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Podzolisation as a soil forming process in the alpine belt of Rondane, Norway
Geoderma 91 Ž1999. 237–248
Podzolisation as a soil forming process in the alpine belt of Rondane, Norway Andreas Stutzer ¨
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Institut fur Kochstr. 4r 4, D 91054 Erlangen, ¨ Geographie, UniÕersitat ¨ Erlangen-Nurnberg, ¨ Germany Received 13 August 1998; received in revised form 22 December 1998; accepted 12 January 1999
Abstract In Døralen, the north-eastern part of Rondane mountains, South Norway, strongly podzolised ˚ soils can be found from treeline up to the high-alpine belt, although organic matter production is low and the climatic conditions are rather unfavourable for associated chemical processes. At treeline, some soils have eluvial horizons more than 1 2-m thick. In the high-alpine belt, even small amounts of organic matter under fragmentary mats of fruticose lichens have caused a considerable eluviation from the upper soil layer and translocation of organo-metallic complexes into the subsoil. Leaching and translocation result from the low buffer capacity of the parent material, sparagmite. Compared to typical lowland podzols, the alpine podzols are less acid and CrN ratios are narrow. The soils are classified as Haplic Podzols according to the FAOrUNESCO system. The investigation shows that podzolisation can be a major soil forming process in the boreo–alpine belt. q 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: alpine belt; buffer capacity; podzolisation; soil formation; Rondane mountains
1. Introduction Some remarkable podzol profiles were found during an investigation of soils in Døralen, the north-eastern part of Rondane, South Norway. Although strongly ˚ podzolised soils are frequent within the forested belt, podzolisation is also a common process above treeline in this area. Podzols were even found at the summit of Døralsglupen, 1600 m above sea level, which is approximately 400 m ˚ above treeline. Since Rondane was not covered by trees or dwarf shrub )
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0016-7061r99r$ - see front matter q 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 0 1 6 - 7 0 6 1 Ž 9 9 . 0 0 0 0 9 - 9
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vegetation at these elevations during the postglacial period, the alpine soils must have developed under the lichen mats. The soils of Rondane show some parallels to podzols of the southern polar desert described by Blume and Bolter ¨ Ž1996. and Blume et al. Ž 1996, 1997.. The Rondane mountains are located at 628N and 108E. The uniform petrology is dominated by arcosic, partly metamorphic sparagmite, a medium resistant sandstone or sandstone conglomerate ŽHoltedahl, 1960:111. which tends to rapid leaching ŽLag, ˚ 1951, 1970.. In Rondane, podzolisation is therefore a major soil forming process. The climatic conditions in Døralen ˚ are subcontinental. About 70% of the total annual precipitation of 500 mm fall in the summer semi-annual period Ž May– October. . Thus the amount of snow falling in winter is low. The annual mean temperature at 1200 m is y38C with mean temperatures of 88C in July and y138C in January ŽDahl, 1956:16. . Assuming a temperature gradient of 0.6 Kr100 m, the mean annual temperature at the summit of Døralsglupen in 1600 ˚ m is approximately about y5.58C, with mean temperatures of 58C in July and y15.58C in January. Thus, the summit of Døralsglupen should climatically be ˚ in the transition between the low and the mid-alpine belt. This corresponds Table 1 Plant cover at profiles 1–3, with regard to the major components. Species with very low coverage were not taken into account. At profile 3, coverage of crustose lichens on rock fragments in brackets Ž .. Coverage according to the modified Braun-Blanquet system ŽWilmanns, 1993. Profile Height above sea level Žm. Total plant coverage Ž%.
1 1100 90
Betula pubescens Betula nana Empetrum hermaphroditum Vaccinium uliginosum Loiseleuria procumbens Calluna Õulgaris Carex bigelowii AÕenella flexuosa Juncus trifidus Cladina stellaris Alectoria ochroleuca Cetraria niÕalis Alectoria nigricans Cetraria islandica Thamnolia Õermicularis Cladonia sp. Rhizocarpon sp. Umbilicaria sp. Polytrichum sp.
q 2a 2a
2 1260 30
3 1600 10 Ž50.
1 1 q q r
1 q q 2a 3 2b
2b 1 1
q
1 1 1 q q q Ž2. Ž2. q
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239
basically to the distribution of Vaccinium myrtillus in Døralen, which is ˚ frequent to rare at elevations up to 1600 m and replaced by Juncus trifidus communities at higher altitudes ŽDahl, 1956:249. . However, neither low-alpine lichen shrub communities, nor the vascular plants of the mid-alpine belt are found at the summit of Døralsglupen. Due to sparse snow covers the exposed ˚ summit is rather characteristic of a high-alpine site with low-density cryptogam vegetation ŽTable 1.. 2. Methods and materials Three soil profiles are described below. One profile was selected from each alpine sub-belt; one from the sub- to low-alpine timberline, one from the mid-alpine shrub line and one from a high-alpine cryptogam community of low density. From each horizon of the soil profiles a sample was extracted in two 100 cm3 metal cylinders. The colour of the moist samples was determined by the MUNSELL soil colour charts. After drying at 508C and dispersion with Napyrophosphate, particle size distribution was carried out by sieve and pipette analysis. Bulk density and water content were determined by weighing after drying part of the samples at 1058C. The soils were further analysed for content of organic carbon Ž by loss on ignition at 4308C. , total nitrogen Žusing Kjeldahl digestion. , pH Ž in 0.01 M CaCl 2 . , buffer capacity Ž by measuring soil pH in a 0.001–0.008 M HCl solution. , amorphous Ž NH 4-oxalate soluble. Al and Fe, pedogenic Ž Na-dithionite soluble. Fe and optical density of the oxalate extract ŽODOE.. The metal contents were determined by AAS. Most analytical methods used are those described by Schlichting et al. Ž 1995. , only buffer capacity was determined by methods described in Steubing and Fangmeier Ž 1992. . In addition, a RF analysis was carried out for the BC horizon of profile 1 to determine the mineralogical composition of the parent material. For the vegetation recordings, the modified method of Braun-Blanquet Žsee Wilmanns, 1993:38. was used. However, only those species whose coverage was high enough to have a major influence on the humus development were recorded, i.e., plant species that occurred only rare were not taken into account. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Location of the profiles and profile characteristics Profile 1 is located at an altitude of 1100 m on a fluvioglacial terrace, a typical landform for the Døralen region which was formed by supraglacial ˚ sedimentation during deglaciation Ž Gehrenkemper and Treter, 1980. . Some upright growing individuals of Betula pubescens with heights of approximately
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2 m can be found in the vicinity of the sample plot. The surface vegetation of the soil pit itself is a dense mat of fruticose lichens with a few individuals of Betula nana and some other vascular plants found scattered throughout the lichen mat Ž Table 1.. The site can be classified as the transition between ‘Fjell-birch forest’ and ‘regio alpina’ ŽTreter, 1973; Zillbach, 1981.. The A horizon of this profile is only a few centimeters in depth and contains poorly to moderately decomposed lichens and birch leaves. A sharply differentiated, almost white eluvial horizon with a thickness of 60 cm lies underneath the humus layer. Below, a 6-cm Bhs horizon of intensive brown colouration is followed by a yellowish brown Bs layer with a depth of some decimeters. There is also a clear differentiation between the Bhs and Bs layer. The total soil depth is more than 1 m Ž Fig. 1. . With the exception of a layer in between the E horizon that contains some gravel, the dominating texture in this profile is silt with a low bulk density and no coarse fragments. This is in contrast to most podzols, which are usually developed in sandy substrates. Profile 2 is located on a gentle slope at 1260 m above sea level. Contrary to the surrounding steep slopes with low vegetation coverage, a partly dense mat of fruticose lichens covers the area of the profile. Dwarf shrubs are rare at this altitude, with only a few small individuals growing on protected microsites. This soil is formed from a weathered talus debris. Coarse fragments are enclosed in a sandy silty matrix. The total soil depth is 40 cm. A rudimentary humus layer lies above continuous eluvial and illuvial horizons that have depths of approximately 15 cm each. A sharp delineation occurs between the light eluvial and the brown illuvial horizon which gives way to less weathered parent material. Profile 3 is located on the summit plateau of Døralsglupen at 1600 m above ˚ Ž sea level. The summit is mostly covered by a stone layer alpine hamada. . Vegetation covers only 10% of the surface and is dominated by lichens of the genera Alectoria and Cetraria, while crustose lichens like Rhizocarpon and Umbilicaria sp. cover approximately 50% of the rock surface Ž Table 1. . Vascular plants are not present. Species like Huperzia selago, Luzula confusa, Empetrum hermaphroditum, Phyllodoce coerulea and Juncus trifidus occur 50 m underneath the summit in minor quantities. The investigated soil is 15–22 cm deep with a large rock defining the bottom of the profile. At the soil surface, organic matter is found in gaps between the rock fragments only. However, parts of the vegetation and humus layer have probably been removed by human trampling. The uppermost soil layer, as well as the C horizon, contains a higher percentage of coarse fragments than the illuvial horizon, which may partly be the result of man-induced soil erosion. As in profile 2, the eluvial and the illuvial horizon both occur as continuous layers, but here the border between the upper and the underlying horizon is irregularly formed. Minor cryoturbation processes have caused this irregularity. Some unsorted circles at the soil surface and a few upright stones give further evidence
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Fig. 1. Soil profile 1, low-alpine belt, 1100 m.
of these processes, which are additionally responsible for the increasing amount of stones at the soil surface. However, the processes are minimal on the entire soil profile. 3.2. Physical and chemical properties of the soils All three profiles described above have been influenced by considerable translocation processes that become visible by the strongly bleached upper
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Fig. 2. Soil profile 3, high-alpine belt, 1600 m.
horizons and underlying deep brown coloured horizons. However, the soils show some differences in the extent and dominance of the translocated metals. While translocation of Fe dominates in profiles 1 and 3, leaching of Al prevails in profile 2 ŽFig. 2.. These differences are indicated by the higher pH values in profile 2, which cause mobilisation of Al, while Fe is mobilised only at lower pH ŽUlrich, 1981.. On the other hand, pH values at the mid- and high-alpine site are generally high compared to those of typical lowland podzols, as well as their
Table 2 Soil physical and chemical properties of profiles 1–3. Soil units according to Soil Survey Staff Ž1994. Horizon
Depth Žcm.
Colour moist
pH CaCl 2
bd a Žgrcm3 .
H 2Ob Žvol.%.
Stone Ž%.
Silt Ž%.
Clay Ž%.
C org Ž%.
C org Žgrm2 .
CrN
Fe o rFe d
ODOE
Profile 1: Typic Haplorthod, fluÕioglacial deposit, low-alpine belt (1100 m) Ah 0–4 10YR 3r2 3.23 0.50 17 n.d.c E1 4–30 2.5Y 6r2 3.50 1.22 7 0 E2 30–62 2.5Y 7r2 3.82 1.36 14 14 Bs1 62–68 7.5YR 4r4 3.80 0.99 17 0 Bs2 68–91 10YR 4r6 3.89 1.02 21 0 BC 91–110 2.5YR 4r6 4.10 1.17 17 0
n.d. 55 23 13 5 15
n.d. 43 61 82 93 83
n.d. 2 2 5 3 2
12.0 0.3 0.1 0.9 0.7 0.3
2400 952 435 535 1642 n.d.
33 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
n.d. 0.11 0.03 0.84 0.60 0.37
n.d. 0.04 0.02 0.33 0.28 0.14
Profile 2: Entic Alorthod, talus debris, mid-alpine belt (1260 m) Ah 0Žy2. 2.5Y 3r1 3.63 n.d. n.d. E1 0r2–7 10YR 7r2 3.77 1.34 6 E2 7–10 10YR 7r3 4.28 1.26 9 Bs1 10–16 7.5YR 3r4 4.68 1.30 7 Bs2 16–25 10YR 5r4 4.67 1.49 6 BC 25–42 2.5Y 6r2 4.64 1.66 7
n.d. 46 31 36 34 37
n.d. 23 41 21 20 27
n.d. 2 6 8 6 5
1.3 0.7 0.2 0.6 0.1 0.0
n.d. 563 76 468 80 0
9 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
n.d. 0.16 0.27 0.41 0.18 0.11
n.d. 0.06 0.08 0.26 0.07 0.02
n.d. 26 46 48 16
n.d. 13 17 19 10
n.d. 1 4 3 1
0.3 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.1
n.d. 85 356 322 48
16 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
0.16 0.16 0.46 0.37 0.32
0.11 0.10 0.54 0.42 0.22
n.d. 29 22 35 40 31
Profile 3: Entic Lithic Haplorthod, alpine hamada, high-alpine belt (1600 m) AE 0–3 2.5Y 4r1 4.02 n.d. n.d. n.d. E 3–8 2.5Y 6r2 3.73 1.21 9 60 Bhs1 8–15 10YR 2r2 4.01 1.34 8 33 Bhs2 15–19 10YR 3r2 4.29 1.52 10 30 BC 19–22 10YR 3r3 4.36 1.60 9 73
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Sand Ž%.
a
Bulk density. On sampling day Ž15r8r95.. c n.d.s Not determined. b
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Fig. 3. Distribution of C, Al and Fe in profiles 1–3. Al and Fe in grkg 1, C in percent Ž%.. Al o -P-P-, Fe o PPPPP, Fe d ----, C org —.
CrN ratios are unusually narrow for podzols. These two features could also be observed in podzols of the Antarctic polar desert under comparable vegetation covers Ž Table 2, see Blume et al., 1996. . Beside the metal translocation, considerable illuviation of organic matter can be recognised in all three profiles Žsee Fig. 3.. The soils can therefore be classified as Haplic Podzols due to the FAOrUNESCO classification system ŽFAO, 1988. , while according to the US Soil Taxonomy profile 1 is a Typic Haplorthod, profile 2 an Entic Alorthod, and profile 3 an Entic Lithic Haplorthod ŽSoil Survey Staff, 1994. . The intense translocation in the soils is mainly a consequence of the poor buffer capacity of the parent material. Sparagmite consists of about 60% quartz, 35% potash feldspar and 5% other minerals such as chlorite. An elementary composition of approximately 80% SiO 2 , 8% Al 2 O 3 , 5% K 2 O and 3% Fe 2 O 3 is suggested ŽPettijohn et al., 1973:178. . In the RF-analytically determined BC horizon of profile 1, the SiO 2 content is in excess of 90%, but this may also result from the textural selection due to sedimentation Ž Table 3.. Fig. 4 shows the corresponding buffer capacity of sparagmite to quartz-rich aeolian and fluvial sands. Thus, in some boreal dune areas comparable podzols with deep, strongly bleached eluvial horizons can be found Ž Venzke, 1990:186. , while substrates with lower quartz contents such as mica gneiss have a higher buffer capacity and show therefore less disposition to podzolisation Ž see Giessubel, 1985. . ¨ In conifer forests of temperate regions, visible metal translocation occurs in soils with poor buffer capacities in less than 100 years ŽStutzer, 1998.. From this ¨ it seems understandable that the several thousand year old soils of Rondane are strongly bleached, and podzolisation processes are even common in the high-al-
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Table 3 Major elements in the BC horizon of profile 1. compared to the chemical analysis of the parent material by Pettijohn et al. Ž1973. a SiO 2 Al 2 O 3 K 2O Fe 2 O 3 Na 2 O TiO 2 CaO MgO P2 O5 MnO S LOI b
Profile 1 ŽBC.
Pettijohn et al. Ž1973.
92.40 2.95 2.02 0.56 0.22 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.01 98.26 0.47
80.89 7.57 4.75 2.90 0.63 0.40 0.04 0.04 – – 97.22 –
a
All data are in percent Ž%.. LOIs loss on ignition.
b
pine belt where availability of organic ligands is low. In addition, despite its secondary metal illuviation the BC horizon of profile 3 has even a lower buffer capacity than profile 1. Chemical analyses of the soils showed that leaching and translocation are recent processes, since pH-values of the eluvial horizons are within the Al buffer range ŽUlrich, 1981.. High contents of mobile fulvates as indicated by high ODOE values also show that podzolisation is a current process Ž Table 2, Schlichting et al., 1995:176. . In contrast to this, the activity ratio Ž Fe orFe d . of the illuvial horizons is not a useful characteristic in this case, since only in profile 1 at treeline a narrow ratio is achieved Ž Blume and Schwertmann, 1969. . It is assumed, that temporary drought and the low humus contents in profiles 2 and 3 cause a rapid crystallisation of the metal oxides. In the low-alpine belt, the organic matter is approximately 6 kgrm2. In the mid-alpine belt, this amount is reduced to 1.2 kgrm2 , about one-fifth that is found in the low-alpine. Correspondingly, in the high-alpine belt, the organic matter is less than one-seventh compared to the low-alpine area, at 0.8 kgrm2. Obviously, these low concentrations do not prevent transformation of amorphous to crystalline ferric oxides, which is typical for soils with strong humus illuviations. This leads to the conclusion, that podzolisation is a recent but also a very slow process in the mid- and high-alpine belt of Rondane. Since profiles 2 and 3 tend to be fairly dry in summer and frozen from October to April, the major time for translocation processes is spring when the soils contain sufficient water after snowbreak. However, low winter precipitation in Døralen ˚ is not believed to cause long-term waterlogging within these soil profiles, since their high amount of coarse fragments and sand result in
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Fig. 4. Buffer capacity of the BC horizons of profiles 1 and 3 compared to the capacity of other quartz-rich to quartz-poor substrates of the BC horizons in podzolised soils. 1s Profile 3 BC, 2 saeolian sand Žwestern Denmark., 3s fluvioglacial sand ŽCanadian Shield., 4 s profile 1 BC, 5s gneiss debris ŽAustrian Alps..
conductivities of 30–40 cmrday ŽAd hoc Arbeitsgruppe Boden, 1994. . This is also indicated by the minor extent of cryoturbation, although soil temperatures in Rondane drop substantially below 08C at altitudes of 1500 m Ž King, 1984:110. and discontinuous permafrost and corresponding active periglacial forms are often found ŽBarsch and Treter, 1976. . In the summer months, the high permeability of the substrates can even lead to temporary drought phases. On the day of sampling Ž 08r15r1995., 1 week after the last rainfall, there was barely any plant-available water in both profiles ŽTable 2, compare Ad hoc Arbeitsgruppe Boden, 1994. . At the mid-alpine site this may well be one of the reasons for the sparse growth of vascular plants. The water regime in the terracial sediments at treeline differs from the above mentioned conditions. Here, the water permeability ranges around 10 cmrday due to the silty texture of the substrate, but as in the other profiles, no influence of cryoturbation could be detected.
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4. Conclusion Conifer and dwarf shrub litter are known to be major factors in initiating podzolisation processes. Therefore, the boreal zone is often characterised as the ‘podzol zone’ because of the dominance of these plant groups. However, recent investigations have shown that podzols can develop in all humid climates and under various plant communities. For example, Ugolini et al. Ž 1987. found podzolisation to be an active process in arctic environments. Furthermore, Blume and Bolter ¨ Ž1996. as well as Blume et al. Ž1996, 1997. found podzolised soils in quartz-rich substrates of poor buffer capacity in the Antarctic polar desert at locations where fruticose lichens occur in more or less continuous mats. Since polar regions of the southern hemisphere have not been forested or covered by dwarf shrub communities after deglaciation, lichen litter functions as an initiating factor for podzolisation in these areas. To some extent, the conditions of the Arctic and Antarctic environments can be compared to those in Rondane where the treeline declined approximately 200 m above the actual height after deglaciation Ž Aas and Faarlund, 1988. . Thus, at least the development of profile 3 cannot result from a different former vegetation cover, but the climate of the mid- to high-alpine belt is sufficient to initiate podzolisation in substrates like sparagmite. In addition, appropriate chemical weathering is required before podzolisation processes can begin ŽBlume et al., 1997; Blumel and Eberle, 1994.. ¨ Little is known about the occurrence of podzols in arctic and alpine regions, and their development is still discussed controversially. However, considering that boreal, arctic and alpine plant communities are not much different from each other, and climatic conditions do not change dramatically beyond the treeline, there is no reason why podzols should not occur in arctic or alpine environments. In many areas like Rondane, lichen mats cover the ground in open tree stands, and podzolised soils are frequent beneath these mats. Under the less favorable conditions of the alpine belt, the quantity of the organic detritus decreases, but its composition remains the same. This results in an active podzolisation as it occurs in the forested belt. Hence, the ‘alpine podzol line’ of the Rondane mountains as described by Dahl Ž 1956:305. at 1350 m is located at higher elevations and needs to be redefined.
References Aas, B., Faarlund, T., 1988. Postglasiale skoggrenser i sentrale sørnorske fjelltrakter. 14C-datering av subfossile furu-og bjørkerester. Norsk Geogr. Tidsskr. 42, 25–61. Ad hoc Arbeitsgruppe Boden, 1994. Bodenkundliche Kartieranleitung. Schweizerbart, Stuttgart. Barsch, D., Treter, U., 1976. Zur Verbreitung von Periglazialphanomenen in RondanerNorwegen. ¨ Geogr. Annaler Ser. A 58 Ž1–2., 83–93.
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Blume, H.-P., Bolter, M., 1996. Wechselwirkungen zwischen Boden- und Vegetationsentwicklung ¨ ¨ in der kontinentalen Antarktis. Verh. Ges. Okol. 25, 25–34. Blume, H.-P., Schwertmann, U., 1969. Genetic evaluation of profile distribution of aluminum, iron, and manganese oxides. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 33, 438–444. Blume, H.-P., Schneider, D., Bolter, M., 1996. Organic matter accumulation in and podzolisation ¨ of Antarctic soils. Z. Pflanzenernahr. ¨ Bodenk. 159, 411–412. Blume, H.-P., Beyer, L., Bolter, M., Erlenkeuser, H., Kalk, E., Kneesch, S., Pfisterer, U., ¨ Schneider, D., 1997. Pedogenic zonation in soils of the southern circum-polar region. Adv. GeoEcol. 30, 69–90. Blumel, W.D., Eberle, J., 1994. Merkmale chemischer Verwitterung in hochpolaren Boden– ¨ ¨ Ergebnisse pedologisch–sedimentologischer Untersuchungen in NW-Spitzbergen. Z. Geomorph. 97, 233–242, Suppl. Dahl, E., 1956. Rondane. Mountain vegetation in south Norway and its relation to the environment. Skr. Norske Vidensk.-Akad. Oslo, I. Mat.-Naturv. Kl. Ž3.. FAO, 1988. FAOrUNESCO Soil Map of the World, Revised Legend, with corrections and updates. World Soil Resources Report 60, FAO, Rome. Reprinted with updates as Technical Paper 20. ISRIC, Wageningen 1997. Gehrenkemper, J., Treter, U., 1980. Untersuchungen zur Deglaziation und Talentwicklung im ŽNorwegen.. In: Schroeder-Lanz, H. ŽEd.., Late and Postglacial Oscillations DoralenrRondane ¨ of Glaciers: Glacial and Periglacial Forms, pp. 171–185. Giessubel, J., 1985. Pufferungsvermogen europaischer Waldboden in Abhangigkeit von Boden¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ und Reliefentwicklung. Geookodynamik 6, 85–98. ¨ Holtedahl, O. ŽEd..,1960. Geology of Norway. Norges Geol. Unders. 208 Aschehoug, Oslo. King, L., 1984. Permafrost in Skandinavien. Heidelberger Geogr. Arb. 76. Lag, ˚ J., 1951. Illustration of influence of topography on depth of A2-layer in podzol profiles. Soil Sci. 71, 125–127. Lag, ˚ J., 1970. Podzol soils with an exceptionally thick bleached horizon. Acta Agriculturæ Scandinavica 20, 58–60. Pettijohn, F.J., Potter, P.E., Siever, R., 1973. Sand and Sandstone. Springer, New York. Schlichting, E., Blume, H.-P., Stahr, K., 1995. Bodenkundliches Praktikum. 2nd edn. Blackwell, Berlin. Soil Survey Staff, 1994. Keys to Soil Taxonomy. 6th edn. Pocahontas, Blacksburg, VA. Steubing, L., Fangmeier, A., 1992. Pflanzenokologisches Praktikum. Ulmer, Stuttgart. ¨ Stutzer, A., 1998. Early stages of podzolisation in young aeolian sediments, western Jutland. ¨ Catena 32, 115–129. ¨ Treter, U., 1973. Okologische Standortsdifferenzierungen auf der Basis von Jahrringanalysen im Baumgrenzbereich Zentralnorwegens. Verh. Dt. Geographentags Kassel 39, 492–507. Ugolini, F.C., Stoner, M.G., Marrett, D.J., 1987. Arctic pedogenesis: 1. Evidence for contemporary podzolisation. Soil Sci. 144, 90–100. ¨ Ulrich, B., 1981. Okologische Gruppierung von Boden nach ihrem chemischen Bodenzustand. Z. ¨ Pflanzenernahr. ¨ Bodenk. 144, 289–305. Venzke, J.-F., 1990. Beitrage der borealen Landschaftszone. In: Gelandeklima¨ zur Geookologie ¨ ¨ tologische und pedologische Studien in Nord–Schweden. Essener Geogr. Arb. 21 Schoningh, ¨ Paderborn. ¨ Wilmann, O., 1993. Okologische Pflanzensoziologie. 5th edn. Quelle & Meyer, Heidelberg. ¨ Zillbach, K., 1981. Standortdifferenzierungen im Ubergangsbereich Fjellbirkenwald zu regio alpina in Sudnorwegen. Die Erde 112, 103–112. ¨
Podzolisation as a soil forming process in the alpine belt of Rondane, Norway Andreas Stutzer ¨
)
Institut fur Kochstr. 4r 4, D 91054 Erlangen, ¨ Geographie, UniÕersitat ¨ Erlangen-Nurnberg, ¨ Germany Received 13 August 1998; received in revised form 22 December 1998; accepted 12 January 1999
Abstract In Døralen, the north-eastern part of Rondane mountains, South Norway, strongly podzolised ˚ soils can be found from treeline up to the high-alpine belt, although organic matter production is low and the climatic conditions are rather unfavourable for associated chemical processes. At treeline, some soils have eluvial horizons more than 1 2-m thick. In the high-alpine belt, even small amounts of organic matter under fragmentary mats of fruticose lichens have caused a considerable eluviation from the upper soil layer and translocation of organo-metallic complexes into the subsoil. Leaching and translocation result from the low buffer capacity of the parent material, sparagmite. Compared to typical lowland podzols, the alpine podzols are less acid and CrN ratios are narrow. The soils are classified as Haplic Podzols according to the FAOrUNESCO system. The investigation shows that podzolisation can be a major soil forming process in the boreo–alpine belt. q 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: alpine belt; buffer capacity; podzolisation; soil formation; Rondane mountains
1. Introduction Some remarkable podzol profiles were found during an investigation of soils in Døralen, the north-eastern part of Rondane, South Norway. Although strongly ˚ podzolised soils are frequent within the forested belt, podzolisation is also a common process above treeline in this area. Podzols were even found at the summit of Døralsglupen, 1600 m above sea level, which is approximately 400 m ˚ above treeline. Since Rondane was not covered by trees or dwarf shrub )
Fax: q49-9131-852013; E-mail: [email protected]
0016-7061r99r$ - see front matter q 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 0 1 6 - 7 0 6 1 Ž 9 9 . 0 0 0 0 9 - 9
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vegetation at these elevations during the postglacial period, the alpine soils must have developed under the lichen mats. The soils of Rondane show some parallels to podzols of the southern polar desert described by Blume and Bolter ¨ Ž1996. and Blume et al. Ž 1996, 1997.. The Rondane mountains are located at 628N and 108E. The uniform petrology is dominated by arcosic, partly metamorphic sparagmite, a medium resistant sandstone or sandstone conglomerate ŽHoltedahl, 1960:111. which tends to rapid leaching ŽLag, ˚ 1951, 1970.. In Rondane, podzolisation is therefore a major soil forming process. The climatic conditions in Døralen ˚ are subcontinental. About 70% of the total annual precipitation of 500 mm fall in the summer semi-annual period Ž May– October. . Thus the amount of snow falling in winter is low. The annual mean temperature at 1200 m is y38C with mean temperatures of 88C in July and y138C in January ŽDahl, 1956:16. . Assuming a temperature gradient of 0.6 Kr100 m, the mean annual temperature at the summit of Døralsglupen in 1600 ˚ m is approximately about y5.58C, with mean temperatures of 58C in July and y15.58C in January. Thus, the summit of Døralsglupen should climatically be ˚ in the transition between the low and the mid-alpine belt. This corresponds Table 1 Plant cover at profiles 1–3, with regard to the major components. Species with very low coverage were not taken into account. At profile 3, coverage of crustose lichens on rock fragments in brackets Ž .. Coverage according to the modified Braun-Blanquet system ŽWilmanns, 1993. Profile Height above sea level Žm. Total plant coverage Ž%.
1 1100 90
Betula pubescens Betula nana Empetrum hermaphroditum Vaccinium uliginosum Loiseleuria procumbens Calluna Õulgaris Carex bigelowii AÕenella flexuosa Juncus trifidus Cladina stellaris Alectoria ochroleuca Cetraria niÕalis Alectoria nigricans Cetraria islandica Thamnolia Õermicularis Cladonia sp. Rhizocarpon sp. Umbilicaria sp. Polytrichum sp.
q 2a 2a
2 1260 30
3 1600 10 Ž50.
1 1 q q r
1 q q 2a 3 2b
2b 1 1
q
1 1 1 q q q Ž2. Ž2. q
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basically to the distribution of Vaccinium myrtillus in Døralen, which is ˚ frequent to rare at elevations up to 1600 m and replaced by Juncus trifidus communities at higher altitudes ŽDahl, 1956:249. . However, neither low-alpine lichen shrub communities, nor the vascular plants of the mid-alpine belt are found at the summit of Døralsglupen. Due to sparse snow covers the exposed ˚ summit is rather characteristic of a high-alpine site with low-density cryptogam vegetation ŽTable 1.. 2. Methods and materials Three soil profiles are described below. One profile was selected from each alpine sub-belt; one from the sub- to low-alpine timberline, one from the mid-alpine shrub line and one from a high-alpine cryptogam community of low density. From each horizon of the soil profiles a sample was extracted in two 100 cm3 metal cylinders. The colour of the moist samples was determined by the MUNSELL soil colour charts. After drying at 508C and dispersion with Napyrophosphate, particle size distribution was carried out by sieve and pipette analysis. Bulk density and water content were determined by weighing after drying part of the samples at 1058C. The soils were further analysed for content of organic carbon Ž by loss on ignition at 4308C. , total nitrogen Žusing Kjeldahl digestion. , pH Ž in 0.01 M CaCl 2 . , buffer capacity Ž by measuring soil pH in a 0.001–0.008 M HCl solution. , amorphous Ž NH 4-oxalate soluble. Al and Fe, pedogenic Ž Na-dithionite soluble. Fe and optical density of the oxalate extract ŽODOE.. The metal contents were determined by AAS. Most analytical methods used are those described by Schlichting et al. Ž 1995. , only buffer capacity was determined by methods described in Steubing and Fangmeier Ž 1992. . In addition, a RF analysis was carried out for the BC horizon of profile 1 to determine the mineralogical composition of the parent material. For the vegetation recordings, the modified method of Braun-Blanquet Žsee Wilmanns, 1993:38. was used. However, only those species whose coverage was high enough to have a major influence on the humus development were recorded, i.e., plant species that occurred only rare were not taken into account. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Location of the profiles and profile characteristics Profile 1 is located at an altitude of 1100 m on a fluvioglacial terrace, a typical landform for the Døralen region which was formed by supraglacial ˚ sedimentation during deglaciation Ž Gehrenkemper and Treter, 1980. . Some upright growing individuals of Betula pubescens with heights of approximately
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2 m can be found in the vicinity of the sample plot. The surface vegetation of the soil pit itself is a dense mat of fruticose lichens with a few individuals of Betula nana and some other vascular plants found scattered throughout the lichen mat Ž Table 1.. The site can be classified as the transition between ‘Fjell-birch forest’ and ‘regio alpina’ ŽTreter, 1973; Zillbach, 1981.. The A horizon of this profile is only a few centimeters in depth and contains poorly to moderately decomposed lichens and birch leaves. A sharply differentiated, almost white eluvial horizon with a thickness of 60 cm lies underneath the humus layer. Below, a 6-cm Bhs horizon of intensive brown colouration is followed by a yellowish brown Bs layer with a depth of some decimeters. There is also a clear differentiation between the Bhs and Bs layer. The total soil depth is more than 1 m Ž Fig. 1. . With the exception of a layer in between the E horizon that contains some gravel, the dominating texture in this profile is silt with a low bulk density and no coarse fragments. This is in contrast to most podzols, which are usually developed in sandy substrates. Profile 2 is located on a gentle slope at 1260 m above sea level. Contrary to the surrounding steep slopes with low vegetation coverage, a partly dense mat of fruticose lichens covers the area of the profile. Dwarf shrubs are rare at this altitude, with only a few small individuals growing on protected microsites. This soil is formed from a weathered talus debris. Coarse fragments are enclosed in a sandy silty matrix. The total soil depth is 40 cm. A rudimentary humus layer lies above continuous eluvial and illuvial horizons that have depths of approximately 15 cm each. A sharp delineation occurs between the light eluvial and the brown illuvial horizon which gives way to less weathered parent material. Profile 3 is located on the summit plateau of Døralsglupen at 1600 m above ˚ Ž sea level. The summit is mostly covered by a stone layer alpine hamada. . Vegetation covers only 10% of the surface and is dominated by lichens of the genera Alectoria and Cetraria, while crustose lichens like Rhizocarpon and Umbilicaria sp. cover approximately 50% of the rock surface Ž Table 1. . Vascular plants are not present. Species like Huperzia selago, Luzula confusa, Empetrum hermaphroditum, Phyllodoce coerulea and Juncus trifidus occur 50 m underneath the summit in minor quantities. The investigated soil is 15–22 cm deep with a large rock defining the bottom of the profile. At the soil surface, organic matter is found in gaps between the rock fragments only. However, parts of the vegetation and humus layer have probably been removed by human trampling. The uppermost soil layer, as well as the C horizon, contains a higher percentage of coarse fragments than the illuvial horizon, which may partly be the result of man-induced soil erosion. As in profile 2, the eluvial and the illuvial horizon both occur as continuous layers, but here the border between the upper and the underlying horizon is irregularly formed. Minor cryoturbation processes have caused this irregularity. Some unsorted circles at the soil surface and a few upright stones give further evidence
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Fig. 1. Soil profile 1, low-alpine belt, 1100 m.
of these processes, which are additionally responsible for the increasing amount of stones at the soil surface. However, the processes are minimal on the entire soil profile. 3.2. Physical and chemical properties of the soils All three profiles described above have been influenced by considerable translocation processes that become visible by the strongly bleached upper
242
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Fig. 2. Soil profile 3, high-alpine belt, 1600 m.
horizons and underlying deep brown coloured horizons. However, the soils show some differences in the extent and dominance of the translocated metals. While translocation of Fe dominates in profiles 1 and 3, leaching of Al prevails in profile 2 ŽFig. 2.. These differences are indicated by the higher pH values in profile 2, which cause mobilisation of Al, while Fe is mobilised only at lower pH ŽUlrich, 1981.. On the other hand, pH values at the mid- and high-alpine site are generally high compared to those of typical lowland podzols, as well as their
Table 2 Soil physical and chemical properties of profiles 1–3. Soil units according to Soil Survey Staff Ž1994. Horizon
Depth Žcm.
Colour moist
pH CaCl 2
bd a Žgrcm3 .
H 2Ob Žvol.%.
Stone Ž%.
Silt Ž%.
Clay Ž%.
C org Ž%.
C org Žgrm2 .
CrN
Fe o rFe d
ODOE
Profile 1: Typic Haplorthod, fluÕioglacial deposit, low-alpine belt (1100 m) Ah 0–4 10YR 3r2 3.23 0.50 17 n.d.c E1 4–30 2.5Y 6r2 3.50 1.22 7 0 E2 30–62 2.5Y 7r2 3.82 1.36 14 14 Bs1 62–68 7.5YR 4r4 3.80 0.99 17 0 Bs2 68–91 10YR 4r6 3.89 1.02 21 0 BC 91–110 2.5YR 4r6 4.10 1.17 17 0
n.d. 55 23 13 5 15
n.d. 43 61 82 93 83
n.d. 2 2 5 3 2
12.0 0.3 0.1 0.9 0.7 0.3
2400 952 435 535 1642 n.d.
33 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
n.d. 0.11 0.03 0.84 0.60 0.37
n.d. 0.04 0.02 0.33 0.28 0.14
Profile 2: Entic Alorthod, talus debris, mid-alpine belt (1260 m) Ah 0Žy2. 2.5Y 3r1 3.63 n.d. n.d. E1 0r2–7 10YR 7r2 3.77 1.34 6 E2 7–10 10YR 7r3 4.28 1.26 9 Bs1 10–16 7.5YR 3r4 4.68 1.30 7 Bs2 16–25 10YR 5r4 4.67 1.49 6 BC 25–42 2.5Y 6r2 4.64 1.66 7
n.d. 46 31 36 34 37
n.d. 23 41 21 20 27
n.d. 2 6 8 6 5
1.3 0.7 0.2 0.6 0.1 0.0
n.d. 563 76 468 80 0
9 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
n.d. 0.16 0.27 0.41 0.18 0.11
n.d. 0.06 0.08 0.26 0.07 0.02
n.d. 26 46 48 16
n.d. 13 17 19 10
n.d. 1 4 3 1
0.3 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.1
n.d. 85 356 322 48
16 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
0.16 0.16 0.46 0.37 0.32
0.11 0.10 0.54 0.42 0.22
n.d. 29 22 35 40 31
Profile 3: Entic Lithic Haplorthod, alpine hamada, high-alpine belt (1600 m) AE 0–3 2.5Y 4r1 4.02 n.d. n.d. n.d. E 3–8 2.5Y 6r2 3.73 1.21 9 60 Bhs1 8–15 10YR 2r2 4.01 1.34 8 33 Bhs2 15–19 10YR 3r2 4.29 1.52 10 30 BC 19–22 10YR 3r3 4.36 1.60 9 73
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Sand Ž%.
a
Bulk density. On sampling day Ž15r8r95.. c n.d.s Not determined. b
243
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Fig. 3. Distribution of C, Al and Fe in profiles 1–3. Al and Fe in grkg 1, C in percent Ž%.. Al o -P-P-, Fe o PPPPP, Fe d ----, C org —.
CrN ratios are unusually narrow for podzols. These two features could also be observed in podzols of the Antarctic polar desert under comparable vegetation covers Ž Table 2, see Blume et al., 1996. . Beside the metal translocation, considerable illuviation of organic matter can be recognised in all three profiles Žsee Fig. 3.. The soils can therefore be classified as Haplic Podzols due to the FAOrUNESCO classification system ŽFAO, 1988. , while according to the US Soil Taxonomy profile 1 is a Typic Haplorthod, profile 2 an Entic Alorthod, and profile 3 an Entic Lithic Haplorthod ŽSoil Survey Staff, 1994. . The intense translocation in the soils is mainly a consequence of the poor buffer capacity of the parent material. Sparagmite consists of about 60% quartz, 35% potash feldspar and 5% other minerals such as chlorite. An elementary composition of approximately 80% SiO 2 , 8% Al 2 O 3 , 5% K 2 O and 3% Fe 2 O 3 is suggested ŽPettijohn et al., 1973:178. . In the RF-analytically determined BC horizon of profile 1, the SiO 2 content is in excess of 90%, but this may also result from the textural selection due to sedimentation Ž Table 3.. Fig. 4 shows the corresponding buffer capacity of sparagmite to quartz-rich aeolian and fluvial sands. Thus, in some boreal dune areas comparable podzols with deep, strongly bleached eluvial horizons can be found Ž Venzke, 1990:186. , while substrates with lower quartz contents such as mica gneiss have a higher buffer capacity and show therefore less disposition to podzolisation Ž see Giessubel, 1985. . ¨ In conifer forests of temperate regions, visible metal translocation occurs in soils with poor buffer capacities in less than 100 years ŽStutzer, 1998.. From this ¨ it seems understandable that the several thousand year old soils of Rondane are strongly bleached, and podzolisation processes are even common in the high-al-
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Table 3 Major elements in the BC horizon of profile 1. compared to the chemical analysis of the parent material by Pettijohn et al. Ž1973. a SiO 2 Al 2 O 3 K 2O Fe 2 O 3 Na 2 O TiO 2 CaO MgO P2 O5 MnO S LOI b
Profile 1 ŽBC.
Pettijohn et al. Ž1973.
92.40 2.95 2.02 0.56 0.22 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.01 98.26 0.47
80.89 7.57 4.75 2.90 0.63 0.40 0.04 0.04 – – 97.22 –
a
All data are in percent Ž%.. LOIs loss on ignition.
b
pine belt where availability of organic ligands is low. In addition, despite its secondary metal illuviation the BC horizon of profile 3 has even a lower buffer capacity than profile 1. Chemical analyses of the soils showed that leaching and translocation are recent processes, since pH-values of the eluvial horizons are within the Al buffer range ŽUlrich, 1981.. High contents of mobile fulvates as indicated by high ODOE values also show that podzolisation is a current process Ž Table 2, Schlichting et al., 1995:176. . In contrast to this, the activity ratio Ž Fe orFe d . of the illuvial horizons is not a useful characteristic in this case, since only in profile 1 at treeline a narrow ratio is achieved Ž Blume and Schwertmann, 1969. . It is assumed, that temporary drought and the low humus contents in profiles 2 and 3 cause a rapid crystallisation of the metal oxides. In the low-alpine belt, the organic matter is approximately 6 kgrm2. In the mid-alpine belt, this amount is reduced to 1.2 kgrm2 , about one-fifth that is found in the low-alpine. Correspondingly, in the high-alpine belt, the organic matter is less than one-seventh compared to the low-alpine area, at 0.8 kgrm2. Obviously, these low concentrations do not prevent transformation of amorphous to crystalline ferric oxides, which is typical for soils with strong humus illuviations. This leads to the conclusion, that podzolisation is a recent but also a very slow process in the mid- and high-alpine belt of Rondane. Since profiles 2 and 3 tend to be fairly dry in summer and frozen from October to April, the major time for translocation processes is spring when the soils contain sufficient water after snowbreak. However, low winter precipitation in Døralen ˚ is not believed to cause long-term waterlogging within these soil profiles, since their high amount of coarse fragments and sand result in
246
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Fig. 4. Buffer capacity of the BC horizons of profiles 1 and 3 compared to the capacity of other quartz-rich to quartz-poor substrates of the BC horizons in podzolised soils. 1s Profile 3 BC, 2 saeolian sand Žwestern Denmark., 3s fluvioglacial sand ŽCanadian Shield., 4 s profile 1 BC, 5s gneiss debris ŽAustrian Alps..
conductivities of 30–40 cmrday ŽAd hoc Arbeitsgruppe Boden, 1994. . This is also indicated by the minor extent of cryoturbation, although soil temperatures in Rondane drop substantially below 08C at altitudes of 1500 m Ž King, 1984:110. and discontinuous permafrost and corresponding active periglacial forms are often found ŽBarsch and Treter, 1976. . In the summer months, the high permeability of the substrates can even lead to temporary drought phases. On the day of sampling Ž 08r15r1995., 1 week after the last rainfall, there was barely any plant-available water in both profiles ŽTable 2, compare Ad hoc Arbeitsgruppe Boden, 1994. . At the mid-alpine site this may well be one of the reasons for the sparse growth of vascular plants. The water regime in the terracial sediments at treeline differs from the above mentioned conditions. Here, the water permeability ranges around 10 cmrday due to the silty texture of the substrate, but as in the other profiles, no influence of cryoturbation could be detected.
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4. Conclusion Conifer and dwarf shrub litter are known to be major factors in initiating podzolisation processes. Therefore, the boreal zone is often characterised as the ‘podzol zone’ because of the dominance of these plant groups. However, recent investigations have shown that podzols can develop in all humid climates and under various plant communities. For example, Ugolini et al. Ž 1987. found podzolisation to be an active process in arctic environments. Furthermore, Blume and Bolter ¨ Ž1996. as well as Blume et al. Ž1996, 1997. found podzolised soils in quartz-rich substrates of poor buffer capacity in the Antarctic polar desert at locations where fruticose lichens occur in more or less continuous mats. Since polar regions of the southern hemisphere have not been forested or covered by dwarf shrub communities after deglaciation, lichen litter functions as an initiating factor for podzolisation in these areas. To some extent, the conditions of the Arctic and Antarctic environments can be compared to those in Rondane where the treeline declined approximately 200 m above the actual height after deglaciation Ž Aas and Faarlund, 1988. . Thus, at least the development of profile 3 cannot result from a different former vegetation cover, but the climate of the mid- to high-alpine belt is sufficient to initiate podzolisation in substrates like sparagmite. In addition, appropriate chemical weathering is required before podzolisation processes can begin ŽBlume et al., 1997; Blumel and Eberle, 1994.. ¨ Little is known about the occurrence of podzols in arctic and alpine regions, and their development is still discussed controversially. However, considering that boreal, arctic and alpine plant communities are not much different from each other, and climatic conditions do not change dramatically beyond the treeline, there is no reason why podzols should not occur in arctic or alpine environments. In many areas like Rondane, lichen mats cover the ground in open tree stands, and podzolised soils are frequent beneath these mats. Under the less favorable conditions of the alpine belt, the quantity of the organic detritus decreases, but its composition remains the same. This results in an active podzolisation as it occurs in the forested belt. Hence, the ‘alpine podzol line’ of the Rondane mountains as described by Dahl Ž 1956:305. at 1350 m is located at higher elevations and needs to be redefined.
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Blume, H.-P., Bolter, M., 1996. Wechselwirkungen zwischen Boden- und Vegetationsentwicklung ¨ ¨ in der kontinentalen Antarktis. Verh. Ges. Okol. 25, 25–34. Blume, H.-P., Schwertmann, U., 1969. Genetic evaluation of profile distribution of aluminum, iron, and manganese oxides. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 33, 438–444. Blume, H.-P., Schneider, D., Bolter, M., 1996. Organic matter accumulation in and podzolisation ¨ of Antarctic soils. Z. Pflanzenernahr. ¨ Bodenk. 159, 411–412. Blume, H.-P., Beyer, L., Bolter, M., Erlenkeuser, H., Kalk, E., Kneesch, S., Pfisterer, U., ¨ Schneider, D., 1997. Pedogenic zonation in soils of the southern circum-polar region. Adv. GeoEcol. 30, 69–90. Blumel, W.D., Eberle, J., 1994. Merkmale chemischer Verwitterung in hochpolaren Boden– ¨ ¨ Ergebnisse pedologisch–sedimentologischer Untersuchungen in NW-Spitzbergen. Z. Geomorph. 97, 233–242, Suppl. Dahl, E., 1956. Rondane. Mountain vegetation in south Norway and its relation to the environment. Skr. Norske Vidensk.-Akad. Oslo, I. Mat.-Naturv. Kl. Ž3.. FAO, 1988. FAOrUNESCO Soil Map of the World, Revised Legend, with corrections and updates. World Soil Resources Report 60, FAO, Rome. Reprinted with updates as Technical Paper 20. ISRIC, Wageningen 1997. Gehrenkemper, J., Treter, U., 1980. Untersuchungen zur Deglaziation und Talentwicklung im ŽNorwegen.. In: Schroeder-Lanz, H. ŽEd.., Late and Postglacial Oscillations DoralenrRondane ¨ of Glaciers: Glacial and Periglacial Forms, pp. 171–185. Giessubel, J., 1985. Pufferungsvermogen europaischer Waldboden in Abhangigkeit von Boden¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ und Reliefentwicklung. Geookodynamik 6, 85–98. ¨ Holtedahl, O. ŽEd..,1960. Geology of Norway. Norges Geol. Unders. 208 Aschehoug, Oslo. King, L., 1984. Permafrost in Skandinavien. Heidelberger Geogr. Arb. 76. Lag, ˚ J., 1951. Illustration of influence of topography on depth of A2-layer in podzol profiles. Soil Sci. 71, 125–127. Lag, ˚ J., 1970. Podzol soils with an exceptionally thick bleached horizon. Acta Agriculturæ Scandinavica 20, 58–60. Pettijohn, F.J., Potter, P.E., Siever, R., 1973. Sand and Sandstone. Springer, New York. Schlichting, E., Blume, H.-P., Stahr, K., 1995. Bodenkundliches Praktikum. 2nd edn. Blackwell, Berlin. Soil Survey Staff, 1994. Keys to Soil Taxonomy. 6th edn. Pocahontas, Blacksburg, VA. Steubing, L., Fangmeier, A., 1992. Pflanzenokologisches Praktikum. Ulmer, Stuttgart. ¨ Stutzer, A., 1998. Early stages of podzolisation in young aeolian sediments, western Jutland. ¨ Catena 32, 115–129. ¨ Treter, U., 1973. Okologische Standortsdifferenzierungen auf der Basis von Jahrringanalysen im Baumgrenzbereich Zentralnorwegens. Verh. Dt. Geographentags Kassel 39, 492–507. Ugolini, F.C., Stoner, M.G., Marrett, D.J., 1987. Arctic pedogenesis: 1. Evidence for contemporary podzolisation. Soil Sci. 144, 90–100. ¨ Ulrich, B., 1981. Okologische Gruppierung von Boden nach ihrem chemischen Bodenzustand. Z. ¨ Pflanzenernahr. ¨ Bodenk. 144, 289–305. Venzke, J.-F., 1990. Beitrage der borealen Landschaftszone. In: Gelandeklima¨ zur Geookologie ¨ ¨ tologische und pedologische Studien in Nord–Schweden. Essener Geogr. Arb. 21 Schoningh, ¨ Paderborn. ¨ Wilmann, O., 1993. Okologische Pflanzensoziologie. 5th edn. Quelle & Meyer, Heidelberg. ¨ Zillbach, K., 1981. Standortdifferenzierungen im Ubergangsbereich Fjellbirkenwald zu regio alpina in Sudnorwegen. Die Erde 112, 103–112. ¨