (GH 1e5) already being cut and the lowermost horizons (GH 29e39) not accessible for sampling in 2007. The total thickness of the exposure is 5.50 m (Fig. 2). The whole sequence is

Please cite this article in press as: Terhorst, B., et al., Paleoenvironmental fluctuations as recorded in the loess-paleosol sequence of the Upper Paleolithic site Krems-Wachtberg, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.03.045

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Table 1 Pedologic field description and Munsell soil colors of the southern Krems-Wachtberg profile (GH 6eGH 28) according to WRB (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2006) and Guidelines for soil description (FAO, 2006). The archeological horizon is marked with dark gray, Cryosols with light gray. No. GH GH GH GH GH GH GH GH GH GH GH GH GH GH GH GH GH GH GH GH GH GH GH a b c d e f

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

Horizona

Depth (cm)

Color (field)

Color (dry)

Textureb

Structurec,d

Lower boundarye

Other featuresf

Cg C C Cg Cg@ C C Cg@ Cg@ C C@ C C Cg C@ Cg C C Cg C Cg Cg BC

68e72 72e120 120e123 123e173 173e185 185e210 210e225 225e240 240e280 280e305 305e312 312e338 338e356 356e370 370e400 400e414 414e440 440e460 460e467 467e472 472e491 491e520 520e560

2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y

2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y 2.5Y

Si Si Si Si SiL1 SiL Si Si Si Si Si SiL SiL Si SiL Si Si Si Si Si Si Si SiL1

1 pl þ cr fi 1 bl þ ab ma 1 bl þ pl 1 bl þ ab þ pl ma 1 bl þ pl 1 bl co 1 pl co ma 1 pl 1 pl þ bl 1 bl 1 pl ma 1 bl 1 pl 1 pl 1 bl 1 pl ma 1 bl þ 2 pl 1 sb

cw cw cw cw ci cs ci ci cw cw cw cw cw cs cw cw gw cw cw cw cw cw cw

e e Fe Fe, PM e e Mn, PM Fe, PM Mn e e Mn e Mn-band e Mn Mn e e e e e e

7/3 7/3 7/3 6/3 6/4 7/3 7/3 6/4 7/3 7/3 7/3 7/3 7/2 6/3 7/3 7/3 7/3 6/3 6/3 6/3 6/3 5/3 5/2

8/2 8/2 8/2 8/2 8/2 8/2 8/2 8/2 8/2 8/2 8/2 8/2 8/2 7/3 7/3 7/3 7/3 7/3 7/3 7/3 7/3 7/3 7/3

@ ¼ evidence of cryoturbation (acc. to FAO, 2006). Si ¼ silt, SiL ¼ silt loam (clay-poor), SiL1 ¼ silt loam (clay-rich). Grade: 1 ¼ weak, 2 ¼ moderate. ma ¼ massive, pl ¼ platy, cr ¼ crumbly, bl ¼ blocky, ab ¼ angular blocky, sb ¼ subangular blocky, fi ¼ fine/thin, co ¼ coarse/thick. c ¼ clear, g ¼ gradual; w ¼ wavy, i ¼ irregular, s ¼ smooth. Redoximorphic features of Fe ¼ iron, Mn ¼ manganese; PM ¼ pseudomycelia.

extremely calcareous (>25% for the major parts) and carbonate values could not be differentiated using field methods, and are therefore not listed further in Table 1. However, secondary carbonates partly occur in the form of pseudomycelia. The lower boundaries of the horizons and layers are clear and wavy in most cases. Exceptions can be derived from Table 1. In general, the upper horizons of the sequence (GH 5e21) show signs of cryic and stagnic processes, whereas in the lower part (GH 22e28) weak pedogenesisis characterized by an alternation of stagnic features with weak silicate weathering is present. Soil formation is frequently interrupted or disturbed by loess accumulation. Irregularities in texture are mainly limited to the lower boundaries of Cryosols, indicated by an accumulation of fine gravel. Additionally a sandy band is reported in GH 22 and a slight increase of clay can be determined in GH 23. Overall, four individual Cryosol complexes (Reductaquic) can be verified (Fig. 2). Cryosol complex I includes the sections from GH 8 to 10. GH 8 starts at a depth of 1.20 m with an average thickness of only 3 cm, showing an undisturbed, coherent and massive structure. Redoximorphic features developed into a thin blackish iron band. Horizon GH 9 displays numerous properties and thus can be subdivided further. The structure of the horizon’s upper part is weakly blocky in some parts and has rusty oxidized patches. It is interspersed with pores and macropores. The basal boundary contains small rock fragments. The amount of pores declines along the horizon compared to its upper part and the structure becomes platy. Four bands are found in this horizon, two of them grayish, the other two darker than the matrix color. In the lowermost part of GH 9 the amount of voids and structural components further decreases and gives way to patches of very fine pseudomycelia. The underlying GH 10 is the basal horizon of Cryosol complex I. Texture is characterized by a slightly enhanced clay content, the structure is blocky to subangular blocky, and additionally platy components could be noticed. The lower boundary is irregular with small ice wedge-like and

pocket-like shapes. Stones with a diameter of 0.5e1 cm accumulated above it. The complete soil complex measures 0.65 m. Redoximorphic features are more intense and abundant in the lower horizons and GH 10 corresponds to the best developed cryic horizon. The layers GH 11 and GH 12 are embedded between Cryosol complex I and II (Fig. 2). GH 11 has no specific structure and is vertically fissured. Bedding is less dense than in the previous horizon. In contrast to the latter, GH 12 again represents a transitional horizon to a soil influenced by stagnic conditions, which is implied by its inhomogeneous grayish-mottled coloring and tiny manganese speckles. The structure shows blocky as well as platy constituents and micropores distributed throughout the whole layer. Carbonates form pseudomycelia and are also present in the form of few shattered molluscs. The lower boundary has an irregular shape with pockets. GH 13 indicates the uppermost horizon of Cryosol complex II and has a coarse blocky structure and pseudomycelia. The brownish matrix color is interspersed by bright grayish patches and bands. Iron nodules can be found in lower areas as well as some gravel with a diameter of 0.5 cm in pockets of the irregular lower boundary. GH 14 is the lowermost horizon of Cryosol complex II. It demonstrates a transition from patchy rusty colors to manganese mottling, partly in pinprick-like shape. GH 14 includes gravel as in GH 13, but with smaller diameter (2 mm) and angular shapes. GH 15 is a homogenous loess layer. The subsiding Cryosol complex III comprises the horizons GH 16 to 19, which alternate in their intensity of stagnic features. GH 16 involves a well-developed platy frost structure, and GH 17 is interspersed with manganese mottles. GH 18 shows almost no stagnic features as well as no frost structures, whereas GH 19 records an intensely developed Cryosol horizon with a thin (2 cm on average) fossil manganese band on top (Fig. 2). Closer to the archeological layer, one more Cryosol (GH 21, Cryosol IV) is present. It shows a weak blocky structure and a transitional color pattern with manganese mottles similar to the

Please cite this article in press as: Terhorst, B., et al., Paleoenvironmental fluctuations as recorded in the loess-paleosol sequence of the Upper Paleolithic site Krems-Wachtberg, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.03.045

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following GH 25 horizon is characterized by a double ash layer (Fig. 2). It is prominent in the whole area and was also reported at the nearby excavation of Krems-Hundssteig, indicating a large-scale tundrasteppe fire after the main human occupation (Händel et al., 2009b). Underneath, horizon GH 26 shows a massive structure without soil aggregates and a light grayish coloring. In places and only very local, bands with reduced and oxidized iron and a weak platy structure are present. The archeological horizon AH 4 is embedded in the lower part of GH 26. In the central part of the site its base (AH 4.4) is dark colored mainly due to pieces of charcoals (for detailed field studies of the archeological horizon and the living floor cf. Händel et al., 2009b, 2013). It is superimposed on GH 27, which partly has a well- developed frost-platy structure. In places, it is influenced by stagnic properties and grayish color. GH 28 shows subangular blocky structure and a slightly higher content of clay. GH 28 is described as a BC horizon, which reflects initial soil formation with a tendency to decalcification and brunification (grayish brown ¼ 2.5Y5/2, see Table 1). 4.2. Micromorphological analyses Concerning the micromorphological analyses, sampling concentrated on selected horizons, which are close to the archeological horizon and were accessible during field work in the West Profile 2007e9 (Händel et al., 2013). GH 18: Loose, incomplete crumbly infillings with sparite occur in some channels. The material is well sorted building up a channel microstructure disturbed by some passage features. Few weakly developed micritic secondary carbonates (micritic hypocoatings) around channels and some round patches of non-calcareous groundmass (silty material) occur (Fig. 3). This layer can be interpreted as in situ-loess with small signs of decalcification and bioturbation. The decalcification in patches is the only noticeable non-biotic pedogenic process in this thin section. The non-calcareous patches can be interpreted as lines of preferential flow within the sediment. GH 19: Wavy micritic bands mostly occur oriented horizontally (Fig. 4). These bands e similar to micropans e are possibly a result of carbonate precipitation during the drying periods following thawing of frozen material. Their upper wavy features point at former flow processes. Fragments of bones (Ø 250 mm; Fig. 5), stones, and minerals with up to 1.5 mm in diameter as well as the banded fabric confirm the formation of this layer by re-deposition and mixing of

Fig. 2. Paleopedology of the studied loess-paleosol sequence of Krems-Wachtberg on the base of field analyses.

described one in GH 14. Gravel accumulated at the top of the layer and cryoturbation structures in form of small waves are present at the lower boundary. Horizon GH 22 (2.5Y7/3) consists of silt characterized by dispersed manganese pinpricks and a weak platy, frost related structure (Fig. 2). The horizon is interrupted by a sand layer, which sporadically includes small gravels. GH 23 is similar to horizon GH 22, however, manganese mottles and sand bands are lacking macroscopically and the color is slightly darker (2.5Y6/3). The underlying horizon (GH 24) is very similar to the upper horizon. The structure becomes weakly blocky, boundaries are very clear, and in places it shows stagnic features. The

Fig. 3. GH 18 e channels on the right hand side (Ø 100e200 mm) with weakly developed micritic hypocoatings (blue arrows). Centre: decalcified patch, which looks like a completely filled channel. Since the groundmass is similar to the surrounding groundmass it can be interpreted as a result of in situ-decalcification (infillings would usually contain sparite in that context) e crossed polarizers. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Please cite this article in press as: Terhorst, B., et al., Paleoenvironmental fluctuations as recorded in the loess-paleosol sequence of the Upper Paleolithic site Krems-Wachtberg, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.03.045

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Fig. 4. GH 19 e lenticular plates with micritic cappings. Inverse grading is probably due to micritic precipitation on top of lenticular peds (GH 19) e one polarizer.

loess and sand sized sediments (Fig. 6). Platy microstructure with micritic hypocoatings on top of lenticular peds (partly with inverse grading) demonstrates previous freeze-thaw cycles (Fig. 4, Kühn et al., 2006b; Van Vliet-Lanoë, 2010). Some round patches of noncalcareous silty material occur (see also GH 18). GH 19 consists of redeposited and mixed loess and sandy material. Re-depositional processes occurred in combination with freezing and thawing. Post-depositional bioturbation (numerous passage features) destroyed the platy microstructure and mixed features of different origin. GH 20: Most prominent is a massive (Fig. 7) to channelized microstructure. The material is well sorted, mainly consisting of silt. Only few channels and some passage features occur. Finely dispersed calcite is represented in acrystallitic b-fabric. This layer can be interpreted as in situ-loess with a low degree of bioturbation. GH 21: Partly occurring lenticular plates are interpreted as a result of freezing and thawing (Fig. 8, see also GH 20). Fragments (Ø 2e3 mm) of granitic stones and sandy material occur, oriented in bands and patches as well as rounded micriticpeds and nodules (Ø 250e500 mm). Numerous fragments of mollusc shells were found. Peds and nodules point at relocation and deposition of loess and mixing with non-loessic material. The occurrence of few weakly developed micritic hypocoatings and non-calcareous patches show de-and re-calcification processes. Channel and partly lenticular microstructure occur as well as passage features

Fig. 5. GH 19 e bone fragment (around 300 mm in diameter) in the center e one polarizer.

(Fig. 9). Porosity, mainly represented by numerous channels, is much higher compared to GH 20. This layer can be interpreted as redeposited loess mixed with sandy material. Relocation processes are supposed to have occurred during a time when freezing and thawing took place after deposition of the (pedo-)sediments. Signs of in situ pedogenic features are de- and re-calcification. The high amount of channels can be interpreted as a result of intense rooting. The latter and bioturbation occurred post-depositional. GH 25 and transition to GH 26: The material mainly consists of well sorted silt except for few coarser components. Micritic hypocoatings show a slight enrichment of secondary carbonate. A wavy band of black organic tissues and residues occurs in the middle of the thin section (GH 25). This band either marks a former land surface or the contact zone of a periglacially induced infusion (Fig.10). Many passage features (crescentic orientation of grains) show strong bioturbation affecting this layer. Fragments of land snail shells frequently occur. The described samples represent a para-autochthonous layer, because of the rare occurrence of material coarser than silt. The band in the centre of the thin section can be seen as a former land surface, because of remnants of black organic material. Redepositional processes seem to be mostly caused by bioturbation and probably periglacially induced infusion processes. AH 4:Within the AH 4-layer fragments of charcoal, fresh bones, and burnt bones occur as well as fragments of rounded clayey reddish material. Some bioturbation, root action and burrowing activities are visible by voids and particularly channels and loose crumbly incomplete infillings (Fig. 11). The amount of passage features is much larger above than below AH 4. The dark colored base of AH 4 was documented as AH 4.4 and interpreted by the excavators as in situ living floor (Händel et al., 2009a). Here, most of the fragments are oriented parallel to the former surface, only few with vertical or inclined orientation. Therefore, it can be inferred that most of the material is in situ and only weak relocation processes took place within the layer at the sampling area. The slope upwards AH 4 (AH 4.1) was subject to erosional processes, since fragments (<1 cm in diameter) of AH 4.4-material were deposited at least within the upper 3 cm above AH 4.4. Also, 5 cm above AH 4.4 burnt and fresh fragments of bones occur, probably of different origin, whereas below AH 4.4 fragments of bones or charcoal are absent (Fig. 11). Below AH 4, unit GH 27a reveals massive to weakly developed microstructure. Porosity in layer GH 27a is much lower than above AH 4. Possible compaction of GH 27a may be a result of trampling. Features of secondary calcification (sparitic infillings, carbonate coatings and sparitic root wrappings without roots and/or rhizoliths respectively) predominantly occur in and above AH 4, but to a much lower extent below. GH 27:The texture is very well sorted (mainly silt) with nearly no coarse grains. No signs of pedogenic processes or freeze and thaw cycles are detectable. Shells of molluscs are predominantly complete; only few shell fragments occur. The porosity of the material is constituted by the channel microstructure. Lots of passage features including loose crumby incomplete infillings show a high degree of post-depositional bioturbation. Some round patches of non-calcareous silty material occur. This layer can be interpreted as in situ-loess with a high degree of bioturbation and only weak signs of decalcification along lines of preferential flow. GH 27a: Slight precipitation of micritic carbonates around channels (micritic hypocoatings) is visible in this sample. Only few shells of molluscs occur. Finely dispersed calcite is represented by a crystalline b-fabric. This layer can be interpreted as in situ-loess with a low degree of bioturbation and weak redistribution of carbonate.

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Average Min

0.22 0.26 GH 27/28 0.31 GH 16

Average Max Min

1071 419 651 GH 19 GH 12

Average Max Min

22 630 14 317 18 260 GH 23 GH 15 190

Average Max Min

242 148 GH 19 GH 9

Average Max Min

36.4 2.7 6.7 AH 4 GH 10

Average Max Min

325 70 160 GH 19 GH 28

Average Max Min

33 758 16 550 23 359 GH 27 GH 19

Average Max Min Max

Fe (aqua regia), mg kg1 Mn (dithionite), mg kg1 P (CAL), mg kg1 S (aqua regia), mg kg1 Al (aqua regia), mg kg1 Ca (aqua regia), mg kg1

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4.3. Grain size analysis

Value 102 799 62 635 81 838 Horizon GH 15 GH 26

Fe (oxalate), mg kg1

Fe(d)/Fe(t)

27 400

Average Min

32 614 22 083 GH 15 AH 4

Average Max Min

8971 3938 5882 GH 27 GH 19 898

Average Max Min

487 GH 20 1678 GH 27

Average Max Min

0.45 0.10 0.24 GH 16 GH 11 32.1

Average Max Min

42.5 22.7 GH 9 AH 4

Average Max Min

5.86 9.46 GH 25 11.59 GH 6 83.58

Average Max Min

73.16 GH 22 89.16 GH 28

Average Max

11.31 7.71 GH 7

Min Max

Value 19.52 Horizon GH 22

Silt, w.-% Sand, w.-%

Table 2 Maxima, minima, and mean values of laboratory analyses.

Clay, w.-%

CaCO3, w.-%

C org., %-dry mass

Na (aqua regia), mg kg1 K (aqua regia), mg kg1 Mg (aqua regia), mg kg1

B. Terhorst et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2013) 1e16

The grain-sizes depict a homogenous and unremarkable distribution (Fig. 12 and Table 2). Sand fraction has its maximum content in GH 22, where a sandy band was documented by the field survey, and its minimum in GH 7. Fine sand constitutes the bulk of the sand fraction, whereas coarse and middle sand decrease (Fig. 12). A small variability of grain sizes can be observed for medium and coarse silt, whereas fine silt remains constant. Clay content does not vary significantly and has a slight maximum in GH 23. 4.4. Pedochemical analyses In general, the laboratory analysis of the CaCO3 equivalent supports the conclusion of the field observations, in that the sequence is extremely calcareous (>25%). However, certain differentiation of the carbonate content could be observed (Fig. 12, Table 2). The general trend is that the carbonate content is decreasing from the uppermost horizons to the lowermost ones. The highest carbonate equivalents are found in the middle part of Cryosol complex I (42.5%) and in GH 15, whereas the minimum is present in the archeological horizon (AH 4, 22.7%). Especially the section from GH 22 to GH 28, including archeological records, has relatively low carbonate content, compared to the rest of the profile, leading to a clear bipartite character of the sequence. Cryosols II to IV are unremarkable in their carbonate content. The content of soil organic carbon is low throughout the sequence (Fig. 12, Table 2). The values range between 0.10% (GH 11) and 0.45% (GH 16) with an average of 0.24%. The maximum of organic carbon is not found in the archeological part of the profile, which has charcoals, artifacts and human-influenced sediments, but in GH 16. Cryosol complexes I and II do not demonstrate higher organic carbon content, although a general tendency is a decrease of carbon from the upper to the lower part within each pedocomplex. Cryosol complex II contains higher rates of organic carbon, also with a clear decrease in vertical direction. GH 25 has a relatively high carbon content, which is differing from the surrounding loess package and is due to the carbon input of the double ash layer. The total element contents mostly reflect total mineralogy and are highly interdependent. As expected, calcium and magnesium measured in aqua regia dissolution reflect the CaCO3 equivalent values, as those elements are mostly bound to calcite and dolomite. As for CaCO3, the maximum peak of calcium is distinctive in GH 15 but the minimum is located in GH 26. The curve of magnesium shows a similar development (Figs. 12 and 13). The values of total iron develop inverse to calcium and further carbonates (Figs. 12 and 13). This indicates a relative accumulation of those elements, in horizons, where carbonate values are reduced. The maximum iron content is present in GH 23 (Table 2). All horizons of the basal sequence (GH 22e28) have values higher than the average. In situ loess horizons from the upper parts of the profile (GH 7, 11, 12, 15, and 17) are characterized by the lowest content of total iron. Aluminum tends towards an inverse trend compared to calcium (Figs. 12 and 13). Higher aluminum peaks occur close to and in the archeological layer in GH 25, GH 27, and AH 4 and smaller local maxima are present in GH 10 (Cryosol complex I) and GH 14 (Cryosol complex II). Sulfur takes a special position in that its curve seems to be independent from the aforementioned elements. In general, stagnic as well as cryic horizons display enhanced values. There is a significant peak in GH 19 (Cryosol complex III). Furthermore, the Cryosol complexes I and II record local maxima compared to the over- and underlying loess packages. The lowest values for sulfur

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Fig. 6. GH 19 e coarse material, sand sized grains consisting mostly of feldspars, quartz and biotite e crossed polarizers.

occur in the basal part of the sequence, which comprises the archeologically relevant section. The ‘drier’ loess horizons tend to have low values. Phosphorus (CAL extraction) has a significant peak in the archeological as well as in the associated horizons (Fig. 13). The loess sediments clearly show lower values. The distribution of oxalate extractable iron content shows significant differences to total iron content. Cryosol complex III (GH 19) contains the highest amount, whereas the lowest one occurs in the unweathered loess sediment of GH 12 between Cryosol complex I and II. Sulfur and manganese (dithionite extraction) have their highest values in GH 19 as well. With regard to the Cryosol complexes I to IV, no strict regularities in accumulation of sulfur, manganese and iron can be observed (Fig. 13). The soil horizons tend towards an enhanced Feo-content and Fed/Fet-ratio. Sulfur is slightly higher compared to the parent material. The ratio of Fed/Fet indicates GH 16 as the horizon with higher pedogenic properties (0.31). The values of Cryosol complex II (GH 14 and GH 13) are comparably low. Other remarkable values are located in Cryosols, namely GH 9 and GH 19 (0.29 both). The range of the ratios is very narrow. 4.5. Environmental magnetic results The results of the environmental magnetic investigations are available from a study published by Hambach et al. (2008a) and Hambach (2010). Magnetic property variations with depth/time in

Fig. 7. GH 20 e massive microstructure, characteristic for loess not influenced by pedogenesis. Note that weakly developed rounded structures could be interpreted as passage features (upper left hand side) e one polarizer.

sedimentary sequences are mainly climatically controlled, and therefore can serve as a relative dating tool if the timing of paleoclimatic variations is known independently (Hambach et al., 2008a). Consequently, the rock magnetic variations with depth in the loess sequences under investigation can be taken as a paleoclimatic record representing the climatic variations between drier and slightly more humid conditions at the transition from Middle to Upper Pleniglacial. Based on the magnetic records, a correlation of the loess at the Krems-Wachtberg site with the independently dated Greenland isotopic records is possible even with the resolution of a multi-millennial time scale. The magnetic susceptibility as function of depth resembles generally the lithology. Low MS-values represent pure unaltered loess, whereas higher values represent the enhancement of magnetic minerals caused by incipient soil formation. The record shows quasi-periodic variations and decreasing values towards the top of the section. The ARM/MS record, however, is devoid of any trend, but its variations are in general agreement with those of MS. Nevertheless, there is a clear difference between the course of the environmental magnetic records below and above GH 23 (Fig. 14). Below this level, the amplitude of MS variations is remarkably low, whereas the ARM/MS variations show the same amplitude throughout the section. This can be explained by low concentration changes of magnetic minerals below GH 23, whereas the relative amount of ultra-fine SP particles, responsible for ARM/MS

Fig. 8. GH 21 e lenticular platy microstructure, caused by several freeze-thaw cycles. Vertically oriented channels are caused by rooting or bioturbation and are younger than the lenticular plates (blue arrows) e one polarizer. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

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Fig. 9. GH 21 e crescent infilling (passage feature) with coarse (sand sized) material crosses the microphotograph from the upper right to the lower left corner, including biogenic calcite (blue arrows) e one polarizer. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

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Fig. 11. AH 4 e thin section (6  9 cm): Note the sharp lower boundary of AH4 (fragments of charcoal, fresh bones, and burnt bones occur as well as fragments of rounded clayey reddish material). Single fragments of AH4 and black fragments of charcoal occur above the upper boundary of AH4. This can be interpreted as a result of short-range erosional and deposition processes. Bioturbation, root action and burrowing activities are visible by whitish voids, channels and loose crumby infillings (blue arrows). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

variations, vary significantly. Hence, environmental conditions must have changed during the deposition of GH 23 and were probably slightly more humid and favorable before. 5. Paleoenvironmental implications 5.1. Paleopedological settings In general, the loess-paleosol sequence of Krems-Wachtberg reflects in situ loess deposition as well as the formation of four Cryosols (Reductaquic) with stagnic features and frost structures. The sequence is influenced by erosional and redepositional periods as shown by wavy boundaries (GH 10, 13, 14, 19, 21, and 22), enhanced sand content (GH 22), as well as by the presence of gravels (GH 10 and GH 14). In the lower parts, starting from GH 22, signs of initial pedogenesis in form of decalcification structures are present as proved by laboratory and micromorphological results (GH 22eGH 24). Although polygenetic processes partly indicate relocation processes, some weak signs of pedogenesis can be detected.

Fig. 10. GH 25 e thin section (6  9 cm): Inclined band of organ tissues and residues occurs in the middle of the thin section. Erosional surface or caused by infusion processes under periglacial conditions? Note the high amount of channels (whitish round or/and long areas).

5.1.1. Archeological layer and adjacent horizons Environmental conditions must have changed in the vicinity of the archeological horizon (AH 4). On top of the archeological horizon, redepositional processes and features of periglacial environments, thin cryic horizons, are present in places. This reflects the tendency to more cold and humid paleoclimatic conditions and not to full dry glacial conditions in the vicinity of the archeological horizon. Nevertheless, AH 4 is not influenced by frost structures, and represents an in situ horizon, particularly in the sampled part. On

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Fig. 12. Diagrams of the laboratory analyses of standard parameters (CaCO3, Corg) and the elements Na, K, Mg, Ca. The archeological horizon is marked with dark gray, Cryosols with light gray.

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Fig. 13. Diagrams of the laboratory analyses of selected elements (Al, S, Mg, P, Fe) extracted using aqua regia, oxalate, dithionite and CAL. The archeological horizon is marked with dark gray, Cryosols with light gray.

the one hand, former frost structures might have been disturbed by human impact. On the other hand, frost action did not affect the archeological horizon at a later point in time. The underlying horizon (GH 27) reflects a colder and dry paleoclimate. It is characterized by primary loess and in places, by cryic/stagnic features close to the archeological horizon. These facts lead to the assumption that during human occupation related to the basal part of AH 4, a short paleoclimatic fluctuation with a tendency to enhanced temperatures and more stable geomorphodynamic conditions took place. Several geochemical indicators point to a clear tendency to depletion of carbonates and increase of silicate components in the archeological horizons and associated layers (GH 23eGH 28) compared to the middle and upper parts of the profile (GH 5eGH 22). This tendency is verified by the decrease of carbonate content together with bulk Ca and Mg concentrations as well as by an increase of Al, K and Na (Figs. 12 and 13). The simultaneous increase of all three latter elements indicates that the Al maximum is not related to silicate weathering but rather due to higher quantities of fresh silicates, feldspars and micas, containing Na and K. This decrease of carbonates could partly be due to more intensive carbonate leaching in the course of incipient soil formation. However, micromorphological observations showed that these layers display only minor evidence of decalcification; primary calcites (including shell fragments) are abundant. Carbonate depletion zones are frequently accompanied by neo-formed micrite that points to short-distance intra-horizontal redistribution rather than complete removal. Another reason for the differences in carbonate content could be related to sedimentation mechanisms. The layers above the cultural horizon contain higher proportions of the carbonate-rich loessic material. In contrast, the layers adjacent to the archeological horizon are influenced by more local silicate components of colluvial origin. Sand particles in the thin sections from layers GH 20 to GH 26 and banded structures documented on macroscopic scale partly indicate colluvial sedimentation.

5.1.2. Cryosol complexes Four Cryosol complexes were differentiated by clear macroscopical features, such as reduction and oxidation sections, manganese mottles and concretions, as well as cryogenic structures in the horizons (Fig. 2 and Table 2). A change in sedimentation rate is reflected in the intensity and abundance of hydromorphic properties. Cryosol complexes I and II record the highest intensity, combined with platy frost structures in their basal parts, whereas in the upper parts the intensity is stepwise reduced, thus reflecting higher sedimentation rates in the upper horizons. Two intense stagnic horizons of Cryosol complex III are separated by in situ loess with sparse signs of stagnic features, which yields a period of higher sedimentation rates. Cryosol IV only consists of one horizon, which is characterized by intense stagnic and cryic features (Fig. 2). In this case, a stone line on top of the Cryosol (GH 21) indicates an erosional event and thus a truncation of the paleosol. This is also shown by the low content of Corg, which, in general, is slightly higher in the uppermost horizons of the Cryosol complexes. Although a dominant pedochemical pattern of the Cryosols could not be demonstrated, it is clear that for the major part, sulfur is slightly higher compared to the parent material. Furthermore, soil horizons tend towards an enhanced Feo-content and Fed/Fet-ratio. Only the values of Cryosol complex II are lower. In particular for Cryosol III, the coinciding maxima of total Mn, total S, and oxalate-extractable Fe in Cryosol III (GH 19) as a pedochemical signature of specific redoximorphic processes associated with permafrost (Figs. 12 and 13). The maximum of Feo is not accompanied by a significant increase of total or dithioniteextractable Fe. Iron hydroxides were partly converted into poorly crystalline oxalate-extractable forms, most probably by redoximorphic processes. Mn co-precipitates with Fe being even more mobile during alternating reductioneoxidation conditions. The maximum of sulfur is conspicuous and indicates a specific fixation mechanism for this highly mobile element. The process of iron

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Fig. 14. Correlation of the environmental magnetic record of the Krems-Wachtberg section (redrawn from Hambach, 2010: Fig. 4) with the isotopic record of the NGRIP isotopic curve (North Greenland Ice Core Project Members, 2004) compared to the Cryosol horizons in gray (this study).

sulfide neoformation is known for cold continental permafrost soils and sediments of North-Eastern Asia (Siegert, 1987). It takes place in the reduced water-logged layers above shallow permafrost in the alkaline medium provided by the presence of carbonates. Saturation with water was not accompanied by carbonate dissolution and leaching; it occurred in the presence of high amounts of carbonates provided by loess sedimentation in an alkaline soil environment. 5.2. Magnetic stratigraphy and further correlation In general, the paleopedological results reveal the presence of six weak pedogenetic units between GH 28 and GH 5. As the pedogenesis in Cryosol complex II seems to be weaker, results of magnetic susceptibility (Fig. 14) are in good agreement with the

paleopedogical data. Six phases characterized by enhanced values of magnetic proxies are recorded. The following section compares paleopedological results with the environmental magnetic curves (Hambach et al., 2008b; Hambach, 2010) and discusses their correlation with the North-GRIP (NGRIP) isotopic record (North Greenland Ice Core Project Members, 2004), with the NGRIP dust record (Ruth et al., 2007),as well as with dating results of Lomax et al. (2012). Ages of the NGRIP isotopic record are noted in rectangular brackets. The general trend of MS exhibits decreasing values towards the top of the section, which indicates a reduced concentration of magnetic minerals probably caused by increasing dryness with time. Climatically controlled decreases in pre-weathering in the catchments of the fluvial systems providing the silt for the loess formation may also account for this phenomenon. During the time

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of loess formation below GH 23, the climate was slightly more humid and favorable in comparison to that prevailing later in the Würmian. These slightly more humid conditions only led to low concentration changes of magnetic minerals, but are clearly expressed in the relative amount of ultra-fine SP particles formed during slightly more intense pedogenesis. In the loess pile, a few pale grayish horizons occur, some depicted as Cryosols. They are presumably the result of partial redoximorphic conditions caused by permafrost, at the same time indicating a slightly more humid climate. ARM/MS values are mostly decreased in these horizons (compare Fig. 14; note inverted scale) suggesting slightly increased pedogenesis without showing the typical brownish colors. These grayish horizons may be the product of a stronger seasonality with more humid summers, but increasingly cold winters. The resulting waterlogging led to the depletion of chromophoric iron complexes which are less well crystallized than the minerals which control the environmental magnetic signals. High values of MS and low values of ARM/MS are interpreted as the response of the magnetic assemblages inside the loess to climatically more favorable conditions during the Middle and Upper Würmian in Lower Austria. These paleoclimatic fluctuations are the response of the “loesssystem” to the well-known DeO cycles occurring on millennial time scales. Altogether, the following main trends of paleoenvironmental change prior to the occupation period could be detected: The BC horizon of GH 28 reflects incipient pedogenesis and more stable conditions. Compared to the stratigraphy proposed by Hambach (2010) and the NGRIP isotopic record (North Greenland Ice Core Project Members, 2004) the Greenland Interstadial GI 7[w35 ka] could most probably be correlated to GH 28 (Fig. 14). Based on this correlation approach, a first phase of eolian deposition (GH 27) with partly short and weak frost conditions can be linked to the colder transition between GI 6 and 7 at w34 ka. The archeological horizon (AH 4) is further related to the Greenland Interstadial GI 6[w33.5 ka] according to Hambach (2010). The archeological horizon does not give any evidence for periglacial influence and frost structures. However, pedogenic structures are also not preserved. It cannot be excluded that the archeological horizon could be related to GI 5 [w32 ka] as discussed by Hambach (2010) and Lomax et al. (2012). However, the calibrated 14C age is at 31.3  0.3 cal BP and luminescence ages range between 27.9  3.3 ka above and 28.3  3.4 ka below AH 4 (Lomax et al., in this issue). Thus, results of the dating are closer to GI 5. Moreover, paleopedological results are in favor of a classification of the archeological horizon to GI 6. Despite the abovementioned discussion concerned with an assignment to GI 5 or GI 6, it is evident that after the main human occupation represented by horizon AH 4, rapid paleoenvironmental fluctuations can be inferred from the paleopedological investigations (GH 25 and GH 26). In parts of the excavations, signs of short-distance redeposition occur in the upper part of AH 4 (AH 4.11), which records climatic degradation subsequently to the main human occupation at Krems-Wachtberg. These climatic shifts can also be derived from the NGRIP isotopic record (North Greenland Ice Core Project Members, 2004; see Figs.14 and 15). Two incorporated bands of organic litter and ash in the loess sediment of GH 25 are micromorphologically interpreted as signs of shortly vegetated paleo-land surfaces and, geomorphologically, more stable conditions. Both thin layers of organic material with a vertical spacing of 2 cm are situated about 20 cm above the archeological horizon. As artifacts or faunal remains are very rare, a natural formation by fire is assumed (Neugebauer-Maresch, 2008; Händel et al., 2009b). Tundra fires in periglacial environments are well-known events, particularly in the past. Higuera et al. (2008) stated that tundra fires are related to a lowering of effective moisture as a function of climate or/and of a more dense shrub vegetation with a high content of resin/fuel-bearing substances. Both facts are

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related to a relatively stable paleo-landsurface as well. The so-called ‘double ash layer’ was also described from the nearby excavations at Krems-Hundssteig (Neugebauer-Maresch, 2008; Händel et al., 2009b). Weak signs of redeposition in GH 26 and 25 can be compared to the paleoclimatic conditions at the transition between GI 5 and GI 6 (cf. North Greenland Ice Core Project Members, 2004; Hambach, 2010). The deposition of the loess sediments, which are present in GH 23 and 24 could also correspond to this period. After loess deposition, weak pedogenesis took place in GH 23 and 24, which led to a reduction of calcium carbonate as well as to slightly enhanced clay content. According to the paleopedogical results this relatively warmer climatic fluctuation can be linked to GI 5 (w32 ka, North Greenland Ice Core Project Members, 2004). Luminescence dates are in the same range as for the underlying horizons (28.0  3.5 ka, minimum and 31.6  2.3 ka, maximum, Lomax et al., in this issue) and cannot help with a more precise correlation to Greenland Interstadials. Adjustment with the magnetic parameters show a significant peak between GH 26 (upper part) and GH 23, in particular in the ARM/MS curve (Fig. 14). This supports the paleopedological findings and the overall relation of the horizons to more favorable climatic conditions. Cooler climatic conditions follow as recorded in GH 22 with an environment favorable to erosion processes related to sparse vegetation (Fig. 14). This climatic deterioration most likely corresponds to the onset of a longer period of cooling climate between GI 5 and 4 [w31.5 to 29 ka], including the Heinrich event 3 (Fig. 15). Dust input of the NGRIP shows intermediate dust content for this period (Ruth et al., 2007). GH 21 records the formation of a well-developed redoximorphic permafrost soil system, which gave rise to the formation of Cryosol IV posterior to the formation of GH 22. From a paleopedolgical point of view, the latter can be linked to Greenland Interstadial 4 [w28.5 ka] as also supported by the results of the environmental magnetic investigations by Hambach (2010). The erosional event on top of GH 21 and the subsiding loess deposition can be correlated to the cooler period between GI 4 and 3 [w28 ka]. This phase corresponds to a dust peak of intermediate intensity in the NGRIP dust curve (Ruth et al., 2007; Rasmussen et al., 2008). Again luminescence ages are slightly younger (27.2  3.3 ka and 24.9  3.2 ka; Lomax et al., 2012), however, within the error deviation they overlap with GI 4 and the transition to GI 3. The Krems-Wachtberg profile comprises three further Cryosol complexes in the upper section (GH 8e10, 13e14 and 16e19). Cryosol complex III is in close agreement with the enhancement of the magnetic susceptibility. It can be linked to GI 3 [w27.5 ka], a phase with low dust concentration (Ruth et al., 2007). Luminescence ages are repeatedly slightly younger with 25.4  3.3 ka in GH 19 and 26.2  3.3 ka in GH 17 (Lomax et al., 2012). The sequence between GH 15 and GH 11 reflects the profile section with the highest sedimentation rate as Cryosol complex II is very weak and redoximorpic features thin upward abruptly. Furthermore, there are signs of short erosional phases in GH 14. This distinct phase of climatic deterioration is also reflected in the environmental magnetic curves (Figs. 14 and 15) as a pronounced paleoenvironmental period of climate cooling and decreased magnetic susceptibility. It fits to the period between GI 3 and GI 2, a longer cooling phase [w27e23 ka]. Two distinct peaks of dust concentration underline the paleopedological and magnetic results. The luminescence dates range between 24.7  3.1 ka and 22.6  2.9 ka, relatively young, in this time span as well. Cryosol complex I is correlated with GI 2 [w23 ka], a period of low dust concentration (Rasmussen et al., 2008). At the present stage of research it is not clear if there is a regionally controlled short warm phase (Cryosol complex II), which is not well expressed in the NGRIP isotopic record (Fig. 15). There might be regional climatic variations due to sensible permafrost-

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Fig. 15. Sequence transcription of the original loess-paleosol sequence Krems-Wachtberg (c.f. Fig. 2); sedimentation and soil formation processes are splitted, diversified, and correlated with Greenland Interstadials based on chapter 5.2; schematic sketch. Please note that stability phases can be affected by loess sedimentation.

ecosystems in the study area. However, the NGRIP dust content expressed in Ca2þ contents (Rasmussen et al., 2008) records two phases of increased dust input, separated by a phase of lower dust accumulation. In the high resolution loess-paleosol sequence of Nussloch, Rousseau et al. (2011) described eight embryonic soils for a period between 17 and 30 ka. Similar to this study’s results, climatic (warmer) fluctuations seem to be more numerous in welldeveloped loess-paleosol sequences compared to the NGRIP isotopic record.

Cryosol complex I can best be correlated with GI 2, also reflected by an enhancement of magnetic susceptibility in horizons GH 10 and partly in GH 9. The peak in GH 8 can also be linked to GI 2 [w23 to 22.5 ka]. Luminescence ages are between 21.4  2.8 ka (GH 10) and 23.1  3.0 ka in GH 9 (Lomax et al., 2012). We are aware that this stratigraphic model can neither be demonstrated nor refuted by numerical dating results at the present state. However, the combination of paleopedological results, environmental magnetic measurements and luminescence ages

Please cite this article in press as: Terhorst, B., et al., Paleoenvironmental fluctuations as recorded in the loess-paleosol sequence of the Upper Paleolithic site Krems-Wachtberg, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.03.045

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allow for correlation with paleoclimatic proxy data from Greenland ice cores. 6. Conclusion The loess-paleosol sequence of Krems-Wachtberg represents a complex system of paleoclimatic fluctuations reflected by an alternation of activity phases with dominant eolian and erosional processes with stable, short periods of weak pedogenesis. The uppermost part of the sequence represents an intensively cold and periglacial environment with drier periods of enhanced eolian sedimentation rates. During phases of reduced eolian sedimentation, Cryosols and permafrost-induced structures affected the deposits. Solifluction combined with erosional slope processes affected parts of the sequence. However, there is evidence that erosional phases/events were not so strong or prolonged, because the sequence reveals a fast sedimentation. In the basal parts of the profile, signs of decalcification, bioturbation, organic inclusions, as well as changes in pedochemical properties are obvious. This indicates a tendency to more favorable climate conditions. However, there is also an overprinting by permafrost structures and redeposition. In particular, the archeological horizon is not influenced by permafrost, whereas the layers below and above are locally affected by frost conditions. The stratigraphical approach of this study is a combination of paleopedologicalesedimentological results with those of rock magnetic analyses. The methods correlate and complement one another in a profound and detailed manner. On the chronological scale, the presented sequence records most probably a timespan from 35 ka to 20 ka, which is comparable to the NGRIP records. Paleopedological results indicate five pedogenic horizons and one archeological layer in the studied loess-paleosol sequence, which are interpreted as representations of the Greenland interstadials GI 7eGI 2. A weakly developed Cryosol is correlated to a period of lower dust input between GI 3 and GI 2, thus reflecting sensitivity of permafrost induced soils to weak climate fluctuations. In general, Cryosols reflect permafrost conditions as well as indicating a lowering of the eolian sedimentation rate. These conditions have to be regarded as more stable in geomorphological terms compared to periods marked by enhanced eolian influx. Based on this, a multimillennial resolution is obtained, and high frequency paleoclimatic variations can be defined in the loess-paleosol sequence of Krems-Wachtberg. Fluctuations of pedogenic and sedimentological processes could be traced in a high resolution comparable to the NGRIP ice core by a multi-methodological approach. However, an equivalent of a MIS 3 interstadial soil comparable with the Lohne Soil or Stillfried B soil could not be detected, most likely related to continuous high sediment input. References Ad-hoc-AG Boden, 2005. Bodenkundliche Kartieranleitung. Schweizerbart, Hannover, p. 438. Andersen, K.K., Svensson, A., Johnsen, S.J., Rasmussen, S.O., Bigler, M., Rothlisberger, R., Ruth, U., Siggaard-Andersen, M.-L., Steffensen, J.P., DahlJensen, D., Vinther, B.M., Clausen, H.B., 2006. The Greenland ice core chronology 2005, 15e42 ka. Part 1. Constructing the time scale. Quaternary Science Reviews 25, 3246e3257. Antl-Weiser, W., Fladerer, F.A., Peticzka, R., Stadler, F.C., Verginis, S., 1997. Ein Lagerplatz eiszeitlicher Jäger in Grub bei Stillfried. Archäologie Österreichs 8 (1), 4e20. Antoine, P., Rousseau, D.-D., Moine, O., Kunesch, S., Hatté, C., Lang, A., Tissoux, H., Zöller, L., 2009. Rapid and cyclic aeolian deposition during the Last Glacial in European loess: a high-resolution record from Nussloch, Germany. Quaternary Science Reviews 28, 2955e2973. Beckmann, T., 1997. Präparation bodenkundlicher Dünnschliffe für mikromorphologische Untersuchungen. Hohenheimer Bodenkundliche Hefte 40, 89e 103.

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Please cite this article in press as: Terhorst, B., et al., Paleoenvironmental fluctuations as recorded in the loess-paleosol sequence of the Upper Paleolithic site Krems-Wachtberg, Quaternary International (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.03.045