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The rate of uplift in the Alpine Mobile Belt
Tectonophysics,
267
163 (1989) 261-216
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam - Printed in ‘Ihe Netherlands
The rate of uplift in the Alpine mobile belt A.A. NIKONOV Institute of Physics of the Earth, Academy of Science of the U.S.S.R., (Received December 1.1987;
Moscow 123810 (U.S. S. R.J
accepted May 8.1988)
Abstract Nikonov, A.A., 1989. The rate of uplift of the Alpine Mobile Belt. In: N.-A. Momer and J. Adams (Editors), Peleoseismicity and Neotectonics. Tectonophysics,
163: 267-276.
The maximum rates of uplift in the Afpine mobile belt (the Alps, Carpathians, Caucasus, Parks considered. Geologic and geomorphic methods used to study periods of 20-40
and Himalaya) are
m.y. and 2-10 m.y., respectively, yield
maximum uplift rates on the order of fractions of millimeters per year to 1.5 mm/yr (with the exception of the Nanga Parbat massif in the Himalaya which is rising as fast as 5-9 mm/yr). Values of the same order have been obtained for recent uplift of the Alps and Himalayas by means of relevelling. In the Carpathians, Caucasus and Pamirs, the maximum uplift rates obtained by this method are distinctly different, being as high as 6-14 mm,&.
Possible causes of such significantly differing values of the rate of recent movements, on the
one hand, and large discrepancies in the uplift rates for the neotectonic and recent time span within the Carpathians, Caucasus and Pamirs, on the other, are discussed. It is shown that the maximum rates of the genuine secular tectonic uplift for the mountain systems within the Alpine belt hardly exceed l-2 mm/yr
and it is only in the Himalayas that the rate may be higher.
Mrodudion
The rates for the neotectonic period (lasting 40-20 m.y.) were determined from data on the
An important problem in the study of modem earth dynamics is the measurement and estimation
modem height of marine sediments of a certain
of genuine present-day uplift rates in relation to
from reconstructions
the uplift of the mount~n area under study in the
metric positions.
process of the Alpine orogeny during its various stages.
phic and magmatic rocks relative to the level of
The most convenient object of study from this point of view at present is the Alpine mobile belt. The uplift rates for the mountain systems of the Alps, Carpathians, Caucasus, Pan&s, and Himalayas are examined. The rates are given and characterized separately for the neotectonic stage, since the end of the Oligocene (4 - 107 years), for Pliocene-Quaternary time (5 - IO6 years), for the Holocene, as far as this is possible (lo4 years), and for the present (10’ years). The rates were determined by different workers, but they were all using similar methods. ~1951/89/$03.50
6 1989 Elsevier science Publishers B.V.
age found in the crests of mountain
ranges and
of their consecutive
In addition,
hypso-
for the Alps and
Himalayas we have used uplift rates for metamortheir original position, using data on their radiometric age, cooling rate, and the known temperature gradients (Clark and Jager, 1969; Schaer et al., 1975; Mehta, 1980; Zeitler et al., 1982). The rates obtained for these mountains systems by different workers independently, using two methods, coincide and are within the range of 1 mm/yr (with one exception as discussed below). The rate of mountain growth for the past 10-2 (5-6) m.y. was determined not only by geological, but also by geomorphic methods, using the present-day heights of fragments of old gradation
268
surfaces of certain age relative to their original
heights
heights or by paleogeographic methods.
estimated by Kukal (1983) to be 0.6 mm/yr. Uplift
The rate of mountain uplift for tens of years (l-8
.
and duration
rates
of mountain
of the Alps,
building,
Carpathians,
is
Caucasus,
Pamirs and Himalayas, determined by traditional
10' yrs) can be obtained by means of pre-
geologic and geomorphic methods, are in the range
cise relevelling.
0.1-1.3
mm/yr as an average for the whole moun-
tain-building
Initial data and statement of the question
period (Table
lions of years, similar
1). For the last mil-
rates of uplift of some
The mean rate of uplift for the mountain mas-
mountain massifs within Higher Asia have been
sifs of the world, found from data on their mean
obtained, based on absolutely independent pieces
TABLE
1
Mean rates of uplift of mountain Mountain
system
systems
Methods
and periods
geodetic,
l-7.10’
(crest parts) of consideration
yrs
geomorphic l-10.
uplift
source
lo6
uplift
(mm/yr)
and geologic,
geologic,
2-4.10’
yrs
yrs source
uplift
source
(mm/yr)
(mnVyr)
Alps 0.7-1.0
Western
Jeanrichard,
0.4-1.0
Clark and Jager
(1975a,b) 0.X-1.4
and Central
Gubler
(1969)
et al,
(1981)
0.4-1.0
Spencer (1974)
0.5-1.0
Trtimpy
0.3-0.6
Schaer et al.
0.4-1.0
Spencer (1974)
> 0.03
Oilier (1981)
(1973)
Gubler,
Kahle (1985) 1.0-2.0
Arca and Beretta
(1975)
(1985)
Eastern
1.0-1.X
Fourniguet
6-8
Mescherikov Iovanovich
2-3
(1977)
1.0
OlIier (1981)
(1973) (1975)
Joo (1979)
Eastern
1-6
Mescherikov
Carpathians
l-3
Joo (1979)
1-2
Somov and Rachimova
1-7
Joo (1985)
Greater
8-13
Mescherikov
Caucasus
> 6-8
LiIienberg
(1973)
0.1-0.2
Gofstein,
0.15
Spencer (1974)
(1964)
(1983)
(1973)
0.1-0.5
Milanovsky
et al.
0.6-1.2
Kuloshvili
et al. (1986)
0.2-2.0
Nikonov
(1968) (1982)
0.2-0.3
Milanovksy
0.2-0.7
Nikonov
Sutton (1969)
(1968)
(1984) 5-14
Pamirs
Kashin
(1977)
Pakhomov Nikonov Himalayas
Massif
Parbat
(1983)
> 0.8
Narain
(1975)
1.0-1.3
Hsti (1976)
0.2
(< 6)
Arm and Singh (1986)
0.6-0.9
Mehta (1980)
0.7-0.X
Mehta (1980)
1.0-1.3
Seeber and
> 0.9
Ollier (1981)
0.3
Kalvoda
5 (9)
Zeitler et al. (1982)
Gomitz Nanga
(1977)
and
(1983)
(1984)
269
of paleobotanical
evidence. They are l-l.3
in the Himalayas 0.2-2.0
and Tibet
(Hsii,
mm/yr
1976)
and
(4.0) mm/yr in the Pamirs (Pakhomov
0.8-1.5
mm/yr, it seems unlikely that secular rate
values as high as 6-8
mm/yr (Iovanovich,
1971;
Mescherikov, 1973) or 2-3 mm/yr (Joe, 1979) can
and Nikonov, 1983). Uplift rate in the Alps and
exist for the eastern flank of the Alps in Yugos-
Himalayas
lavia. It can be suggested that such high values
for tens of millions and millions of
years have similar values (0.3-1.0
mm/yr), based
were due either to the methods in levelling, includ-
on the rate of cooling and exposure on the Earth’s
ing a possible
surface for some intrusive and metamorphic rocks
measurements, or an accelerated uplift before the
high level of error in the first
(Clark and Jager, 1969; Schaer et al., 1975; Mehta,
great Friuli earthquake of 1976.
active region of the Nanga
As to the Himalayas,
Parbat massif in the Himalayas is the only excep-
scarce to date (Narain,
tion, demonstrating
1986).
1980). A particularly
uplift values obtained by the
The available
the relevelling data are 1975;
Arur and Singh,
data do not allow us to
same method reaching 5 mm/yr for the period 2.0-0.5 m.y. ago and 9 mm/yr for the period from 0.5 m.y. up to the present time (Zeitler et al.,
accept a secular uplift of this mountain system at a rate greater than some millimeters per year.
1982). Overall,
at the present time are identical with the mean rates for tens of millions and a few millions of
the mean values of maximum uplift
The uplift rates for the Alps and the Himalayas
rates as estimated for periods of tens of millions of years and some millions of years, in the Alps,
years. In contrast to this, the present-day rates of
Pamirs, and Himalayas, turn out to be somewhat higher (namely, 0.6-2.0 mm/yr) than the same
Pamirs turn out to be one or two orders higher than those for the same mountains, and generally
values
for the whole Alpine
for the Carpathians
and
the Caucasus
(0.1-0.5, possibly up to 1.2 mm/yr). When we turn to the mean uplift rates for the same ranges
uplift
for the Carpathians,
neotectonic
Caucasus,
mobile
belt,
and the
during
the
stage of its evolution. Thus, the maps
of recent movements for the Carpathians show these mountains as experiencing uplift at rates of
at the present (10’ years), based upon repeated levellings, we find considerable discrepancies (see Table 1). Conclusions about the recent uplift of the Alps can be drawn most reliably on the basis of relevelling with a 50-year time interval over Switzerland (Jeanrichard, 1975a, b; Gubler et al., 1981;
2-2.5 mm/yr (Mescherikov, 1973; Joo, 1979) and as much as 6-7 mm/yr (Joo, 1985) and even rates as high a rate as 8-13 mm/yr for the Caucasus (Mescherikov, 1973; Lilienberg et al., 1984). It is also readily found that different authors
Gubler and Kahle, 1985). According to these measurements, the crest part of the Alps near the Saint Gotthard pass is uplifting relative to the
above mountain systems. An example is the small
surrounding lowlands at a rate of 0.7-1.1
mm/yr
(while on the southern slope of the mountains the rate is as high as 1.4 mm/yr). Within Italy, on the southern slope of the Alps, the uplift rates obtained by repeated levellings with the intervals of 60 years are reported to be l-2 mm/yr (Arca and Beretta, 1985). On the northwestern slope of the Alps, within the area of France, geodetic remeasurements with time intervals of 70-80 years give a relative uplift rate of 1.0-1.8 mm/yr (Fourniguet, 1977). In contrast to these data, which are on the whole in good mutual agreement and also with geologic-geomorphic evaluations, of the order to
(and different maps) quote significantly different values of the rates of recent movements for the mountain massif of the Higher Tatra in the central portion of the Carpathian mountain system. As can be seen from Table 2, different geodesists estimate
the rate of recent movements
massif differently to
+6.1
at different times-from
mm/yr-depending
for this - 1.5
on the choice
of
reference point, measurement method, and data processing. Similar discrepancies are found when one compares the rate of movement for nearly every area within Eastern Europe (Table 3). Under these conditions, it is not always possible to say whether a given area is rising or subsiding at present, so that a research worker is very much at liberty to choose whatever value suits him best in his particular situation. Whatever value obtained
270
Rates of “recent crustal movements” for the Higher Tatra
ties in the rates of uplift for the Carpathians, Caucasus and the Pamirs during neotectonic time
Mountains after various sources
and the interval of the past few decades, as well as
TABLE 2
Source
1. VyskoEil et al. (1968)
Recent crustal
the dramatically
movements
recent movements that are obtained
(mm/yr)
investigators (and teams) for these mountain sys-
o.o- - 1.0
tems.
o.o- - 1.4
questions in two directions. In the first place, one
3. Liszkowski (1975)
o.o- + 0.5
4. Mar&k (1978)
+ 0.5- + 1.5 (4-8)
can make appeal
6. Kvitkovich and Plan&r (1979)
to results
obtained
indepen-
+1.0-+2.0
to bring to light contradictions
+ 1.0-2.0
geodetic methods of measurement used. These two directions will now be discussed in more detail.
7. Map of r.v.c.m. in the CarpathoBalkan region (Joo, 1985)
by different
dently by different methods. Secondly, one can try
5. Map of r.v.c.m. in the CarpathoBalkan region (Joo, 1979)
values of the rate of
This author has looked for answers to these
2. Map of r.v.c.m. of Eastern Europe (Mescherikov, 1973)
differing
- 0.5- + 1.0
8. Hradilek (1985a,b)
+ 5.9- + 6.1 +
9. Wyrzykowsky (1985)
o.o- - 1 .o
and errors in the
First approach
* According to Prof. L. Hradilek (pers. commun., Sept. 1986),
One can compare the above results with the rates obtained by indirect methods for the past
new measurements have provided a rise value of the Higher Tatra peaks as small as 3 mm for 20 yrs only. This rate of 0.15 mm/yr
can be accepted as a value close to the true
few thousand years. Thus, Flemming (1973) gives
secular recent crustal movements.
rates of subsidence within the range of l-l.5 mm/yr for the western part of the Alpine mobile
by geodesists we choose, however, it turns out that the Carpathians and the Greater Caucasus as a
belt, based on depth and age information
whole must have risen to their present-day respec-
ings of antiquity
tive heights during a period of 0.5-1.0 m.y., whereas we know very well from geologic evidence that they have been forming during an interval of
ranean, the subsidence being due to tectonic and not to eustatic, factors.
submerged archeological
on the coast of the Mediter-
Another, still more comprehensive study is due to the Soviet investigator Nikiforov (1975) who
time at least an order of magnitude greater. Two questions arise; (1) what are the true values of recent tectonic uplift for these mountains, and (2) what has produced such large discrepan-
determined the amount of uplift for large geostructural features from the heights of Middle-Holocene Flandrian
terraces
on the coasts
of the
TABLE 3 Comparison of “recent crustal movement” rates for the capitals of some Past-European countries according to various maps Source
Recent cmstal movement rates (mm/yr) Bucharest
Sofia
Budapest
VyskoGJ et al. (1968) Mescherikov (1973)
Prague
Warsaw
- 0.5 -1.7
0.3
- 2.3
-0.2
Liszkowski (1975)
-0.5 0.5
Burilkov (1977)
> -2.0 = 1.0
Joo (1979)
- 0.5
- 0.6
0.5
Kalvoda and Zeman (1982)
0.0
Vysksil(l984)
0.5
Joo (1985) Wytzykowsky (1985)
0.0-1.0
for
sites and sea-port build-
-1.8
- 0.5 - 3.5
271
of present-day area1 denudation. The present-day rate of area1 denudation in mountains, including
=
the mountain systems under study, is of the order of fractions
of a millimeter
per year, rarely as
much as 1 mm/yr (Nikonov, 1977; Kukal, 1983). The observed agreement between the rate of uplift for the mountain systems in the neotectonic and during Pliocene-Quaternary
stage
time on the one
hand, and the rate of Holocene movements and present-day area1 denudation in the mountains on the other,
can
be taken
as evidence
for
the
genuineness of just these rate values for the present-day uplift of the mountain systems, within 1.0-1.5 mm/yr. In such a case, however, we are confronted with an awkward question: why is it that these values are so much lower than those given by repeated geodetic measurements of heights in the mountain systems of the Carpathians, Caucasus, and the Pamirs? Second approach In considering recent crustal movements, many geologists, geomorphologists and geodesists accept w o-
.
I
0
l
2
J
Fig. 1. Relation between the Flandrian (2-7.5.103
all geodetically measured motions of the Earth’s surface, and traditionally have drawn some im4
yrs B.P.)
portant
conclusions
inheritance
shoreline heights and intensity of vertical movements within
morphostructurally
the different geostructural areas, after Nikiforov (1975). I -
ments, ments,
platforms, 2 - areas of Cal’&lonian and Hercynian folds, 3 - areas of Alpine folds, 4 - areas of recent glacioisostatic uplift.
world ocean (150 dated sites). Nikiforov
found
that the height of a Flandrian terrace in areas of Alpine folding within different continents is larger by a factor of 1.5-2 (2.5-6 m) than in platform areas and areas of old folding (Fig. 1). From this it follows that regional rates of uplift in areas of Alpine orogeny have been 0.1-0.5 mm/yr higher in coastal areas than in platforms, and hardly exceed 1 mm/yr in absolute value. The indicated approaches and results have a disadvantage for our investigation in that they give the rate of movements in areas lying remote from the axes of the mountain systems under study. A better approximation to the desired quantities is obtained by calculating the mean rate
from this notion
(or rebuilding),
about the
geostructurally
influenced
the oscillatory character etc. (e.g., Ollier, 1981;
modern
and move-
of such moveMarEak, 1982;
Kukal, 1983; VyskoEil, 1984; Lilienberg et al., 1984; Lilienberg, 1985; Wyrzykowsky, 1985; Joo, 1985; Kashin et al., 1986). At the same time, in recent years the question has again been raised as to the representativeness and reliability of the results of geodetic measurements and computations on which the current rate values of recent vertical crustal movements are based (Strange, 1981; Holdahl, Nikonov, 1986).
1982;
Reilinger
et
al.,
1983;
It is not possible to reproduce here all reasoning tending to demonstrate that the values as obtained by geodesists are not to be relied upon as a characteristic of genuine crustal movements. We will therefore concentrate on two typical features shown by many measurements in mountain areas. Thus, according to G.I. and I.G. Reisner (pers. commun.), the coefficient of correlation between
272
absolute topographic heights and the distribution of the rate of so-called in the
movements”
“recent
mountain
Caucasus and Carpathians
many
A similar relationship cases
along
systems
of
the
as shown in a map of
Eastern Europe (Mescherikov, 0.75.
vertical crustal
1973)
is equal to
has been found in
some levelling
lines cutting
across mountain ranges in the Carpathians, in the Caucasus, Crimea, Tien-Shan tains (Sigalov,
1979;
Mar&k,
and in other moun1982;
Lilienberg,
ion of Holdahl (1982) the remainder may still be due to errors (Fig. 2). Similar conclusions have been drawn regarding results obtained in another research test area within the Penin Mountains the south of Poland (Wyrzykowsky,
in
1982). Now
some Eastern European geodesists are paying special attention
to the variability
of the standard
meter length of invar tapes due to the influence of temperature
as a source of possible
errors (Mar&k,
1982;
Wyrzykowsky,
significant 1982). The
appropriate corrections have not been made in the
1985). The close correlation
between the hypsometry
measurements
for
the
Carpathians,
Caucasus,
of levelling lines and the values of height changes
Pamirs, and Tien-Shan which were used to obtain
along them has for a long time been believed to be
the maps of “recent crustal movements”, because
a result of geostructural inheritance of motion. But recently some investigators have given reason
the effects found out so recently and their reduc-
to suppose the presence of systematic errors in the measurements due to common slope inclinations (Strange, 1981; Enman and Enman, 1983;
this reason, .the rates of movement shown in the maps can be seriously questioned.
tion have not been included in the manuals. For
Reilinger et al., 1983). It is currently believed that the error values due to slope inclination can be 10 cm for 1000 m elevations (Strange, 1981) or up to
Another typical thing about the “movements” as given by multiple levelling in mountains (and elsewhere) consists in the fact that the magnitude of rates, and frequently the sign of “movements”
3.5 cm for 100 m elevations (Reilinger et al., 1983). Special studies conducted by Holdahl
along the same lines, varies from one levelling epoch to another (Nikonov, 1977). In these cases,
(1982), using improved methods of measurements and calculations, have established the fact that the
a so-called mirror effect appears. For large regions such as the mountains of the southern U.S.S.R.
height differences formerly deduced as vertical crustal movements are, in fact, a spurious effect
within the Alpine-Himalayan
belt it is statistically
confirmed by means of the close-to-zero correlation for residuals of levelling routes for different
due to refraction, insufficient corrections for the temperature of invar tapes, rods, etc. The magnitude of “movements” on the notorious “Palmdale
epochs (Loskutov et al., 1986). In Japan, in some portions of first-order levelling networks, it was
bulge” in California has decreased from 35 cm to
established that the trend of movements is revealed
7 cm after refraction corrections, but, in the opin-
in only 10% of all measurements (Mizuno, 1985).
Fig. 2. Height changes after relevelling data without taking refraction into account (I) California, after Holdahl(l982).
and after refraction corrections
The hypsometric profile along the levelling line is indicated above.
(2).
273
m =
V. mm lyr 1 FAULTS
+32
,,\
/
18 mm along a line 170 km long and an
altitude difference of 2800 m. These values amount to as much as l/4
to l/10
of the annual rates
obtained. The remainder can be accounted for by invoking oscillatory
+24
displacements
of the surface
and surficial layers, not movements of a tectonic origin. Significantly,
the annual rates of displace-
ment along this line are within the range of 2-5 mm/yr when averaged over time intervals of 8-18 years, that is, they decrease sharply with increasing period of averaging. From both the physical and geological points of view, one can hardly accept changes in the sign of movements (mirror effect) as evidence for the reflection of a tectonic phenomenon characteristic A verification
-12
movements”
- 16 -20 -24 -28
-
-
of the high rates of “crustal
obtained
within Eastern
Europe by
comparing autocorrelation functions of the errors and “movements” shows that even high values
1 1968-69 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
for the Earth’s crust.
1969-70 1970.71 1971.72 1972-73 1973-74 1974-75 E 1968.75
like those accepted for the Caucasus (8-13 mm/yr) (Mescherikov, 1973; Lilienberg et al., 1984; Lilienberg, 1985) are within the range of possible errors
-32
and do not necessarily characterize the actual rates
-36
Alatau, Northern Tien-Shan, after Sigalov (1976). The hypso-
of movements (Meier, 1984). The apparent agreement between the isolines of uplift rates for mountain ranges as published in the maps and the general orography of the area, and sometimes the structure when the geodetic
metric profile is indicated by a thick line.
network is not dense, is readily explained by the
-40
\2
Fig. 3. Height changes after some consecutive relevellings along a meridional tine crossing the northern slope of Zailijsky
current practice of drawing isolines of movements An expressive example for the U.S.S.R.
is a level-
on the basis
of characteristic
features
of
the
ling line across the Zaili Alatau Range in northern Tien-Shan which has been measured seven times (Fig. 3). We see again a typical correlation be-
megarelief. In other words, the shape of isolines of
tween elevation differences and the hypsometry along the line. As in other similar cases, no correction for refraction and the temperature of invar rods has been made. We have tried to calculate errors likely to arise in this case using Enman’s formula (1978) for mountain conditions:
the investigator’s notion about recent movements having to conform to it.
m2=v2-L+a2-Ah2 where m is the total possible error, n is random error in millimeters, L is the length of the line in kilometers, u is systematic error in millimeters, Ah is the difference in altitude between the initial and end points in meters. The following values were obtained: m = 3.4 mm along a line segment 21 km long and an altitude difference of 400 m;
recent movements in such areas as represented in the maps is often predetermined by the relief and
To sum up, the rate of recent uplift for the Carpathians, Caucasus, and the Pamirs as obtained from multiple levellings (of the order of 2-14 mm/yr), which in addition differ widely among different authors and epochs of measurement, can be explained, on the one hand, by measurement errors and, on the other, by shortterm variations in the sign of displacements that do not reflect movements of tectonic origin. If that is the case, then there are no longer such wide differences, on the one hand, between the rates of movements for recent and neotectonic uplift ob-
214
served
in
Pamirs
and, on the other,
between
the the
movements
Carpathians, measured
for
these
adjacent one.s within
Caucasus, dramatic
and
values
of recent
mountain
ranges
the same Alpine
the
discrepancies
considerations
and
mobile
conclusion
for belt.
we can draw from these
is that recent and Holocene,
movements
and within
values are apparently the Himalayas that
neotectonic
the Alpine
as well vertical
mobile
belt of a rate
l-2 mm/yr and it is only in they probably exceed this
than
of years.
References Arca, S. and Beretta, G.P., 1985. Prima sintesi geodetico-geoBoll. Geod. Sci. Affini, Firenze, 44 (2):
125-156. Arur, M.C. and Singh, A.N., 1986. Earthquake prediction from levelling data -
an integrated approach. Abstr., 7th Int.
Symp. on Recent Crustal Movements of the Earth. Acad. Sci. Estonian S.S.R., Tallin, 14. Burilkov, T., 1977. Investigation in the People Republic Sovremennye
Dvizenia
Movements).
Res.
must be stressed.
confirms) a general the Alpine mountain
The first is that
does not reject (but rather increase system
to the Quatemary
in the uplift rate of from the Oligoceneand up to the present.
Secondly, we have dealt with the average rate values of secular movements, but not impulsive ones, including those which are associated with temporal disturbances of seismic origin. So far there is no reliable evidence for the effect that even crests of high mountain ranges of the Alpine belt (perhaps excluding the Himalayas) are
on recent crustal movements
Bulgaria. In: P. Mar&k Zemnoj
Inst.
Kory
Geodesy
(Editor),
(Recent
and
Crustal
Cartography,
Bratislava, pp. 1699177 (in Russian). Clark, S.F. and Jlger,
all the above-mentioned
Miocene
rate of more
for the past tens of millions
onale (1897-1957).
occur mainly at a rate of some fractions millimeter per year (Fig. 4). The maximum
value. Two points
mm/yr
logica sui movimenti verticali de1 suolo nell’Italia Settentri-
as Pliocene-Quatemary crustal
l-2
crustal
Conclusion The general
rising or have risen at a mean
E., 1969. Denudation
from geochronologic,
rate in the Alps
and heat flow data. Am. J. Sci., 267:
1143-1160. Curray, J.R.
and Moore, D.G.,
1971. Growth of the Bengal
deep-sea fan and denudation of the Himalayas. Geol. Sot. Am. Bull., 82: 563-572. Enman,
S.V., 1978. Investigations
of systematic
errors and
evaluation of the accuracy of precise levelling in the moutain regions. In: Yu.D. Crustal Movements
Boulanger et al. (Editors),
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Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam - Printed in ‘Ihe Netherlands
The rate of uplift in the Alpine mobile belt A.A. NIKONOV Institute of Physics of the Earth, Academy of Science of the U.S.S.R., (Received December 1.1987;
Moscow 123810 (U.S. S. R.J
accepted May 8.1988)
Abstract Nikonov, A.A., 1989. The rate of uplift of the Alpine Mobile Belt. In: N.-A. Momer and J. Adams (Editors), Peleoseismicity and Neotectonics. Tectonophysics,
163: 267-276.
The maximum rates of uplift in the Afpine mobile belt (the Alps, Carpathians, Caucasus, Parks considered. Geologic and geomorphic methods used to study periods of 20-40
and Himalaya) are
m.y. and 2-10 m.y., respectively, yield
maximum uplift rates on the order of fractions of millimeters per year to 1.5 mm/yr (with the exception of the Nanga Parbat massif in the Himalaya which is rising as fast as 5-9 mm/yr). Values of the same order have been obtained for recent uplift of the Alps and Himalayas by means of relevelling. In the Carpathians, Caucasus and Pamirs, the maximum uplift rates obtained by this method are distinctly different, being as high as 6-14 mm,&.
Possible causes of such significantly differing values of the rate of recent movements, on the
one hand, and large discrepancies in the uplift rates for the neotectonic and recent time span within the Carpathians, Caucasus and Pamirs, on the other, are discussed. It is shown that the maximum rates of the genuine secular tectonic uplift for the mountain systems within the Alpine belt hardly exceed l-2 mm/yr
and it is only in the Himalayas that the rate may be higher.
Mrodudion
The rates for the neotectonic period (lasting 40-20 m.y.) were determined from data on the
An important problem in the study of modem earth dynamics is the measurement and estimation
modem height of marine sediments of a certain
of genuine present-day uplift rates in relation to
from reconstructions
the uplift of the mount~n area under study in the
metric positions.
process of the Alpine orogeny during its various stages.
phic and magmatic rocks relative to the level of
The most convenient object of study from this point of view at present is the Alpine mobile belt. The uplift rates for the mountain systems of the Alps, Carpathians, Caucasus, Pan&s, and Himalayas are examined. The rates are given and characterized separately for the neotectonic stage, since the end of the Oligocene (4 - 107 years), for Pliocene-Quaternary time (5 - IO6 years), for the Holocene, as far as this is possible (lo4 years), and for the present (10’ years). The rates were determined by different workers, but they were all using similar methods. ~1951/89/$03.50
6 1989 Elsevier science Publishers B.V.
age found in the crests of mountain
ranges and
of their consecutive
In addition,
hypso-
for the Alps and
Himalayas we have used uplift rates for metamortheir original position, using data on their radiometric age, cooling rate, and the known temperature gradients (Clark and Jager, 1969; Schaer et al., 1975; Mehta, 1980; Zeitler et al., 1982). The rates obtained for these mountains systems by different workers independently, using two methods, coincide and are within the range of 1 mm/yr (with one exception as discussed below). The rate of mountain growth for the past 10-2 (5-6) m.y. was determined not only by geological, but also by geomorphic methods, using the present-day heights of fragments of old gradation
268
surfaces of certain age relative to their original
heights
heights or by paleogeographic methods.
estimated by Kukal (1983) to be 0.6 mm/yr. Uplift
The rate of mountain uplift for tens of years (l-8
.
and duration
rates
of mountain
of the Alps,
building,
Carpathians,
is
Caucasus,
Pamirs and Himalayas, determined by traditional
10' yrs) can be obtained by means of pre-
geologic and geomorphic methods, are in the range
cise relevelling.
0.1-1.3
mm/yr as an average for the whole moun-
tain-building
Initial data and statement of the question
period (Table
lions of years, similar
1). For the last mil-
rates of uplift of some
The mean rate of uplift for the mountain mas-
mountain massifs within Higher Asia have been
sifs of the world, found from data on their mean
obtained, based on absolutely independent pieces
TABLE
1
Mean rates of uplift of mountain Mountain
system
systems
Methods
and periods
geodetic,
l-7.10’
(crest parts) of consideration
yrs
geomorphic l-10.
uplift
source
lo6
uplift
(mm/yr)
and geologic,
geologic,
2-4.10’
yrs
yrs source
uplift
source
(mm/yr)
(mnVyr)
Alps 0.7-1.0
Western
Jeanrichard,
0.4-1.0
Clark and Jager
(1975a,b) 0.X-1.4
and Central
Gubler
(1969)
et al,
(1981)
0.4-1.0
Spencer (1974)
0.5-1.0
Trtimpy
0.3-0.6
Schaer et al.
0.4-1.0
Spencer (1974)
> 0.03
Oilier (1981)
(1973)
Gubler,
Kahle (1985) 1.0-2.0
Arca and Beretta
(1975)
(1985)
Eastern
1.0-1.X
Fourniguet
6-8
Mescherikov Iovanovich
2-3
(1977)
1.0
OlIier (1981)
(1973) (1975)
Joo (1979)
Eastern
1-6
Mescherikov
Carpathians
l-3
Joo (1979)
1-2
Somov and Rachimova
1-7
Joo (1985)
Greater
8-13
Mescherikov
Caucasus
> 6-8
LiIienberg
(1973)
0.1-0.2
Gofstein,
0.15
Spencer (1974)
(1964)
(1983)
(1973)
0.1-0.5
Milanovsky
et al.
0.6-1.2
Kuloshvili
et al. (1986)
0.2-2.0
Nikonov
(1968) (1982)
0.2-0.3
Milanovksy
0.2-0.7
Nikonov
Sutton (1969)
(1968)
(1984) 5-14
Pamirs
Kashin
(1977)
Pakhomov Nikonov Himalayas
Massif
Parbat
(1983)
> 0.8
Narain
(1975)
1.0-1.3
Hsti (1976)
0.2
(< 6)
Arm and Singh (1986)
0.6-0.9
Mehta (1980)
0.7-0.X
Mehta (1980)
1.0-1.3
Seeber and
> 0.9
Ollier (1981)
0.3
Kalvoda
5 (9)
Zeitler et al. (1982)
Gomitz Nanga
(1977)
and
(1983)
(1984)
269
of paleobotanical
evidence. They are l-l.3
in the Himalayas 0.2-2.0
and Tibet
(Hsii,
mm/yr
1976)
and
(4.0) mm/yr in the Pamirs (Pakhomov
0.8-1.5
mm/yr, it seems unlikely that secular rate
values as high as 6-8
mm/yr (Iovanovich,
1971;
Mescherikov, 1973) or 2-3 mm/yr (Joe, 1979) can
and Nikonov, 1983). Uplift rate in the Alps and
exist for the eastern flank of the Alps in Yugos-
Himalayas
lavia. It can be suggested that such high values
for tens of millions and millions of
years have similar values (0.3-1.0
mm/yr), based
were due either to the methods in levelling, includ-
on the rate of cooling and exposure on the Earth’s
ing a possible
surface for some intrusive and metamorphic rocks
measurements, or an accelerated uplift before the
high level of error in the first
(Clark and Jager, 1969; Schaer et al., 1975; Mehta,
great Friuli earthquake of 1976.
active region of the Nanga
As to the Himalayas,
Parbat massif in the Himalayas is the only excep-
scarce to date (Narain,
tion, demonstrating
1986).
1980). A particularly
uplift values obtained by the
The available
the relevelling data are 1975;
Arur and Singh,
data do not allow us to
same method reaching 5 mm/yr for the period 2.0-0.5 m.y. ago and 9 mm/yr for the period from 0.5 m.y. up to the present time (Zeitler et al.,
accept a secular uplift of this mountain system at a rate greater than some millimeters per year.
1982). Overall,
at the present time are identical with the mean rates for tens of millions and a few millions of
the mean values of maximum uplift
The uplift rates for the Alps and the Himalayas
rates as estimated for periods of tens of millions of years and some millions of years, in the Alps,
years. In contrast to this, the present-day rates of
Pamirs, and Himalayas, turn out to be somewhat higher (namely, 0.6-2.0 mm/yr) than the same
Pamirs turn out to be one or two orders higher than those for the same mountains, and generally
values
for the whole Alpine
for the Carpathians
and
the Caucasus
(0.1-0.5, possibly up to 1.2 mm/yr). When we turn to the mean uplift rates for the same ranges
uplift
for the Carpathians,
neotectonic
Caucasus,
mobile
belt,
and the
during
the
stage of its evolution. Thus, the maps
of recent movements for the Carpathians show these mountains as experiencing uplift at rates of
at the present (10’ years), based upon repeated levellings, we find considerable discrepancies (see Table 1). Conclusions about the recent uplift of the Alps can be drawn most reliably on the basis of relevelling with a 50-year time interval over Switzerland (Jeanrichard, 1975a, b; Gubler et al., 1981;
2-2.5 mm/yr (Mescherikov, 1973; Joo, 1979) and as much as 6-7 mm/yr (Joo, 1985) and even rates as high a rate as 8-13 mm/yr for the Caucasus (Mescherikov, 1973; Lilienberg et al., 1984). It is also readily found that different authors
Gubler and Kahle, 1985). According to these measurements, the crest part of the Alps near the Saint Gotthard pass is uplifting relative to the
above mountain systems. An example is the small
surrounding lowlands at a rate of 0.7-1.1
mm/yr
(while on the southern slope of the mountains the rate is as high as 1.4 mm/yr). Within Italy, on the southern slope of the Alps, the uplift rates obtained by repeated levellings with the intervals of 60 years are reported to be l-2 mm/yr (Arca and Beretta, 1985). On the northwestern slope of the Alps, within the area of France, geodetic remeasurements with time intervals of 70-80 years give a relative uplift rate of 1.0-1.8 mm/yr (Fourniguet, 1977). In contrast to these data, which are on the whole in good mutual agreement and also with geologic-geomorphic evaluations, of the order to
(and different maps) quote significantly different values of the rates of recent movements for the mountain massif of the Higher Tatra in the central portion of the Carpathian mountain system. As can be seen from Table 2, different geodesists estimate
the rate of recent movements
massif differently to
+6.1
at different times-from
mm/yr-depending
for this - 1.5
on the choice
of
reference point, measurement method, and data processing. Similar discrepancies are found when one compares the rate of movement for nearly every area within Eastern Europe (Table 3). Under these conditions, it is not always possible to say whether a given area is rising or subsiding at present, so that a research worker is very much at liberty to choose whatever value suits him best in his particular situation. Whatever value obtained
270
Rates of “recent crustal movements” for the Higher Tatra
ties in the rates of uplift for the Carpathians, Caucasus and the Pamirs during neotectonic time
Mountains after various sources
and the interval of the past few decades, as well as
TABLE 2
Source
1. VyskoEil et al. (1968)
Recent crustal
the dramatically
movements
recent movements that are obtained
(mm/yr)
investigators (and teams) for these mountain sys-
o.o- - 1.0
tems.
o.o- - 1.4
questions in two directions. In the first place, one
3. Liszkowski (1975)
o.o- + 0.5
4. Mar&k (1978)
+ 0.5- + 1.5 (4-8)
can make appeal
6. Kvitkovich and Plan&r (1979)
to results
obtained
indepen-
+1.0-+2.0
to bring to light contradictions
+ 1.0-2.0
geodetic methods of measurement used. These two directions will now be discussed in more detail.
7. Map of r.v.c.m. in the CarpathoBalkan region (Joo, 1985)
by different
dently by different methods. Secondly, one can try
5. Map of r.v.c.m. in the CarpathoBalkan region (Joo, 1979)
values of the rate of
This author has looked for answers to these
2. Map of r.v.c.m. of Eastern Europe (Mescherikov, 1973)
differing
- 0.5- + 1.0
8. Hradilek (1985a,b)
+ 5.9- + 6.1 +
9. Wyrzykowsky (1985)
o.o- - 1 .o
and errors in the
First approach
* According to Prof. L. Hradilek (pers. commun., Sept. 1986),
One can compare the above results with the rates obtained by indirect methods for the past
new measurements have provided a rise value of the Higher Tatra peaks as small as 3 mm for 20 yrs only. This rate of 0.15 mm/yr
can be accepted as a value close to the true
few thousand years. Thus, Flemming (1973) gives
secular recent crustal movements.
rates of subsidence within the range of l-l.5 mm/yr for the western part of the Alpine mobile
by geodesists we choose, however, it turns out that the Carpathians and the Greater Caucasus as a
belt, based on depth and age information
whole must have risen to their present-day respec-
ings of antiquity
tive heights during a period of 0.5-1.0 m.y., whereas we know very well from geologic evidence that they have been forming during an interval of
ranean, the subsidence being due to tectonic and not to eustatic, factors.
submerged archeological
on the coast of the Mediter-
Another, still more comprehensive study is due to the Soviet investigator Nikiforov (1975) who
time at least an order of magnitude greater. Two questions arise; (1) what are the true values of recent tectonic uplift for these mountains, and (2) what has produced such large discrepan-
determined the amount of uplift for large geostructural features from the heights of Middle-Holocene Flandrian
terraces
on the coasts
of the
TABLE 3 Comparison of “recent crustal movement” rates for the capitals of some Past-European countries according to various maps Source
Recent cmstal movement rates (mm/yr) Bucharest
Sofia
Budapest
VyskoGJ et al. (1968) Mescherikov (1973)
Prague
Warsaw
- 0.5 -1.7
0.3
- 2.3
-0.2
Liszkowski (1975)
-0.5 0.5
Burilkov (1977)
> -2.0 = 1.0
Joo (1979)
- 0.5
- 0.6
0.5
Kalvoda and Zeman (1982)
0.0
Vysksil(l984)
0.5
Joo (1985) Wytzykowsky (1985)
0.0-1.0
for
sites and sea-port build-
-1.8
- 0.5 - 3.5
271
of present-day area1 denudation. The present-day rate of area1 denudation in mountains, including
=
the mountain systems under study, is of the order of fractions
of a millimeter
per year, rarely as
much as 1 mm/yr (Nikonov, 1977; Kukal, 1983). The observed agreement between the rate of uplift for the mountain systems in the neotectonic and during Pliocene-Quaternary
stage
time on the one
hand, and the rate of Holocene movements and present-day area1 denudation in the mountains on the other,
can
be taken
as evidence
for
the
genuineness of just these rate values for the present-day uplift of the mountain systems, within 1.0-1.5 mm/yr. In such a case, however, we are confronted with an awkward question: why is it that these values are so much lower than those given by repeated geodetic measurements of heights in the mountain systems of the Carpathians, Caucasus, and the Pamirs? Second approach In considering recent crustal movements, many geologists, geomorphologists and geodesists accept w o-
.
I
0
l
2
J
Fig. 1. Relation between the Flandrian (2-7.5.103
all geodetically measured motions of the Earth’s surface, and traditionally have drawn some im4
yrs B.P.)
portant
conclusions
inheritance
shoreline heights and intensity of vertical movements within
morphostructurally
the different geostructural areas, after Nikiforov (1975). I -
ments, ments,
platforms, 2 - areas of Cal’&lonian and Hercynian folds, 3 - areas of Alpine folds, 4 - areas of recent glacioisostatic uplift.
world ocean (150 dated sites). Nikiforov
found
that the height of a Flandrian terrace in areas of Alpine folding within different continents is larger by a factor of 1.5-2 (2.5-6 m) than in platform areas and areas of old folding (Fig. 1). From this it follows that regional rates of uplift in areas of Alpine orogeny have been 0.1-0.5 mm/yr higher in coastal areas than in platforms, and hardly exceed 1 mm/yr in absolute value. The indicated approaches and results have a disadvantage for our investigation in that they give the rate of movements in areas lying remote from the axes of the mountain systems under study. A better approximation to the desired quantities is obtained by calculating the mean rate
from this notion
(or rebuilding),
about the
geostructurally
influenced
the oscillatory character etc. (e.g., Ollier, 1981;
modern
and move-
of such moveMarEak, 1982;
Kukal, 1983; VyskoEil, 1984; Lilienberg et al., 1984; Lilienberg, 1985; Wyrzykowsky, 1985; Joo, 1985; Kashin et al., 1986). At the same time, in recent years the question has again been raised as to the representativeness and reliability of the results of geodetic measurements and computations on which the current rate values of recent vertical crustal movements are based (Strange, 1981; Holdahl, Nikonov, 1986).
1982;
Reilinger
et
al.,
1983;
It is not possible to reproduce here all reasoning tending to demonstrate that the values as obtained by geodesists are not to be relied upon as a characteristic of genuine crustal movements. We will therefore concentrate on two typical features shown by many measurements in mountain areas. Thus, according to G.I. and I.G. Reisner (pers. commun.), the coefficient of correlation between
272
absolute topographic heights and the distribution of the rate of so-called in the
movements”
“recent
mountain
Caucasus and Carpathians
many
A similar relationship cases
along
systems
of
the
as shown in a map of
Eastern Europe (Mescherikov, 0.75.
vertical crustal
1973)
is equal to
has been found in
some levelling
lines cutting
across mountain ranges in the Carpathians, in the Caucasus, Crimea, Tien-Shan tains (Sigalov,
1979;
Mar&k,
and in other moun1982;
Lilienberg,
ion of Holdahl (1982) the remainder may still be due to errors (Fig. 2). Similar conclusions have been drawn regarding results obtained in another research test area within the Penin Mountains the south of Poland (Wyrzykowsky,
in
1982). Now
some Eastern European geodesists are paying special attention
to the variability
of the standard
meter length of invar tapes due to the influence of temperature
as a source of possible
errors (Mar&k,
1982;
Wyrzykowsky,
significant 1982). The
appropriate corrections have not been made in the
1985). The close correlation
between the hypsometry
measurements
for
the
Carpathians,
Caucasus,
of levelling lines and the values of height changes
Pamirs, and Tien-Shan which were used to obtain
along them has for a long time been believed to be
the maps of “recent crustal movements”, because
a result of geostructural inheritance of motion. But recently some investigators have given reason
the effects found out so recently and their reduc-
to suppose the presence of systematic errors in the measurements due to common slope inclinations (Strange, 1981; Enman and Enman, 1983;
this reason, .the rates of movement shown in the maps can be seriously questioned.
tion have not been included in the manuals. For
Reilinger et al., 1983). It is currently believed that the error values due to slope inclination can be 10 cm for 1000 m elevations (Strange, 1981) or up to
Another typical thing about the “movements” as given by multiple levelling in mountains (and elsewhere) consists in the fact that the magnitude of rates, and frequently the sign of “movements”
3.5 cm for 100 m elevations (Reilinger et al., 1983). Special studies conducted by Holdahl
along the same lines, varies from one levelling epoch to another (Nikonov, 1977). In these cases,
(1982), using improved methods of measurements and calculations, have established the fact that the
a so-called mirror effect appears. For large regions such as the mountains of the southern U.S.S.R.
height differences formerly deduced as vertical crustal movements are, in fact, a spurious effect
within the Alpine-Himalayan
belt it is statistically
confirmed by means of the close-to-zero correlation for residuals of levelling routes for different
due to refraction, insufficient corrections for the temperature of invar tapes, rods, etc. The magnitude of “movements” on the notorious “Palmdale
epochs (Loskutov et al., 1986). In Japan, in some portions of first-order levelling networks, it was
bulge” in California has decreased from 35 cm to
established that the trend of movements is revealed
7 cm after refraction corrections, but, in the opin-
in only 10% of all measurements (Mizuno, 1985).
Fig. 2. Height changes after relevelling data without taking refraction into account (I) California, after Holdahl(l982).
and after refraction corrections
The hypsometric profile along the levelling line is indicated above.
(2).
273
m =
V. mm lyr 1 FAULTS
+32
,,\
/
18 mm along a line 170 km long and an
altitude difference of 2800 m. These values amount to as much as l/4
to l/10
of the annual rates
obtained. The remainder can be accounted for by invoking oscillatory
+24
displacements
of the surface
and surficial layers, not movements of a tectonic origin. Significantly,
the annual rates of displace-
ment along this line are within the range of 2-5 mm/yr when averaged over time intervals of 8-18 years, that is, they decrease sharply with increasing period of averaging. From both the physical and geological points of view, one can hardly accept changes in the sign of movements (mirror effect) as evidence for the reflection of a tectonic phenomenon characteristic A verification
-12
movements”
- 16 -20 -24 -28
-
-
of the high rates of “crustal
obtained
within Eastern
Europe by
comparing autocorrelation functions of the errors and “movements” shows that even high values
1 1968-69 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
for the Earth’s crust.
1969-70 1970.71 1971.72 1972-73 1973-74 1974-75 E 1968.75
like those accepted for the Caucasus (8-13 mm/yr) (Mescherikov, 1973; Lilienberg et al., 1984; Lilienberg, 1985) are within the range of possible errors
-32
and do not necessarily characterize the actual rates
-36
Alatau, Northern Tien-Shan, after Sigalov (1976). The hypso-
of movements (Meier, 1984). The apparent agreement between the isolines of uplift rates for mountain ranges as published in the maps and the general orography of the area, and sometimes the structure when the geodetic
metric profile is indicated by a thick line.
network is not dense, is readily explained by the
-40
\2
Fig. 3. Height changes after some consecutive relevellings along a meridional tine crossing the northern slope of Zailijsky
current practice of drawing isolines of movements An expressive example for the U.S.S.R.
is a level-
on the basis
of characteristic
features
of
the
ling line across the Zaili Alatau Range in northern Tien-Shan which has been measured seven times (Fig. 3). We see again a typical correlation be-
megarelief. In other words, the shape of isolines of
tween elevation differences and the hypsometry along the line. As in other similar cases, no correction for refraction and the temperature of invar rods has been made. We have tried to calculate errors likely to arise in this case using Enman’s formula (1978) for mountain conditions:
the investigator’s notion about recent movements having to conform to it.
m2=v2-L+a2-Ah2 where m is the total possible error, n is random error in millimeters, L is the length of the line in kilometers, u is systematic error in millimeters, Ah is the difference in altitude between the initial and end points in meters. The following values were obtained: m = 3.4 mm along a line segment 21 km long and an altitude difference of 400 m;
recent movements in such areas as represented in the maps is often predetermined by the relief and
To sum up, the rate of recent uplift for the Carpathians, Caucasus, and the Pamirs as obtained from multiple levellings (of the order of 2-14 mm/yr), which in addition differ widely among different authors and epochs of measurement, can be explained, on the one hand, by measurement errors and, on the other, by shortterm variations in the sign of displacements that do not reflect movements of tectonic origin. If that is the case, then there are no longer such wide differences, on the one hand, between the rates of movements for recent and neotectonic uplift ob-
214
served
in
Pamirs
and, on the other,
between
the the
movements
Carpathians, measured
for
these
adjacent one.s within
Caucasus, dramatic
and
values
of recent
mountain
ranges
the same Alpine
the
discrepancies
considerations
and
mobile
conclusion
for belt.
we can draw from these
is that recent and Holocene,
movements
and within
values are apparently the Himalayas that
neotectonic
the Alpine
as well vertical
mobile
belt of a rate
l-2 mm/yr and it is only in they probably exceed this
than
of years.
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