Presented at the 27th Annual Meeting—August 6 to 9, 1935 University of New Hampshire

Abstracts of Papers Presented at the 27th Annual Meeting—August 6 to p, 1935 University of New Hampshire 5. SUBSIDIZING SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS F. A. HAYS, Massachusetts State College

6. SIZE OF UNINCUBATED EMBRYO IN RELATION TO HATCHABILITY

7. EGG PRODUCTION AND MORTALITY IN WHITE LEGHORN PULLETS IN T H E VINELAND CONTESTS C. S. PLATT, New Jersey Agricultural ment Station

L. W. TAYLOR AND C. A. GUNNS, University

of California Data are presented on the size of 546 embryos from unincubated eggs obtained from 44 White Leghorn hens representing a range in hatchability from 0 to 94%. Mean maximum diameter of the fixed blastoderms (3.68 mm.) and mean diameter of the area pellucida (2.14 mm.) were approximately 15% smaller than reported by Edwards (1902). The character of entoderm present indicated that the average stage of development obtained was earlier than has been reported by other investigators as representative of the unincubated blastoderm. Size of embryo was not found to be correlated with hatchability of the dam. The first egg in a clutch of consecutively produced eggs contained a larger embryo (avg. 3.81 mm.) than other eggs in the clutch (avg. 3.59 mm.). The greatest variability in embryo size was found between hens; but variation in size was also significantly greater in the first egg of the clutch than in subsequent eggs. Number of cells in the embryo was definitely correlated with maximum diameter. One major cause of differences

Experi-

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The editorial policy of six journals serving fields rather analogous to that served by POULTRY SCIENCE was studied. In the majority of cases publication of the results of research were not limited to society members. Part of these journals restricted the length of articles and part did not. The majority of journals limit the number of cuts or tables allowed. The journals were equally divided with respect to charges to authors. Three made a charge above a certain number of pages and three made no charge. No journal had a provision for subsidizing to secure earlier publication. Editors consulted were practically unanimous in condemning subsidizing.

in embryo size appears to be the length of time the egg is retained in the oviduct. Of the 546 embryos studied, 391 were in orientations permitting measurements of structure in median antero-posterior sections. The amount of overgrowth, the total amount of entoderm, the amount of the area pellucida not underlaid by entoderm, the average number of yolk masses and the percentage of apparently open blastopores were not found to be individually correlated with hatchability of the dam. Thus the features of embryonic development found by Hays and Nicholaides (1934) to be characteristic of eggs laid by their high hatching hens do not seem to be of predictive value in the stock used in this study.

Mortality among the competing White Leghorn pullets at the Vineland Egg Laying Contests of 1918, 1919, and 1921 was 6.48%, 10.45%, and 11.25% respectively. During the last three years covered by this report, 1931, 1932, and 1933, the mortality was 21.74%, 25.99%, and 24.77% respectively. The greatest mortality between 1916 and 1933 was 30.86% in 1927. Mortality definitely increased between 1921 and 1927 and has maintained a significantly higher level since 1927 than it was prior to 1921. Egg production during the three years of the earlier period mentioned was 52.95%, 46.63%, and 44.82% respectively, while for the latest period of three years, it was 57.18%, 55.18%, and 55.78% respectively. The highest rate of production over the period covered was 57.18% in 1931. Production was extremely variable from 1918 to 1925, because of management conditions. Since 1925, production has shown a slight tendency to increase. The percent production of the birds that survived each year was higher than that of the birds that died, figured on a bird-day basis. This indicates

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It is proposed to recognize as a Register of Merit male an R.O.P. male out of an R.O.P. or Register of Merit (R.O.M.) mating which, when mated to R.O.P. or R.O.M. females, has at least one-third of his daughters (with a minimum of 20) qualify for Record of Performance. It is proposed to recognize as a Register of Merit female an R.O.P. female out of an R.O.P. or R.O.M. mating which, when mated to an R.O.P. or R.O.M. male, has at least one-third of her daughters (with a minimum of 4) qualify for Record of Performance. Register of Merit matings are proposed which will tend to encourage the selection of sires and dams of outstanding breeding worth for further use and cockerels and yearling females belonging to superior families. A formula is presented that may prove to be of value in the selection of superior sires based on the egg production and egg weight of his daughters and the hatchability of the dams to which he is mated.

8. FAVORABLE TEMPERATURE FOR T H E INCUBATION OF HEN'S EGGS

10. RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN EGG PRODUCTION OF ANCESTORS AND OFFSPRING

ALEXIS L. ROMANOFF, Cornell

Agricultural Experiment

University

Station

H. D. GOODALE, Mount Hope Farm, Williamstown, Massachusetts

This report embodies further experimental results supporting the previously published data by the author (Jour. Cell, and Comp. Physiol. 2:457-466. 1933) in regard to the favorable biological effect of lowering the temperature during the latter part of incubation of chicken eggs. The present results show that the lowering of temperature gives a greater safety-margin in obtaining a good hatch, as revealed by the percentage of hatchability of eggs, the time and distribution of hatch, the weight of chicks, the number of crippled chicks, and the amount of unabsorbed yolk at the time of hatching. The study of early postnatal development indicates that the birds were of apparently normal health, as shown by the gain in weight of some of the vital organs, such as the heart, liver, lungs and kidneys, and of high viability during the first three weeks of brooding.

Jull (Jour, of Hered., Feb., 1934) published figures on the relation of the egg production of female ancestors and offspring which disturb certain notions on this subject. We have re-examined this subject, tabulating our records in the form used by Jull. Although Jull's main conclusion, that the egg record of a bird is not a perfect index of her breeding ability, is justified, our figures, unlike Jull's, show a definite relationship between the egg production of female ancestors and that of their offspring in all cases such that the higher the record of hens on the average the higher the average egg production of the offspring.

9. PROGENY TESTING IN A PRACTICAL POULTRY BREEDING PLAN

Exhibition-bred Rhode Island Reds that were essentially low in persistency were crossed with production-bred stock that was high in persistency. The Fi generation averaged above intermediate, suggesting dominance of high persistency. The F 2 generation gave two distinct phenotypes with modes at about 200 days and 3 SO days. The dividing point between high and low persistency types was found to be near 270 days and not at 315 days as was first suggested by Hays. The theory that high persistency depends in in-

MORLEY A. JULL, V. S. Department

of Agriculture

The National Poultry Improvement Plan does not include the official recognition of breeding stock based on the progeny test, but since this is regarded as the foundation on which a sound breeding program can be developed it is proposed to give official recognition to register of merit males, females and ma tings.

11. STUDIES ON T H E INHERITANCE OF PERSISTENCY F. A. HAYS, Massachusetts State College

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that the birds that died were consistently of a lower producing type, regardless of whether the mortality was as low as 6.48% or as high as 30.86%, and whether production was as low as 35.31% or as high as 57.18%. The following observations are of interest: (1) Mortality increased at a definite period of time, namely, from 1921 to 1927. (2) Mortality continued at a relatively high level after the peak was reached with no apparent tendency for material reduction. (3) The rate of egg production showed no increase from 1918 to 1928, but mortality more than tripled. (4) Egg production increased slightly from 1928 to 1933 but mortality remained about the same. (5) The birds that died produced at a lower rate than the birds that survived during each year of the contest, indicating that they constantly represented a distinct type of bird. (6) The contests during recent years apparently had more birds entered that were of the type that would die early in life, regardless of their production.

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heritance upon one dominant autosomal gene was again confirmed. For selection purposes it is suggested that a minimum for highly persistent individuals be well above 270 days because of overlapping in phenotypes. 12. TEN YEARS OF INBREEDING IN T H E WHITE LEGHORN FOWL NELSON F. WATERS AND W. V. LAMBERT,

Iowa State College

In the present investigation the degree of inbreeding has been, in general, less intensive than that obtained from brother and sister or parent and offspring matings. However, one intensely inbred family with the equivalent of brother and sister mating has been maintained successfully for nine generations. The success of the present project undoubtedly can be attributed in no small measure to the rigid selection practiced throughout the experiment, as all individuals were selected primarily on the basis of high hatchability of their eggs and upon general vigor of the individual bird and of the offspring of each pair of birds. Other characters besides vigor and hatchability were also considered whenever practical, namely: early maturity, egg production, egg size, and viability. Available information from many sources indicates that hatchability of some families in the present investigation indicates that some approach to homozygosity has been realized. It is felt, therefore, that this material will be of much value in a study of the very important economic question of hatchability. The ancestry of all living birds in the experiment may be traced to a group of four males and seven females. One of the four original males, however, has the greatest average degree of relationship to the present generation, this relationship still being approximately 60%. The average inter se relationship between the present chicks which are not sibs is approximately 40%. The relationship between

brother and sister in the present generation ranges from as low as 59% to as high as 90%. The inbreeding coefficients (Wright's method of determination) in the present generation range from approximately 25% to 82%. The fertility for all inbreds has not decreased as the inbreeding coefficient has increased. The percentage hatchability of fertile eggs for all inbreds has decreased slightly, but in only one instance has the average hatchability been below 62%. The number of days to first egg has not decreased with the exception of those birds having inbreeding coefficients above 7 1 % . There is no clear evidence that the ability to lay during the winter months has been lost as the inbreeding coefficient increases. There is a slight decrease in both 200-day egg production and for annual egg production in the more highly inbred groups with the exception of the 61—70.9% inbreds. Egg weight has remained fairly constant throughout the entire inbreeding program. Body weights were not obtained for any inbreds until 1932 but since that time there has been no general decrease in the body weight of the inbreds as the inbreeding coefficient increased. Mortality during the first laying year has exacted a severe toll among the inbreds, and further, the mortality has increased very rapidly as the degree of inbreeding has increased. 13. VARIATION IN THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYOS IN HENS' EGGS • E. H. MCNALLY AND T. C. BYERLY, U. S. Depart-

ment of Agriculture In order to determine the variation of embryonic development in unincubated fertile eggs, eggs were collected from a mass mated and uniformly managed pen of White Leghorn hens within an hour after laying and incubated for forty-eight hours without previous cooling. At the end of this period the eggs were opened and the number of somites in each embryo counted. A variation of from 9 to 26 somites was observed with a mean somite number of 19.18. The number of somites in the embryos was found to decrease slightly in eggs laid during the later part of the day. An increase in the number of somites was found with increase in the time interval between successive eggs. Length of interval between successive eggs is highly correlated with length of time the egg is retained in the oviduct and uterus, since dissection showed that ovulation usually occurred within half an hour after laying. Further data collected showed that among the eggs of the individual females the eggs of greater weight con-

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This paper presents a summary of an inbreeding project, which was initiated in 1925, to study the effect of inbreeding in the White Leghorn fowl. Since its inception, one of the objects of the project has been to develop inbred lines homozygous for a number of the characters which are of major interest to the poultry breeder, since reasonably homozygous material with which to work is essential before the poultry geneticist can make a thorough genetic analysis of such characters. Further, genetically homozygous lines of poultry should be of decided value in providing uniform material for various physiological and nutritional experiments.

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SEPTEMBER,

1935.

VOL.

XIV,

14. HEREDITARY BLINDNESS IN T H E FOWL F. B. HUTT, Cornell University Affected chicks are blind at hatching and remain so throughout life. They are easily recognized by rather slow movements of the head from side to side, by complete absence of any pupillary reflex when exposed to intense light and by such general symptoms of blindness as running into obstructions and ill-directed pecking. Blind chicks later, exhibit circling movements. There is pronounced bulging of one or both eyes, usually asymmetrical. Dissection reveals differences between the sizes of right and left eyes, often accompanied by unilateral atrophy of the optic nerves. Post-natal mortality is greater in blind chicks than in normal siblings, but, when confined to close quarters, the blind birds learn to eat and drink. Growth is slightly sub-normal. At maturity the males exhibit normal psychosexual behavior and the females lay practically as many eggs as their normal sisters. Ratios obtained in F 2 and backcross indicate that a single autosomal recessive gene is responsible for the condition. In matings of homozygotes inter se, fertile eggs were obtained and three chicks, all blind, were hatched. The mutation was found in White Leghorns.

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16. VITAMIN A REQUIREMENTS OF GROWING CHICKS P. R.

RECORD, R. M. BETHKE, AND O. H.

WILDER, Ohio Agricultural Experiment

M.

Station

The object of the experiment was to determine the quantitative vitamin A requirement of chicks using crystalline carotene dissolved in oil, alfalfaleaf meal, and cod liver oil as sources of the vitamin. Both prophylactic and curative trials were conducted. White Leghorn chicks were used throughout. The ration used in all trials was composed of white corn 58%, wheat middlings 25%, domestic casein 12%, dried yeast 1.5%, irradiated yeast (200-D) 0.5%, steamed bone meal 1%, ground limestone 1% and sodium chloride 1%. In the prophylactic trials the carotene was dissolved in cottonseed oil so that the desired amount could be incorporated in the ration. The cod liver oil was also diluted with cottonseed oil for proper incorporation in the ration. It was found that from SO to 100 gamma of carotene per 100 grams of feed were required to produce normal growth and prevent symptoms of vitamin A deficiency during the eight weeks of the trial. The biological rat equivalent of 50 to 100 gamma of carotene, in the form of vitamin A from cod liver oil, was needed. In the curative trials the chicks were fed the basal ration for twenty-six days, at which time a large percentage of the birds showed vitamin A symptoms. The birds were then divided into lots as nearly similar as possible and individually fed different amounts of carotene or cod liver oil. In two separate trials it was found that approximately 50 gamma of carotene was required to produce normal chicks for seven or nine weeks of supplemental feeding. The one curative trial in which varying amounts of vitamin A from cod liver oil were fed for nine weeks it required from 60 to 100 International units daily to produce normal chicks. 18. VITAMIN A REQUIREMENTS FOR GROWING CHICKS R. M.

SHERWOOD AND G. S. FRAPS, Texas

A. & M. College In a study to determine the vitamin A requirements for growing chicks rations containing 50, 100, 150, and 300 Sherman-Munsell units per 100 grams of feed were fed to chicks hatched from eggs produced by hens receiving rations containing 310, 440, and 560 units of vitamin A per 100 grams of feed. During the first few weeks of the experiment the mortality of the chicks from the hens on the lowest vitamin A level was so high that the different levels of vitamin A in the chick feeds studied did

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tained the more developed embryos, which is in accord with the fact that egg weight is already known to increase with the length of interval between eggs. Later, hatchability data were collected of eggs from the same hens, with observations of the hour laid. In order to obtain a considerable variation in their hatchability all eggs were stored in the incubator cellar for about three weeks previous to incubation. The hatchability of all eggs set was 49.8%. In this case there was a slightly better hatchability of the eggs laid later in the day than in those laid earlier. When time between eggs was considered, an increase in hatchability was observed from the eggs laid after a twenty-four-hour interval to a maximum hatchability of eggs laid after a twenty-seven-hour interval. The average number of somites of the embryos in the eggs from a hen was compared with the hatchability of eggs of that hen. Higher hatchability was observed for the eggs from hens that tended to lay eggs that showed a larger embryo at forty-eight hours up to an optimal number of 20 somites, with a rapid decrease in -hatchability for the eggs from those hens in whose eggs the embryos showed a greater number of somites than 20.

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19. A PROGRAM FOR MERCHANDISING GOVERNMENT GRADED EGGS ROY C. POTTS, U. S. Department of Agriculture The problem of developing more economical and efficient merchandising programs for farm products constantly challenges the best thought and effort of not only persons and firms engaged in the business of actual merchandising, but also of college officials, marketing officials and others who have an interest in promoting progress in the poultry industry through more efficient and economical methods of marketing poultry and poultry products. In recent years the problem of developing efficient and economical merchandising programs, especially for so-called hennery quality eggs, has challenged the thought particularly of country produce buyers in nearby and midwest producing areas, especially where producers have found it greatly to their advantage to ship their eggs direct by truck, parcel post, or express into a terminal market. The country produce buyer with his investment in plant and equipment has seen in certain areas a large part of the local production move directly past his plant to market, because his program of marketing was not such as to permit him to offer a price for the eggs in the country commensurate with that which the producer was able to realize on his direct shipments. It is recognized that this is an age of standardization. The Federal Government has done much to promote and make it possible to develop efficient and economical programs of merchandising based upon a Government program of standardization. In but a few sections have country produce buyers attempted to employ the Government program of standardization of eggs, or a program of merchan-

SCIENCE

dising for Government graded eggs, yet in such areas as this program has been employed it has been demonstrated that it is of benefit to the country produce buyer and to the producer. It has also been demonstrated that it is of benefit and value to distributing agencies in the terminal market and to consumer. 20. A QUALITY EGG EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM FOR THE PRODUCERS, DISTRIBUTORS, AND CONSUMERS RAYMOND E. CRAY, Ohio State

University

The mass production, distribution, and consumption of high quality eggs in Ohio is a development of the last three or four years. Before this time some of the large commercial poultrymen followed a program of quality egg production but in most cases the eggs were sold to markets outside of the state. Decreasing poultry profits during the last five years stimulated more and more poultrymen to seek better markets for their eggs. In some sections of the state this resulted in the development of farmer co-operative marketing organizations; in other sections of the state it led more poultrymen to make direct shipments to eastern markets which resulted in local dealers attempting to purchase eggs on a quality basis in order to retain their volume. In every case it soon became evident that better prices could not be secured by these changes in marketing methods unless better eggs were produced. Consequently an educational program on quality egg production was developed for the producers. The production of quality eggs did not solve the marketing problem. Many of the distributors already established and the newly developed cooperatives found that the problem of handling and marketing quality eggs was quite different from the problem of handling eggs on the "case count" basis. The distributors found that the marketing of quality eggs required more frequent collections from the farm, better care of the eggs while on the truck and better facilities for candling and holding the eggs at the plant. It also involved changes in distribution methods including more frequent deliveries of the eggs to the outlets and the development of suitable outlets for each quality and grade of eggs. The problem of stimulating the consumption of high quality eggs is still common in Ohio even though Ohio produces fewer eggs than it consumes; most of the best eggs are marketed out of the state and inferior eggs imported to replace them. Enough studies have been made on the quality of eggs sold

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not show the results on chick mortality that they did on the chicks from the hens on the higher levels. The mortality was lower in the case of the chicks from the hens receiving 440 and 560 units of vitamin A per 100 grams of feed as the amount of vitamin A in the ration increased. No advantage was shown in the weight of the chicks for the 300 units over the ISO units per 100 grams in the chick rations. In another study with chicks hatched from hens receiving an adequate supply of vitamin A it was found that the mortality in twelve weeks was as follows: insignificant amount of vitamin A, 100% mortality; 42 units per 100 grams, 4 1 % ; 84 units per 100 grams, 15%; and 126 units per 100 grams, 12%. The percentage of healthy chicks remaining at the close of the experiment was 0, 24, 72, and 83 for the respective lots.

POULTRY

SEPTEMBER,

1935.

VOL.

XIV,

21. CHANGING T H E TEXAS TURKEY MARKETING SYSTEM PAUL A. CUNYUS, Texas A. & M. College

The custom of buying turkeys by weight with little regard for quality has discouraged every attempt in Texas to grow better birds. The need for a fair system of grading based on quality factors alone has been recognized for years, but it is only recently that something definite has been accomplished. Working through the established dealers proved unsuccessful, so the farmers themselves have taken the lead through their co-operative associations. There are two methods used to grade each producer's birds: (1) After the birds are dressed, either by the farmer himself or at a small co-operative dressing plant, or by picking crews which go from farm to farm. The three U.S. standard retail grades are used. (2) When the birds are alive, they are graded as delivered to the central dressing plant into these same retail grades. This is not as accurate nor satisfactory, but is far better than the old method. Other necessary steps in this program have been: (1) An intensive educational campaign among producers through year-round extension demonstrations, of production methods, dressing demonstrations, dressed turkey shows, publicity, and otherwise. (2) Establishment of official government grading by trained and licensed graders. (3) Use of the standard wirebound box pack instead of the usual barrel pack. (4) Paying each producer exactly according to the quality of his birds regardless of other factors. (5) Reaching a market outlet which knew government graded poultry. This was done by co-operating with the large turkey cooperative sales agency of the northwest. (6) Fi-

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nancing through the Federal Bank for Co-operatives. The results have been highly satisfactory. The four Texas associations, which marketed 84,000 pounds last season, netted several cents a pound more than local paying prices. There is a greater demand for better breeding stock, information on feeding, and methods of dressing than ever before. The example is being emulated by a half-dozen other small associations this year and it is hoped that within two or three years these will bring about a unanimous change toward a better turkey marketing system in Texas. 22. T H E EFFECT ON YOLK COLOR OF ARGENTINE CORN, DOMESTIC CORN, AND DEHYDRATED ALFALFA J. S. CARVER AND VICTOR HEIMAN,

Agricultural Experiment

Washington

Station

In conducting the egg yolk color studies reported here, twelve lots of six hens each were confined to individual hen batteries and fed a white ration supplemented with varying amounts of dent corn, flint (Argentine) corn, dehydrated alfalfa, and combinations of dehydrated alfalfa and flint corn. The eggs were candled, broken daily, and the degree of pigmentation determined with the yolk color roter. Feeding 30% of dent corn resulted in yolks with a color index of approximately 11.5. The same amount of flint corn produced yolks with a color index of approximately 13.S. The lots fed 10%, 20%, and 30% of dent corn produced eggs with a range in color of 10 to 11.5, whereas the color range on the flint corn was from 11.5 to 13.5 for the 10%, 20%, and 30% levels. The control group started with a color index of 12 and steadily declined until at the end of the twenty-seven-day period, the yolks reached an index of approximately 7. The groups fed on 4%, 8%, and 12% of dehydrated alfalfa produced yolks with a range of color of 12 to 14. The combinations of 4% alfalfa and 10% Argentine corn and 8% alfalfa and 20% Argentine corn produced egg yolks which ranged in color from 13 to 14.5. The amount of pigmentation deposited in the egg yolks was not proportionate to the amount of pigment in the ration. The color changes induced by the rations fed began to take effect after the fourth or fifth day of feeding. The maximum color was reached in a period of three or four days after the pigment began to increase in the egg. In the rations which induced less pigmentation than the preliminary egg yolk

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on Ohio markets to show that there has been no relationship between quality, size, and the price of the eggs. During recent months one of the cooperative egg marketing associations worked with a large chain store in Cleveland developing a real consumer educational program which has demonstrated that Ohio consumers will pay a good price for eggs when they are guaranteed that they will get good quality eggs. The whole field of quality egg production, distribution, and consumption in Ohio has merely been opened but progress is being made in all three phases of the problem. The rapidity of the progress in overcoming the problems in these fields will be limited by the educational program that must accompany the changes.

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POULTRY

color, the pigment disappeared gradually over a period of fourteen days. At this time the pigmentation seemed to become stabilized. The correlation between the observed color of the yolk under the candle and the yolk color index as determined on the color roter was found to be 0.70 ± 0.02. The yolk color roter was found effective in measuring the range of pigmentation. 23. T H E ALBUMEN INDEX AS A PHYSICAL MEASUREMENT OF OBSERVED EGG QUALITY VICTOR HEIMAN AND J. S. CARVER, Washington

Agricultural Experiment

Station

TABLE 1.—Effect

24. T H E EFFECT OF MINERAL SUPPLEMENTS ON INTERIOR EGG QUALITY L. E. CARD AND H. J. SLOAN, University of Illinois

A series of trials was conducted in 1934 to determine whether it was possible to affect the interior quality of eggs, as expressed in percentage of thick white, by the feeding of high proportions of the common grains, corn, wheat or oats. Since the differences between the different lots was not particularly striking, our attention was turned this year (193S) to a consideration of the possibility of increasing or reducing the percentage of thick white of new-laid eggs by adding mineral supplements to the basal ration.

of some mineral supplements on the percentage of thick white of new-laid eggs Period

Lot

grades were correlated with the albumen index to determine their relationship. The albumen index is determined by dividing the height of the apparent thick white by its mean width. The coefficient of correlation between the albumen index and the observed apparent quality of 2091 fresh eggs and eggs of mixed quality was found to be 0.932 ± 0.002. The mean albumen index of freshly gathered eggs used in this study was 0.106. The mean index for the five observed grades was 0.124, 0.099, 0.069, 0.048, and 0.032 respectively. It was further found that egg weight did not materially affect the accuracy of the albumen index. The index was found to be well suited to studies of the apparent quality of eggs because of its simplicity and the speed of making measurements.

Additions to basal ration

Estimated excess base*

% Thick albumen

186

1 2 3 4

3/4-3/20 3/21-4/17 4/18-5/15 5/16-6/12

none none none none

46.0 46.0 46.0 46.0

69.89 68.71 70.75 70.14

187

1 2 3 4

3/4-3/20 3/21-4/17 4/18-5/15 5/16-6/12

none 3 cc sodium silicate** 9 cc sodium silicate** 2% ground limestone

46.0 46.0 46.0 84.0

74.50 73.48 72.71 73.23

188

1 2 3 4

3/4-3/20 3/21-4/17 4/18-5/15 5/16-6/12

none 1% salt (uniodized) 3 % salt (uniodized) 2% MgO

46.0 45.5 44.5 144.0

73.71 74.49 75.18 75.36

189

1 2 3 4

3/4-3/20 3/21-4/17 4/18-5/15 5/16-6/12

none 1% K 2 C0 3 3 % K 2 C0 3 none

46.0 60.0 88.0 46.0

74.05 73.75 74.23 74.49

* Expressed as c c . normal base per 100 gms. of feed. '* 3 times weekly.

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In observing eggs of varying degrees of quality it was found that the apparent thick white of eggs of low quality was not as high as on eggs of good apparent quality. It was further noted that the apparent thick white of poor quality eggs covered a greater area than that of eggs of high apparent quality. From these observations the experimental methods used in determining the albumen index were developed. Fresh eggs were broken and measured within six hours after they were laid or were held at definite experimental temperatures for varying lengths of time and then measured by the albumen index method. In every case the eggs were weighed and separated into weight classes on the day they were laid. Throughout this study five observed grades were recognized and these were based on the operator's judgment. These observed

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SEPTEMBER,

1935.

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S

TABLE 2.—Egg production Period

Lot 186 187 188 189

Total 11/15-3/20

3/21-4/17

4/18-5/15

5/16-6/12

44.8 68.1 48.4 64.5

16.3 21.5 15.3 18.2

13.5 21.8 16.3 19.8

14.3 21.4 9.7 17.9

Each lot of birds was on each different diet four weeks, and the eggs for breaking were collected between March 4 and March 20 and during the third and fourth weeks of periods 2, 3, and 4 until a five-egg sample had been collected from each hen that was laying. The eggs were examined the day they were laid. Only those hens are included in the averages for the different lots that continued to lay throughout the entire period. The sieve-volumetric method of measuring the white was used. A rough calculation was made from the available mineral analyses of the ingredients used to determine the approximate potential acidity or alkalinity of the different rations used. Although this method admittedly does not give an accurate value for the alkalinity it does help in determining whether or not the rations are decidedly acid or alkaline. The magnitude of the value for excess base (Table 1) shows that the basal ration was probably alkaline and that the alkalinity was markedly increased by the additions of limestone, magnesium oxide and potassium carbonate. The sodium silicate used was 40° Baume water glass. Although the water glass contains an excess of Si0 2 normally Na 2 0 • 3 + Si0 3 and hence would theoretically be acidic it was not considered as contributing any potential acidity as it is probably metabolized to only a very limited extent. Table 1 also gives the average percentage of thick white of eggs from the rations containing the different mineral supplements used. It will be noticed that the thick white for the control lot was about

4% to 5% lower than for any of the other lots at the beginning, even though the birds were selected at random. However, since the control lot remained quite uniform and the differences between the control lot and the other lots remained approximately the same in the respective periods, regardless of the mineral supplement used, it is not indicated that the interior quality as judged from the percentage of thick white was appreciably changed by the minerals at the levels used. A comparison of periods 3 and 4 in lots 187 and 188 does not indicate that a decided increase in the potential alkalinity of the ration had any noticeable effect on the percentage of thick white.

26. IS CAROTENE TRANSFERRED FROM FEED OF A HEN TO THE YOLK OF HER EGG? GEORGE H.

KENNEDY, U. S.

Department

of Agriculture Yearling hens were given a diet low in pigment. When the color of the egg yolks from the eggs laid by these hens had become very light, carotene crystals were dissolved in oil and added to the diet. Crystals contaminated with a small amount of xanthophyll caused the color of the egg yolks to darken until the color was comparable to that in demand at the New York market. However, no change in the color of the yolks was observed when specially purified xanthophyll-free beta carotene was used. This work bears out the observations of Palmer and Kempster that carotene has no appreciable significance in the pigmentation of the egg yolk. 27. EFFECTS OF LIVER EXTRACT AND LIVER MEAL ON HATCHABILITY J. B. SMITH, Ontario Agricultural College Recent studies on the influence of dietary factors on hatchability have shown that liver extract or liver meal added to certain animal protein supplements gave satisfactory hatches in all trials irrespective of the efficiency of the kind of animal

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Forty-eight White Leghorn pullets of the same breeding were confined in laying cages November 13, 1934, and were fed until March 21, 1935, an all-mash laying ration composed of ground yellow corn 32%, wheat bran 20%, flour wheat middling 20%, alfalfa meal 10%, meat scrap 6%, dried skimmilk 4%, ground limestone (97% CaC0 3 ) 3 % , steamed bone meal 2%, salt 1%, sardine oil 2%. On March 21 the birds were divided into four lots, one being continued on the same basal ration, the others being fed varying proportions of the mineral supplements, as indicated in Table 1.

88.9 132.8 89.7 120.4

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POULTRY

protein used. During 1933-34 liver extract (supplied by Connaught Laboratories, University of Toronto) was fed in capsule form to several pens of hens whose diet differed only in the kind of animal protein supplement added to a common cereal mash. The rather remarkable results in hatching due to the use of this material'led to trials of a more practical nature for 1934-35 when liver meal was added to various rations differing in the kind of animal protein. Liver meal gave even better results in hatchability than did liver extract.

28. COMPARISON OF DIGESTIBILITY IN GIZZARDECTOMIZED AND NORMAL FOWLS JAMES C. FRITZ, U. S. Department of Agriculture

The gizzard was surgically removed from several birds of each sex. A similar group of normal birds was used as a control. Coefficients of apparent digestibility were determined with each group for (1) finely ground yellow corn, (2) coarsely cracked yellow corn, and (3) cracked soy beans. With finely ground corn the digestibility was essentially the same with both groups, while with the coarse feeds the gizzardectomized birds showed a much lower digestibility. The data indicate that the gizzard functions solely as a grinding organ. 29. T H E INFLUENCE OF CALCIUM CARBONATE ON T H E DIGESTION OF PROTEIN, FAT, AND FIBER BY LAYING HENS G. DAVIS BUCKNER AND AMANDA HELEN HARMS,

Kentucky

Agricultural Experiment

Station

During four successive periods different amounts of calcium carbonate were added to an all-mashration consisting of mixed wheat feed 60 lbs., ground yellow corn 20 lbs., meat scrap 20 lbs. (50% protein), cod liver oil 1 lb., and sodium chloride 1 lb. and fed to four lots of laying Rhode Island Red hens. The droppings from the individual hens in the different lots were collected during each period and analyzed for calcium, phosphorous, protein, fat, and fiber. The addition of calcium carbonate to the basal ration caused an increase in the

digestion of the protein in the mash as shown by a very material decrease in the amount of protein found in the droppings of the various hens after calcium carbonate had been added. The percentages of fat and fiber in the droppings of the hens did not change significantly during the experiment. 30. INORGANIC PHOSPHORUS AND PEROSIS J O H N C. HAMMOND, U. S.

Department

of Agriculture Studies in correlation were made between the percentage of chicks showing perosis in each lot and the percentage of total phosphorus, inorganic phosphorus, organic phosphorus, and calcium in the diet fed each lot. The study includes 193 pens of Rhode Island Red chicks. The highest correlation was found between inorganic phosphorus and perosis. There was high correlation between perosis and total phosphorus, but a significant negative correlation between organic phosphorus and perosis. The use of partial correlation showed that there was also a significant negative correlation between perosis and calcium. It is concluded that inorganic phosphorus is a primary factor in the etiology of perosis. f

31. STUDIES ON T H E CAUSE AND PREVENTION OF PEROSIS

H. S. WILGUS, J R . , L. C. NORRIS AND G. F. HETJSER,

Cornell University The purposes of the experiment reported were to determine (1) the level of phosphorus necessary to produce the most severe symptoms of perosis, (2) the effect of varying the ratio of calcium to phosphorus, (3) the relative effectiveness of various sources of phosphorus in producing this deformity, and (4) the relative effectiveness of various common cereals and cereal by-products in preventing it. It was found that a level of phosphorus of 1.0% produced as severe perosis as larger amounts when steamed bone meal was added as the phosphorus supplement to a basal diet containing 0.95% of calcium and 0.81% of phosphorus and low in the preventive factor. Widening the ratio of calcium to phosphorus from 1.5:1 to 2.0:1 had no preventive effect upon perosis but widening it to 2.5 :1 alleviated the symptoms slightly when steamed bone meal was the phosphorus supplement. Monosodium phosphate (c.p.) produced somewhat more severe perosis than steamed bone meal or tricalcium phosphate (technical). Under certain

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The effect of liver meal in reducing the first, second, third and, to some extent at least, the last critical period or peak of embryonic mortality is rather clear-cut and definite. The occurrence of monsters decreased considerably, with many types of abnormal development disappearing entirely through the addition of liver meal to rations otherwise deficient in this respect.

SCIENCE

SEPTEMBER^

1 9 3 5 . V0L. X I V ,

32. SOME ASPECTS OF HIGH MINERAL METABOLISM I N CHICKS P. J. SCHAIBLE, SELMA L. BANDEMER, and

MOORE, Michigan Agricultural Experiment

J.

M.

Station

A laboratory procedure for estimating the mineral content of the liquid phase of the intestinal contents at different levels of the tract has been developed. Data procured by this method together with those on the blood and bones of the chicks have been obtained on a number of rations, particularly those containing high percentages of mineral supplements. Concentrations of mineral in the absorbable liquid phase of the intestinal contents were not a reflection of those in the ration and were frequently different from those considered to be optimum. 34. THE EFFECT OF CEREALS UPON T H E DEPOSITION AND COLOR OF FAT I N THE BODY OF THE FATTENING CHICKEN—A PRELIMINARY NOTE W. A. MAW AND R. HOLCOMB, Macdonald College, Quebec, Canada The distribution of the fat in the body of fattened chickens has been found to be influenced by feeding individual cereals. The addition of 5% bone-char to a yellow-corn ration resulted in bleaching of the visible fat deposits. The cereal rations were supplemented by 6% animal protein in the form of three parts beef meal and two parts powdered milk. The stock was fed for a period of twenty-one days. The amount of feed consumed had an apparent effect on the degree of bleaching.

5

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35. T H E RELATIONSHIP OF PROTEIN SUPPLEMENT TO INTERIOR EGG QUALITY D. F. SOWEIX AND C. L. MORGAN, South Carolina

Experiment

Station

A study of the percentage yolk, proportions of thin and thick albumen, and the yolk index (height/width) has been made of eggs from hens fed the following protein supplements: (1) meat scraps, (2) meat scraps and dried milk, (3) fish meal, and (4) meat scraps, fish meal, dried milk, and peanut meal. These consecutively laid eggs were saved monthly for study from each hen included in the test. Data over a six months' period fail to indicate any marked variation in the interior quality of eggs produced by these protein supplements. 36. A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON T H E VITAMIN G REQUIREMENT OF TURKEYS G. F. HEUSER, Cornell University Tested liver meal fed in connection with purified casein was used to measure the requirement of turkeys for vitamin G."On the basis of comparative vitamin G values, as determined at this laboratory, the ration for the first four weeks should contain a vitamin G equivalent of 16% of dried skimmilk. (This refers to the vitamin G equivalent as furnished by all the ingredients of the ration.) During the next four weeks the vitamin G requirement drops to the equivalent of 10% of dried skimmilk. After eight weeks the vitamin G equivalent of 8% of dried skimmilk was sufficient for optimum results. The weekly average instantaneous relative growth rate for the first four-week period was 5 1 % ; for the second four-week period it was 30%. The quantitative requirements for vitamin G for the first two periods of four weeks each are in direct proportion to the relative growth rate, indicating that the need for the growth-promoting phase of the vitamin G complex is directly related to the rate of growth. 37. T H E VITAMIN G REQUIREMENTS OF CHICKS FED T H E W.S.C. COMMERCIAL CHICK RATION VICTOR HEIMAN AND J. S. CARVER, Washington

Agricultural Experiment

Station

Vitamin G assays have been made on several milk products and their comparative potency determined when used with a vitamin G deficient ration. It was the purpose of this investigation to study the effects of adding different levels of the

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conditions, monocalcium phosphate (technical) entirely prevented the moderate amount of perosis occurring on the basal diet but the addition of limestone neutralized the preventive action of this salt. As a result of determinations of the perosispreventing properties of common poultry feedstuffs, the relative effectiveness of the materials studied was found to be as follows: wheat germ, 100; wheat standard middlings, 65; red dog flour, SO; wheat bran, 40; ground oats, 30; hard wheat, S; and soybean oil meal, 0. The effectiveness of ground yellow corn and dehydrated alfalfa meal could not be determined in this manner, but by indirect means, both of them were found to possess a slight preventive action. All but a small amount of perosis was prevented by feeding 20% of wheat standard middlings when the phosphorus level was 1.2%.

No.

304

POULTRY

The duplicate lots which received no dried skimmilk in the ration for eight weeks were only 29 grams lower in weight at eight weeks of age than the lots which received 5% dried skimmilk in their ration. All other lots were within the 29-gram range. In analyzing the result of the duplicate pens by the variance method, the replicates were in almost perfect agreement. One slight and temporary case of nutritional paralysis was observed in Lot 1, fed a ration without dried skimmilk. 38. RESULTS OF FIVE YEARS' CONTINUOUS LIGHT ON LEGHORNS R.

PENQUITE AND R.

B.

THOMPSON,

Agricultural Experiment

Oklahoma

Station

A study of the fertility, hatchability, egg weight, and egg production of White Leghorn hens subjected to continuous light for five years. The average egg production of the birds exposed to continuous light was about equal for the first two years. Beginning the third year there was a rapid decline in egg production. The percentage production was greater each year from October to December for the first four years when the birds were exposed to continuous light than when no light was used. As the hens advanced in age this effect gradually wore off and the percentage production curve came more nearly fitting the percentage production curve of the d a y light birds. Increased fall and early winter egg production was obtained throughout the five-year period by the use of continuous light, but its effect gradually diminished as spring and summer approached. The egg size decreased as birds increased in age. Perhaps this was due to the larger number

of eggs laid during the spring and summer months. As hot weather advanced the egg size decreased. The continuous lights did not decrease the fertility or percentage of healthy chicks hatched below that of hens under daylight conditions. 40. SOME OBSERVATIONS WITH PURIFIED DIETS FOR CHICKS R. VAN DER HoORN AND H . D . BRANION

Ontario Agricultural College A successful "simplified" diet, having the following composition: crude casein 20%, corn starch 46%, dried brewer's yeast 15%, wheat germ middlings 10%, salt mixture 4% and cod liver oil 5% has been developed. With this diet the growth and livability of chicks is normal and successful reproduction will take place. Pullets fed this diet throughout their first year had an average hatchability of 79.6% (April and May eggs). Second generation chicks have been successfully reared. Purification of the casein by dilute acetic acid leaching removes some factor or factors concerned in growth. Domestic crude caseins also differ in this respect. The use of pure wheat germ also lessens the growth response. Corn germ or corn germ meal will not satisfactorily replace the wheat germ. The use of "purified" casein also results in a leg abnormality tentatively termed "arthritis." Certain results suggest that the wheat germ may play some role in this connection since the use of an acid alcohol extract of wheat germ or the substitution of corn germ results in mild "arthritis." In addition such substitutions result in mortality due to hemorrhages, indicating that wheat germ may contain the so-called "antihemorrhagic vitamin." Various mineral mixtures give different responses. The substitution of grass ash for one-half of the mineral mixture used (Hart, Halpin and Steenbock) results in an increased growth in the females, at 12 weeks the pullets being heavier than the cockerels, which were normal in weight. At 21 weeks of age the average weights of the pullets on a "normal," "simplified," and "grass ash" diet were 1,497, 1,476, and 1,840 grams respectively. The grass ash also stimulated sexual maturity, since the first egg was laid at 143 days of age in this group, at 194 days in the "normal" group and at 196 days in the "simplified diet" group. Feeding of ash made from the casein leachings or of grass ash will prevent the development of the arthritis due to purification of the casein. Such results suggest that some minerals, at yet unknown, may be extremely important in avian nutrition.

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vitamin G complex from dried skimmilk powder to the W.S.C. commercial chick starting and developing rations. Five duplicate lots with 88 White Leghorn chicks to a lot were brooded under electric hovers in separate pens in a commercial brooder house. Each pen was provided with a wire sunporch. The chicks were fed on the regular W.S.C. feeding schedule. Chicks were fed on all-mash ration for the first week and then increasing amounts of scratch grain were fed each succeeding week. Fresh cut succulent green alfalfa was supplied the chicks at all times. The chicks' starting mash was fed for the first six weeks and the developing mash was fed the seventh and eighth weeks. All of the chick starting mashes were adjusted to a protein level of 17.1%, calcium 1.63%, and phosphorus of 1.0%. The W.S.C. developing mashes were adjusted at a level of 17.2% protein, 2.65% calcium, and 1.10% phosphorus.

SCIENCE

SEPTEMBER,

1935.

VOL.

XIV,

41. T H E EFFECTS OF VITAMIN D INTAKE OF T H E H E N ON THE BONE CALCIFICATION OF THE CHICK R. R. M U R P H Y , J. E. HUNTER AND H. C. KNANDEL

The Pennsylvania State College

From the results of a second study evidence was secured to indicate that vitamin D is transmitted in a quantitative way from the hen to the chick. In this work the number of U.S.P. units of vitamin D per 100 gms. of feed administered to 5 groups of breeding hens ranged from 16.9 to 270. The chicks were fed a vitamin D free ration and brooded for a period of 5 weeks. Bone photographs and bone ash determinations on representative individuals were made each week during the brooding period. With either bone ash determinations or bone photographs at an early age (1 to 3 weeks) evidence was obtained to show that the vitamin D reserve of the chick is dependent upon the vitamin D intake of the parent stock. 42. A. GRAPHICAL METHOD FOR THE RAPID ESTIMATION OF T H E STANDARD DEVIATION R.

HOIXOMB AND DAROL K.

FROMAN

Macdonald College, Quebec It follows from the law of normal distribution that for a series of observations, arranged in order of increasing magnitude,

n = •

1

r I

e

.dx

2 2AAJ0 where N is the total number of observations, a is the standard deviation, and x is the deviation from the mean of the nth observation. The ordinal num-

ber n is the serial number of the observation in the series. Graphical methods based upon this relationship are described for estimating the various criteria of variability. The curve of n/x is more readily adaptable to tests for normalcy of distribution than is the customary frequency histogram, especially with limited observational data. 43. NUMBERS AND UNIFORMITY IN EXPERIMENTAL LOTS F. A. HAYS, Massachusetts State College An application of the theory of random sampling is made to annual egg records made by unimproved flocks and by improved flocks in Rhode Island Reds and White Leghorns. Consideration is also given to uniformity in second year records compared with first year records. Some deductions are made concerning necessary numbers required to make the calculations of standard constants possible when annual egg records are used as a measure of results. In general, as the egg production level is raised by breeding methods, there is a tendency for the variability to decline. 44. METHODS OF MEASURING EGG QUALITY A. VANWAGENEN AND H. S. WILGUS, JR.

Cornell University The importance of determining the quality as well as the quantity of eggs produced is without question. A definition of egg quality, however, has not been generally accepted and used, thereby delaying routine determinations of it in research. As a basis for discussion leading to the clarification of this situation, the more generally recognized criteria of egg quality (exclusive of nutritive value) and the more common methods of measuring them are presented. The criteria discussed are: size of egg; thickness, strength, porosity, texture, and color of the shell; the color, dimensions, condition, flavor, and odor of the yolk; the color, relative volume or weight of the various fractions of the white, and the condition of the firm white. 45. A STUDY OF T H E LEXIS THEORY OF DISPERSION AS APPLIED TO HATCHABILITY DATA WALTER A. HENDRICKS, U. S.

Department

of Agriculture Variability in hatchability of the fertile eggs produced by a given lot of birds, kept under the same experimental conditions, obeys the Lexis law

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In previous work in which the quantitative requirements of laying and breeding hens for vitamin D were studied, an attempt was made to measure the degree of transmission of the vitamin from the hen to the chick. The number of U.S.P. units of vitamin D per 100 gms. of feed administered to 9 groups of breeding hens ranged from 8.4 to 135. The chicks hatched from these hens were placed on a rachitogenic ration and brooder for a period of 8 weeks. At 4 and 8 weeks of age representative individuals were slaughtered and bone ash determinations made, as well as photographs showing the degree of calcification. From these data no conclusive evidence was secured to indicate a transmission of Vitamin D from the hen to the chick.

305

No. 5

POULTRY

306

46. DEMONSTRATION OF (a) T H E EJACULATORY REFLEX IN T H E COCK AND (b) ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION IN T H E HEN (a) A Method of Obtaining Spermatozoa from the Domestic Fowl W. H. BURROWS AND J. P. Q U I N N , V.

S.

Department of Agriculture A manual elicitation of the ejaculatory reflex by which semen can be collected without the aid of any special apparatus. (b) A Method of Artificial Insemination in the Domestic Fowl J. P. Q U I N N AND W. H. BURROWS

A technic for the extrusion of the orifice of the oviduct and the direct introduction of spermatozoa. 48. WHY AN AGRICULTURAL TRAINING? H. C. KNANDEL, The Pennsylvania State College Agricultural colleges and more specifically the poultry departments of these institutions should prepare students for: 1. Vocational training used in the sense referred to in this paper. Vocational training was one of the fundamental purposes for the establishment of such institutions and in addition offers the best means of instruction. 2. Personal development in the manner best suited to the individual concerned. No two react in the same manner. Why should all be compelled

to study the same subjects for four years? What may appear as a cultural course to one may be most technical to another. 3. Investigators, teachers, and extension workers. Such students must plan for graduate study. 4. Responsible positions in industries many of which are allied to agriculture. 5. Leadership in rural and urban communities. The college should instill sincerity, honesty, integrity, and confidence in the student's chosen vocation and manner of living. Education is an experience, a growth, a development and a process of social adjustment. The student who desires to secure such an education while majoring in the field of poultry husbandry should be able to obtain it from the agricultural college or state university. 49. T H E POULTRY SCIENCE S E M I N A R CONTENT AND METHOD WILLARD C. THOMPSON, Rutgers

University

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of dispersion, provided that the eggs were fertilized by the same male bird or birds. In calculating the average hatchability for the lot and the standard error of that average, this fact should be taken into consideration. The average hatchability may be calculated by assigning a weight to the hatchability of the fertile eggs produced by each bird and calculating a weighted average in accordance with well-known error theory. The standard error of this average may also be calculated by well-known methods. The weights to be assigned to the hatchabilities for individual birds may be obtained by making use of the Lexis theory of dispersion. The author has applied the above methods to a large mass of data and the results obtained show that the methods are sound. Furthermore, the methods appear to be valid even though the same male birds do not fertilize all of the eggs involved, provided that the average effects of the different sets of male birds upon hatchability are fairly constant from set to set.

SCIENCE

The usual poultry courses included in agricultural college curricula deal adequately with the problems of production and marketing of poultry products. They prepare the students with technics, methods, and subject matter relating to the poultry industry. In these days, however, such preparation is not sufficient to produce well rounded education in poultry matters. The seminar as developed in New Jersey presents primarily an opportunity to do three things; (1) to give students who are primarily interested in the poultry industry an adequate opportunity to raise questions which have arisen out of their own thinking, and which have not been answered in regular courses, (2) to present to poultry students the relations which exist between the poultry industry and allied industries and to prepare them for possible work in the allied businesses or industries, and (3) to give poultry students a clearer insight into the present day organization of the poultry industry in all of its branches.

To accomplish these objectives the seminar is organized as an afternoon event each week during the senior year. The chief of the department assumes charge of the seminar in general but early in the year assigns certain meetings to staff members or students themselves. Debates, papers, round table discussions, and meetings to hear special lectures are used as methods. A syllabus is prepared for the year but considerable flexibility is written into it. From time to time guests appear at the seminar, such as representatives of feed companies, milk manufacturers, fish scrap manufacturers, poultry equipment and incubator makers, repre-

SEPTEMBER,

1935.

VOL.

XIV,

sentatives of the poultry press, and state and federal government workers. The general plan is to make this seminar as broad and inclusive as possible. Subjects which are dealt with in the courses are omitted from the seminar agenda. The result of setting aside an afternoon for undisturbed consideration of the seminar subjects is to arouse greater interest among the students, to create more enthusiasm for work in the field of poultry husbandry, and to give students a picture broader than that secured in subject matter courses. SO. A COURSE IN GAME CONSERVATION AND PROPAGATION

A history of the three phases of wild game life of the region; (1) necessary food for settlers and pioneers, (2) sport for both rural and urban population, (3) the economic stage or the conservation of game for pleasure and profit. A study of game laws, local and federal. A survey of the local game situation giving reason for decrease in number of game due to (1) decrease in cover, (2) decrease in food, (3) increase in enemies, in the air and on the ground, (4) and increase in diseases. A study of the habits of local game birds and animals, their food, cover, and breeding habits. Optimum size of the game crop. Classifications of the different birds and animals showing their relation to each other and to domestic birds and animals with genetic principles that apply to game. Approved methods of conserving and increasing the game crop, combating disease, and controllinig enemies. Probable sources of profit in raising game on farm land. 51. POST-GRADUATE TRAINING FOR SPECIALISTS IN POULTRY HUSBANDRY F. B. HUTT, Cornell University Post-graduate study is intended to equip the student with the knowledge, technics, and ways of thinking that will qualify him for research and for making additions to knowledge in his chosen field. Poultry husbandry is not a science, but an art embracing applications of many sciences. In all of these sciences such a large body of facts has now been established that it is difficult for anyone, however gifted, to be master of more than one subject. The poultry specialist should therefore concentrate his efforts in one field of work, rather than to acquire a smattering of knowledge in several contributory sciences. Major fields of activity most suited for such

5

307

specialization would seem to be (1) animal breeding, (2) animal nutrition, (3) animal pathology and parasitology, and (4) agricultural economics. All of these lines of work permit suitable combinations of training in two or three related sciences, and narrower specialization where it may seem desirable. For example, the animal breeder must be primarily a geneticist, but should have special training in physiology, especially that of reproduction, as well as in endocrinology, embryology, cytology, histology, and biometry. He may confine his research activities to one of these subdivisions, or may utilize all of them. He may even spread over into another field and attain such training in pathology as is desirable for the geneticist seeking to breed disease-resistant strains. Before post-graduate study is begun, the poultry specialist should have acquired practical experience in all phases of poultry husbandry in addition to the usual undergraduate training in that field. Thereafter his training should be in the sciences which he seeks to apply, rather than in the animal to which they are to be applied. With such a combination, there is no reason why the finished product should not be a poultry husbandman as well as a biochemist, geneticist, embryologist, economist or whatever his post-graduate training has made him. Such a combination would seem highly desirable. 55. FITTING 4-H CLUB WORK INTO T H E POULTRY EXTENSION PROGRAM D. C. HENDERSON, The Pennsylvania State College Poultry club work in Pennsylvania has been a means of starting a constructive poultry improvement program in many communities of our Commonwealth. This club work has been effective in bringing well-bred chicks into communities that heretofore have had many flocks of average producing birds. For example, several years ago three hatcheries in Jefferson County were hatching eggs from the average flocks that existed in that section. At the present time these same hatcheries are buying eggs and selling chicks from carefully selected flocks that can be traced to foundation stock owned by club members. Capon production received its impetus through 4-H club work. This profitable enterprise, now firmly established in practically one-third of our counties, has resulted in additional farm income for adults as well as boys and girls. The importance of growing chicks or capons on clean ground has been demonstrated through club work. Observation by the parents has led them to adopt this practice on many farms.

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D. H. REID, Texas A. and M. College

No.

308

POULTRY

56. EXTENSION SPECIALIST'S RELATIONSHIP TO POULTRY EGG AND CHICK SHOWS R. C. BRADLEY, University of New Hampshire

The object of holding egg and baby chick shows has been to demonstrate and stimulate a greater interest in the production of better and more uniform standardized eggs for hatching and marketing purpose; to give an instructive exhibition of the best methods of scoring, grading, and packing of eggs and baby chicks; to show what are the factors that determine quality and to create in the minds of poultrymen a desire to produce eggs and baby chicks of a known and definite quality and to instill in them a willingness to back up their product; and, finally, to bring poultrymen and others into closer and more appreciative and cooperative understanding with each other's poultry problems, and to keep them in touch with the organizations, departments and institutions sponsoring them, as a means of aiding the Industry in its constant march forward. Most all of the egg and chick shows throughout the country have been sponsored by the poultry extension specialists of the various agricultural colleges with the following agencies cooperating: (1) State or county poultry growers' associations; (2) Breed improvement associations; (3) State departments of agriculture; (4) Poultry departments in universities or agricultural colleges; (5) Farm bureau federations; and (6) Commercial feed or allied concerns.

57. JUDGING PRODUCTION POULTRY SHOWS J. E. HUMPHREY, University of Kentucky In Kentucky the production type of poultry show is gradually replacing the strictly exhibition

type of show. When called upon to judge poultry shows and fairs, representatives of the College of Agriculture state that awards will be made on the producing ability, vitality and health of the birds rather than on the breed type or the beautiful feathers. The principal reason why the poultrymen are interested in this type of show is because the winners are making more money. Score Card for Basis of Awards Record of production of pullets 10 points Egg production abilities 50 points Uniformity of development 20 points Body type 10 points Color and markings 10 points

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With the constant progress and changing periods in the poultry industry of the United States, we have had the welcome advent of egg and chick shows throughout the country. They have played a very important part during the last fifteen years, even though we have records of their extending back twenty-five years, or more. As a result of the importance of the baby chick and hatching egg business during the last quarter of a century, breeders and poultrymen everywhere have become very serious-minded and have realized the great necessity of quality products and have therefore gradually resorted to various methods of improvements through education, demonstrations, selection, breeding, incubation and brooding, feeding, housing, disease and general management practices.

S C I E N C E

Ten pullets are used in a class so that a better cross-section of a man's ability to produce good chickens can be studied. I t is not difficult to select for a show one or two outstanding individuals. However when it comes to selecting 10 birds of the desired conformation the problem is more complex. By observing and studying the winners in the various classes many valuable pointers on judging for vigor and egg production can be secured. It is the custom to give a brief, concise explanation on the various placings. This type of poultry show is more effective when held in a county or area where a definitely outlined poultry program is being practiced. 58. OUTLINING A PROGRAM TO REDUCE LAYING FLOCK MORTALITY G. T. KLEIN, Massachusetts State College

The poultry mortality problem is being studied in Massachusetts under field conditions from three different angles: (1) growing healthy pullets or chick mortality, (2) keeping birds healthy in the laying house, and (3) breeding for stamina and longevity. Each of these phases has taken on the form of a problem study. An outline has been prepared and distributed to the poultrymen giving the procedure to be followed and some pertinent data concerning the phase of the attack included. Each outline contains record blanks which the poultryman fills out at the end of the month or period. These records are mailed to the county agent's office and he in turn sends them to the Extension Service. State and county summaries are made and the results passed on to the poultryman. Trends which the figures seem to indicate are pointed out.

The information obtained in the chick mortality phase is similar to that called for in all growhealthy-chick programs. The records are submitted at the end of the brooding season. From these

SEPTEMBER,

1935.

VOL.

XIV,

59. COOPERATIVE PLANNING OF POULTRY HOUSES AND EQUIPMENT

309

5

The Farm Building Plan Service developed by the agricultural engineers is being expanded into a program to include all regional areas of the United States and Canada. This development makes it especially advisable that the Poultry Science Association take immediate steps to cooperate on this program. We need a committee of college poultrymen appointed by the Poultry Science Association to review all plans now included in the Midwest Farm Building Plan Service and to cooperate with the committee of agricultural engineers so that the mistakes of the present situation may be corrected and that new plans may be prepared to include the best ideas from all available plans. The new plans should be developed for certain areas with similar climatic conditions. Additional committees may be appointed by the Poultry Science Association as needed. 60.

A PROGENY TESTING BREEDING PROJECT

W. M. VERNON, Iowa State College

H. L. RICHARDSON, University of Maine

The situation in which each state has a different type of poultry house has stimulated practical experimentation in poultry housing. The urge to build the "best house" has served a good purpose but a study of the house and equipment plans now recommended by states with similar climatic conditions reveals some widely different features and many that are similar. Most poultry house plans have been developed by college poultry husbandmen with the assistance of agricultural engineers, but the cooperation has been confined to the area of the respective states. The Association of College Agricultural Engineers realized that this situation existed in most fields of farm buildings and initiated a program designed to affect coordination of the best ideas on each kind of farm buildings and to put those ideas into plans which may be made available to farm people in a fairly large area. Such effort resulted in the publication of the Midwest Farm Building Plan Service in 1933. The poultry house and equipment plans included in this building plan service appear to be simply a selection of plans now in use by the midwestern states. This work was done by a committee of agricultural engineers. The need of more cooperation between poultrymen and engineers when the plans are reviewed is apparent since plans have been suggested for the large midwest area extending from the western edge of Nebraska to the eastern edge of Ohio and from the northern edge of Minnesota and Michigan to the southern part of Arkansas and Oklahoma.

An extension project involving pedigree breeding and progeny testing was developed in Maine in 1931 having as its aim the development of a group of foundation stock breeders within the state. To this end an attempt has been made to give as many breeders as possible a working knowledge of genetics, to teach the use of the necessary mechanical appliances for pedigree breeding, to obtain the use of a practical system of record keeping, and to teach the breeder what information should be obtained from his records and how to use it. This type of project is being carried on with a relatively few poultrymen, in the belief that efforts thus expended will be more far-reaching in improving the breeding stock of the state than the usual mass selection programs. It is believed that research work on genetics during the past few years makes it quite plain that egg production can be little improved, under Maine conditions, by selections based on external characters. Moreover, it has been definitely shown that the usual method of making matings on the basis of egg production alone will not lead to the desired end. The pedigree breeding work conducted under the direction of the Extension Service in Maine is based largely on the theory of Goodale and Hays "to fix" one or two characters at a time. These characters include standard size birds, standard size egg at the end of three month's production, sexual maturity between 180 to 210 days, non-pause, nonbroodiness, clutch size of 3 to 4 eggs, early feathering, persistency, hatchability, and viability. How-

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records the relationship between brooding methods and adult mortality will be studied. In the laying house mortality phase, records are called for at the end of each month. These reports give a summary of losses from disease with the cause, where possible, and the reductions from culling. The breeding phase of the program is carried by only a limited number of poultrymen. It is a study that can be made only by the breeder. There are, however, thirty or more poultrymen in Massachusetts who are in a position to cooperate on this phase. A long time study of this nature may not yield data of much value until the end of the second or third year. Contact with the poultryman is maintained through a circular letter which the cooperator receives each month. These circular letters give information gathered from many sources that have a relationship to the problem.

No.

310

POULTRY

62. CREATING A CONSUMER DEMAND FOR QUALITY POULTRY PRODUCTS H. H. KAUFFMAN, The Pennsylvania State College Economic conditions have caused many poultry producers to market directly to consumers during the past five years. This created an increased demand on the extension service for egg grading and poultry dressing demonstrations as well as poultry and egg marketing meetings. Producers observed that their higher quality products were not always appreciated by consumers, To educate them the following program has been featured: (1) An educational exhibit of dressed birds at the State Farm Show; (2) eleven demonstrations at the State Farm Show explaining different qualities of poultry; (3) a competitive dressed poultry exhibit at the State Farm Show; (4) meetings with 30 different civic clubs to explain quality of poultry products; (5) news articles explaining poultry qualities and how to interpret different price quotations; (6) 261 dressing and grading demonstrations and marketing meetings with producers and consumers, with an attendance of 8,933 people. This educational program has stimulated the production of higher quality poultry and eggs as well as better packing and grading of products sold. 63. TURKEY EMBRYO TEMPERATURE EXPERIMENTS J. HOLMES MARTIN AND W. M. INSKO, JR.

University of

Kentucky

The temperature of the turkey embryo in eggs being naturally incubated (under turkey hens) varied from 96.6°F. to 100.3° the first week, the average daily reading being 98.3°. There was a

slight tendency to rise at the end of the first week and there was little change through the second and third weeks, the daily average varying between 98.0°F. and 100.2°; average of second week 99.9° and third week 99.5°. There was a sharp rise from 99.9° on the twenty-first day to 102.3° on the twenty-second day, the daily average varying between 100.3° and 103.5° the last week. Most of the daily temperatures consisted of the average of 2 or 3 eggs. Under artificial incubation conditions, embryo temperatures were determined daily in a forced draft (Buckeye) and in a sectional (Jamesway) incubator. Five fertile eggs from each incubator were broken daily and the embryo temperature determined by the method of Sanctuary (1934). The forced draft machine was operated at 99}4°F. and varied between 99° and 100°. In this incubator the mean turkey embryo daily temperature varied between 97.5° F. and 98.° the first week. At the beginning of the second week there was a rise from which there was little change until the twentyfirst day (varying from 97.9°F. to 99.9° between the 8th and 20th days.) Again, there was a sharp rise at the beginning of the 4th week, the daily averages varying between 99.8°F. and 102.7° the last week.

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ever, never mere than two characters are taken at one time except where linkage is thought to exist. R.O.P. programs as at present written do not of themselves contribute to the development of the foundation stock breeders. They might be so adapted that they could serve as a criterion of breeding value to the buyer. However, at present they are certainly misleading in that they imply that the total egg yield of a few birds may be taken as a criterion of the breeding value of the flock. If we are to accept the findings of our geneticists it would seem that Extension Services should begin applying them in the breeding program. Long-time projects of an intensive nature should be offered only to poultrymen who appear likely to develop into foundation stock breeders.

SCIENCE

In the sectional incubator operated at 100.5— 101.5—102.5—103.°F. (bulb level with top of turkey eggs) the embryo temperature (mean of 5 eggs) varied between 95.9°F. and 97.9° the first week; 97.1° and 99.5° the second week; 99.0° and 100.3° the third week; and again a rise at the commencement of the fourth week during which it varied from 100.3°F. to 102.8°. Eggs (although not directly comparable) from the same source flocks and hatched in the same incubators operated at approximately the same temperature and humidity gave hatches of from 65% to 75% hatchability during the same season, indicating that the embryos destroyed for temperature readings were under a favorable incubation environment.

Since the temperature of the embryos under natural incubation was almost consistently above that in either incubator during the first 12 days of the hatch, it was decided to incubate eggs with the temperature higher at the start of the hatch. In two of three different hatches (in Jamesway) run at 103—102.5—101.5—100.5°F. (the first four weeks respectively) the eggs hatched equally as well as those incubated at 100.5—101.5—102.5—103°F. Additional experiments are contemplated to determine more definitely the effects of higher temperatures the first half of the incubation period on hatchability.

SEPTEMBER,

1935.

VOL.

XIV,

64. INCUBATION OF TURKEY EGGS WITH RESPECT TO MOISTURE REQUIREMENTS C. E. LAMPMAN AND J. K. WILLIAMS

University of Idaho

Measurements of the size of air cell in conjunction with the above data on loss of weight and humidity have indicated that the depth of air cell may be used as a guide by which to check the rate of evaporation and, in our experience, constitutes an index more readily used by the average operator. The average of measurements of several hundred eggs served as a basis for the following recommendations: 3/16 inches to 7/32 inches at 6 days; 9/32 to 5/16 at 12 days; 11/32 to 13/32 or an average of 3/8 at 18 days; and y2 to 9/16 at 24 days. A condition of high humidity during the period of actual pipping and hatching has been found to be essential. In cabinet machines a wet bulb reading of 90° F. should be the minimum and 92 to 94 more nearly the optimum. In cabinet machines having a common compartment for incubating and hatching, the humidity will need to be reduced between hatches to compensate for the high humidity during the actual hatching period. 65. TURKEY BREEDING PLANS AT T H E BELTSVILLE RESEARCH CENTER MORLEY A. JULL, U. S. Department

of

Agriculture Nutritional research work with turkey poults and with adult stock will be carried on particularly from the standpoint of ascertaining, in so far

311

as possible, the protein, vitamin, and mineral requirements of growing and adult turkeys. Breeding work will be directed chiefly along the lines of ascertaining the relationship between rate of growth and efficiency of flesh production. Studies will be made concerning the relationship between rate of growth and such characters as width of back, length of keel, and length of leg bones. It is anticipated that crosses will be made between colored breeds and White Hollands, and then by intercrossing the Fi and F 2 a population will be developed from which extracted whites of a desirable body type will be selected for further improvement work. A certain amount of backcrossing is also anticipated, the ultimate object being to produce a relatively short-legged, longbodied, early-maturing, good-fleshing type of white feathered market turkey. 66. T H E SELECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF TURKEY BREEDERS D. R. MARBLE AND P. H. MARGOLF

The Pennsylvania State College A four-year comparison of turkey breeders maintained in confinement with access to a sunporch as compared to limited range showed a slightly better percentage hatch of fertile eggs for the range birds in each of the four years. Egg production was not greatly influenced by confinement. Both fertility and hatchability gradually decreased during the hatching season extending from March until July. Analysis of egg weight and hatchability data on 100 turkey breeders indicates a significant non-linear relationship between these two factors. Breeders laying either small or extremely large eggs gave a lower percentage hatch than those laying a medium size egg. A comparison of pullets and yearlings as breeders shows no advantage in carrying over turkey breeders for a second year since the second year production is lower and fertility and hatchability did not increase in the second year of breeding. 67. T H E VALUES OF WHITE CORN AND MILK I N GROWING TURKEYS* W . E . P0LEY AND W . C. TuLLY

South Dakota State College Experiments involving growth and market quality studies were conducted during the last two years. Four groups of turkeys were used each year and from eight weeks to market age each were given a different ration. The basal ration was fed ad libitum and included 15% each of wheat middlings and pulverized oats, 2% ground limestone, * Submitted by Authority of Director of Agricultural Experiment Station.

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Information has been secured on the humidity requirements of turkey eggs during incubation which might serve as a basis for making recommendations to the turkey growers and hatcherymen. Two phases of humidity are important—a condition of humidity that will promote correct evaporation during the first 24 days and a high humidity during the actual pipping and hatching period. Although the loss of weight of individual eggs has varied from 9 to 20% at the end of the 24-day period, the average of large numbers of eggs indicating favorable conditions, has varied from 13J-4 to 14^2%. This loss is associated with a condition of humidity as indicated by an average wet bulb reading of 80 to 81 °F. at 100° in cabinet machines. During each of the four 6-day periods considerable variation has been observed, although the majority of eggs ranged from 3 to 4%, which furnishes a basis for the recommendation of 3yi% for any 6-day period or 0.6% each day, as an index to be used by field operators. The index recommended for each of the remaining 6-day periods is 6.5 to 7.25 at 12 days, 9.5 to 10.5 at 18 days, and from 13i4 to 14^4% at 24 days.

No. 5

312

POULTRY

69. T H E UTILIZATION OF SOY BEAN OIL MEAL AND CORN GLUTEN MEAL IN THE FEEDING OF TURKEYS J. E. HUNTER, D. R. MARBLE, AND H. C. KNANDEL

The Pennsylvania State College Previous studies have shown that a faster growth of turkeys is experienced with rations higher in protein than those commonly fed to chickens. Turkey starting mashes containing 24% protein are in common use. There has been much demand for information regarding the use of cheaper sources of protein than milk, meat scrap and fish meal. A two-year study of the use of soy bean oil meal and corn gluten meal was made. Five hundred and twelve Bronze and White Holland Turkeys, confined with access to sun porches were used in this study. In the basal starting mash analyzing 24% protein, which contained 12% dried skimmilk, 11% meat scraps and 11% fish meal, it was possible to substitute 50% of any two of the three of the animal protein concentrates used with either soy bean oil meal or corn gluten meal when mineral adjustments were made. In a 16% protein developing mash fed in all-mash form, it was possible to replace 2/3 of the animal protein with either of the vegetable proteins studied when mineral adjustments were made. The same was true with a 20% protein developing mash fed in combination with scratch grain. The substitutions were made without lowering the growth rate. Soy bean oil meal or corn gluten meal appeared to function

with equal efficiency so far as growth was concerned. The turkeys that received corn gluten meal showed a much superior finish as characterized by the covering of flesh over the breast than did those not receiving corn gluten meal. The ingestion of corn in the scratch grain did not produce a similar fleshing condition. 70. FEED CONSUMPTION, COST OF FEEDING, AND EGG PRODUCTION OF BRONZE TURKEY BREEDING STOCK S. J. MARSDEN, U. S. Department of Agriculture Data relating to feed consumption, cost of feeding, and egg production of several hundred Bronze turkey breeding birds are presented. 71.

GIVING T H E CONSUMER WHAT H E WANTS FOR HIS TURKEY DINNER E. Y. SMITH, Cornell University The turkey marketing problem has become more complicated during recent years. Three factors that contribute to this are: (1) the rapid increase in the annual production of turkeys (3 3/5 millions in 1920; 20 millions in 1933); (2) the decrease in the size of the American family; and (3) a change in our mode of living. There is a need for more definite information relative to consumer preference in turkeys. Such information should help to determine what type of turkey to select for breeders, and tend to correctly evaluate some of our finishing and market practices. A survey of the market situation and practices in New York State indicates the following: (1) The turkey is still chiefly a holiday bird (50% are marketed at Thanksgiving, 36% at Christmas, and 14% at other times during the year); (2) 41.9% are sold on foot and 58.1% are sold dressed; (3) 30.2% of the turkeys are sold directly to consumers, 32.3% to retail stores, and 17.5% to commission men; (14) Consumers prefer a yellowskin bird, but the quality of the finish is more important than the color of the skin; (5) The consumer preference relative to size and in order of preference is for medium (11 to 14 lbs.), small (8 to 10 lbs.), and large (15 to 20 lbs.). 72. STUDIES OF HEMOPHILIC BACILLI OF CHICKENS J. P. DELAPLANE, L. E. ERWIN AND H. O. STUART

Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station Summary I : A technic of isolating Hemophilic bacillus in pure culture A hemophilic organism (Hemophilus gallinarum) is readily isolated from the edematous facial swellings of chickens infected with infectious coryza providing the material for inoculation is obtained

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1% salt (NaCl), and 10% wheat bran, supplemented with 15% of meat and bone scraps, except in lots 2 and 4, where 5% of meat and bone scraps was replaced by an equal amount of dried buttermilk. The balance to 100% was made up with 42% of ground yellow or white corn. The grain was cracked and fed ad libitum; either yellow corn or white corn was used depending upon which was used in the mash. The results of these experiments indicated no significant difference in the rate of growth of the females in any of the lots. However, the males in lots 1 and 2, which received yellow corn with or without dried milk, made somewhat more rapid gains than those lots which received white corn in their ration. These results were consistent for both years. Inasmuch as drouth conditions did not permit the growth of vegetation, it is possible that these smaller males had received an insufficient amount of Vitamin A. There was no important difference in the market quality of these birds, although those birds receiving white corn had a slightly more bleached skin than those receiving yellow corn.

SCIENCE

SEPTEMBER,

1935.

VOL.

XIV,

within 24 hours after the swellings have developed. The edematous fluid from the swelling is inoculated into sterile citrated blood at the base of a nutrient agar slant. This technic is applicable as a diagnostic procedure from field cases, in which case susceptible chickens are inoculated intranasally with the field exudate and material taken from their swellings within 24 hours after their development to inoculate the blood medium.

The intraperitoneum injection of the cultured organisms into a small group of chickens failed to incite as marked a reaction as in the case of the subcutaneous injections but a number of the birds contracted intranasal infection nine days following the injections. The cloacal inoculation of the cultured organisms failed to incite a reaction at the inoculative point. The cloacal inoculation of chickens with the cultured organisms combined with laryngo-tracheitis virus resulted in the typical reaction to laryngo-tracheitis and the birds were later found to be resistant to intratracheal inoculations of this virus but were not protected against intranasal inoculation of the cultured organisms. 73. THE INFLUENCE OF VERMIFUGE TREATMENT OF LAYING HENS UNDER FIELD CONDITIONS WILLIAM L. BLEECKER AND ROBERT M. S M I T H

University of Arkansas The efficiency of eight commercial vermifuges which were tested varied from 78.5 to as low as 44.4%. Repeated treatment of widely used vermifuges which were given to both hens and pullets on October 1, November IS and March 20, proved to be of questionable value either from the standpoint of increasing the number of eggs produced per bird, decreasing the feed requirement per dozen eggs produced, or in aiding the health maintenance of the treated birds.

313

Treatments for roundworms seemed to be more advisable than treatment for tapeworms, whether the treated birds are confined or allowed range. Vermifuge treatments had no consistent influence upon the number of internal parasites harbored by the treated birds 90 days after the last vermifuge treatment. From results obtained to date there seems to be no good reason for changing our present recommendations for treatment of internal parasites; namely, treat all young stock individually for tapeworms and roundworms at a date two or three weeks before they are transferred from the range to the laying house. Repeat the treatment at the time the pullets are placed in the laying house.

74. THE NORTHERN FOWL MITE AND ITS CONTROL W. A. M A W , W. E. WHITEHEAD AND

L. H. BEMONT, Macdonald College, Quebec Under Canadian conditions during the fall and winter months the northern fowl mite Liponyssus sylviarum C. & F., causes serious economic losses in mature fowl. The life habits of this mite are obscure in that very little is known of the mode of hibernation during the summer months when they apparently leave the body of the fowl, although they may be readily found on some wild birds. No apparent infestations of growing chickens have been found, and even when attempts to infest young Leghorn cockerels artificially with hundreds of adult mites were carried out the mites left the chicken immediately and disappeared. The mite apparently attacks male fowl more than females, although during the late winter season light infestations have been found on pullet stock. A satisfactory method of control of mites on the body of the fowl has been developed by the use of a mixture of naphthalene flakes one part and vaseline two parts by direct application of the ointment to the body or when placed on the roosts in the house. The naphthalene should be thoroughly ground up in order to facilitate mixing and application and then stirred into the vaseline. Apply the ointment in the areas of the tail and vent. During cold weather, dichloricide and vaseline in the same proportions, is more effective than the naphthalene mixture. 75. T H E DISEASES OF POULTRY SPREAD BY SOIL CONTAMINATION P. W. ALLEN, M. JACOB AND T. A. MAGILL

University of Tennessee The work reported here is a continuation of the work begun in 1927, of which a preliminary report

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Summary I I : The extranasal reaction of chickens to Hemophilic bacilli The subcutaneous inoculation of chickens with cultures of Hemophilus gallinarum resulted in swellings at the inoculative point after 24 hours and a systemic reaction marked by the birds appearing depressed for several days. Except for one small group of chickens, no resistance to intranasal infection developed as a result of the subcutaneous inoculations. On the contrary, some of the birds developed intranasal infection from the subcutaneous inoculations approximately three weeks after receiving such injections. The remainder of the birds of each group subsequently developed intranasal infection, possibly through contact with those few which contracted it from the injections.

No. 5

314

POULTRY

76. SOME MICRO-ORGANISMS COMPLICATING THE COURSE OF LARYNGOTRACHEITIS AND CORYZA CHARLES S. GIBBS, Massachusetts State College The following micro-organisms, Streptococcus bronchitis, Staphylococcus gallinarum, N.S., Micrococcus gallinarum, N.S., and Hemophilus gallinarum have been found complicating laryngotracheitis and coryza, and the symptoms and lesions in natural outbreaks and in inoculated birds in the laboratory compared. Streptococcus bronchitis is responsible for the symptoms and lesions of bronchitis and bronchopneumonia. Staphylococcus gallinarum, N.S., and Micrococcus gallinarum, N.S., for sore eyes, swelling of the infraorbital sinuses, swollen wattles, and a general systemic malaise. Hemophilus gallinarum is responsible for rhinosinusitis and swollen heads. The symptoms and lesions of uncomplicated laryngotracheitis are confined to the larynges and tracheas, and coryza to the eyes, nostrils, and trachea. The mortality from laryngotracheitis is considerably increased when complicated by one or more of these micro-organisms. Coryza is never serious unless it is primary or secondary to one or more of these diseases. 77. A FILTERABLE VIRUS, DISTINCT FROM THAT OF LARYNGOTRACHEITIS, THE CAUSE OF A RESPIRATORY DISEASE OF CHICKS J.

R.

BEACH AND O. W.

SCHALM

University of California The respiratory disease of chicks is thought to be the same as that described in 1933 by Schalk and Hawn as an apparently new respiratory disease

of chicks and by Bushnell and Brandley as laryngotracheitis of chicks. The disease on farms and in artificially infected chickens is manifested by bronchitis, tracheitis, and coryza, but, in very young chicks, bronchitis and tracheitis are predominant. Chickens from 10 or less to 120 days old were susceptible, but those 18 months old, and pigeons, were refractory. Injection of bronchial, tracheal or nasal exudate of infected chickens into the nasal chambers or tracheas of normal young chickens has regularly produced the disease. The causative agent was found to be a virus which readily passes all grades of Berkefeld candles. This virus has been shown to be neutralized in vitro by serum of immune fowls, and to be highly resistant to desiccation and to glycerine, properties typical of viruses as a class. By appropriate tests and certain other criteria, the disease has been shown to be distinct from infectious laryngotracheitis of chickens.

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was made in 1930 (Tenn. Exp. Sta. Bull. 143). It has been found that the application of sodium acid sulphate ("niter cake") to poultry-yard soil at the rate of 1 gallon of a 5% solution to 1 square foot of pulverized soil is a cheap and efficient method of destroying Salmonella pullorum, Bacillus avisepticus, Eimeria tenella, Entamoeba meleigridis. The experiments have shown that Italian rye grass grows as well on treated soil plots, 5 months after soil is disinfected, as on control plots. Poultry kept on disinfected soil show no signs of burned feet or of disturbed digestion resulting from obtaining food from disinfected soil. Not all of the improvement in weight and condition shown by poultry kept on disinfected soil over those on nondisinfected soil can be attributed to the destruction of disease producing microbes of the soil by the disinfectant.

SCIENCE

78. OBSERVATIONS ON PENDULOUS CROPS OF TURKEYS W. R. HINSHAW AND V. S. ASMUNDSON

University of California

Pendulous crop is an abnormality of the ingluvies characterized by a temporary or permanent distention with stagnant liquid or semi-liquid contents. The observations reported in this paper have been made principally on one flock where the yearly incidence was 5.52% in 1932, 3.88% in 1933, and 10.44% in 1934. In a group of 206 pendulous-crop turkeys kept under observation until maturity or death, 73 (33.44%) recovered and remained normal. Of those that did not recover, 72 (34.95%) died as a direct result of the condition, 7 (3.39%) died from miscellaneous causes, and 44 (21.36%) were killed because of emaciation. The remaining 10 (4.85%) were killed at maturity as fit for market, but were of poor quality. The common causes of death were ruptured crops caused by self-inflicted lacerations, injury by pen-mates, and mechanical pneumonia. The chief autopsy findings in advanced cases were distention with liquid or semi-liquid contents of a foul or sour odor; a thickening of the mucous membrane with varying degrees of ulceration; and, in a small percentage, caseation of all, or portions, of the lungs and air sacs with definite evidence of foreign material in the bronchii. In 260 affected birds, the majority of cases appeared between 9 and 12 weeks of age, and the abnormality was associated with excessive liquid consumption during heat waves that were accompanied by extremely low humidity.

SEPTEMBER,

1935.

VOL.

XIV,

Methods of control and treatment, including daily drainage of the crops, washing the crops with water at daily intervals, portioning of drinking water after draining the crops, and various operative procedures, have not influenced the number of recoveries. Removal of most of the bulbous portion of the crop has proved a successful means of correcting the condition in birds that are to be kept for experimental breeding purposes, but the mortality following such procedure has approximated 50%. 79. DISEASES OF BROODER CHICKS ERWIN JUNGHERR,

Connecticut

Agricultural Experiment

(Storrs)

Station

Mortality due to disease factors can be logically discussed under two main headings, diseases of brooder chicks (up to the age of 10 weeks) and diseases of the mature fowl. This division does not necessarily mean that a disease of brooder chicks occurs exclusively in young birds, or vice versa, but emphasizes the predominating disease factors in the age group. It calls attention to the importance of disease during adolescence upon mortality in the adult stock and recognizes the fact that, under practical conditions, a question of responsibility for chick losses (breeder, hatcher, feed supply man, or owner) is often involved. Diagnostic laboratories are concerned with diseases of brooder chicks since their reports are frequently made the basis of arbitration or litigation among interested parties. With the advance in the eradication program of pullorum disease, the accurate recognition of other disease factors becomes increasingly important. Knowledge on diseases of brooder chicks is limited

315

5

and the so-called routine diagnostic work of chick losses offers wide opportunities for research. In order to improve the diagnostic service, the poultryman should submit to the laboratory not only live and dead specimens in sufficient number but also case histories and mortality records in detail. The lack of information on the field conditions is one of the important causes of the occasional failure of diagnostic laboratories to recognize a disease situation. Diagnostic laboratories should be prepared to carry out pathologic, bacteriologic, mycologic, and rapid histopathologic examinations and diagnostic inoculations on chicks. During the period from September 1, 1930 to May 1, 1935, 4,723 brooder chicks were submitted for examination in 873 lots. Of these lots, 37.3% were classified as specific bacterial infections (pullorum disease and paratyphoid), 17.4% as nonspecific bacterial infections (colibacillosis, proteus, staphylococcus, streptococcus, pseudomonas infection and navel-ill), 3.8% as fungous diseases (aspergillus, mucor, monilia, oidium), 11.3% as protozoal diseases (blackhead and coccidiosis), 1.7% as respiratory diseases (laryngotracheitis and coryza), 1.5% as nervous disorders (fowl paralysis and epidemic tremor), 0.8% as poisonings (rose chafer and salt), and 22.6% as nutritional disorders (gout, protein poisoning, nutritional paralysis, perosis, vitamin A and D deficiencies, ulcerated gizzard, and unidentified nutritional troubles). The remaining 3.6% constituted cases of incubator troubles, exposure, malformations, tumors and "unfit for examination." In correlating the age of affected chicks with the incidence of a given disease, it was found that pullorum disease, non-specific bacterial infections, navel-ills, coccidiosis, vitamin A and D deficiencies, and other nutritional troubles have more or less characteristic mortality curves which are helpful from the diagnostic standpoint. Material advance in our knowledge of diseases of brooder chicks can be hoped for only from the co-operative efforts of the scientific disciplines concerned with poultry mortality, namely genetics, nutrition, management, and pathology. 80.

A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON T H E EFFECT OF FEEDING SODIUM BICARBONATE TO CHICKS J. F. WITTER, University

of Maine

The observation has been made that the commonly recommended practice of giving a "soda flush" to chicks may be followed by undesirable results. An effort has been made during the last

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Data collected during 1934 in a special mating of three females and one male with pendulous crops and one female with a negative history have supported earlier observations that the condition may be influenced by hereditary factors. One of the three pendulous-crop females in this special mating produced no progeny. From the other two, 32 poults were obtained and the abnormality developed in 19 (59.38%), none of which recovered. Of 21 poults obtained from the normal bird, 5 (23.81%) developed pendulous crops, and three of these made complete recoveries without treatment. The majority of the progeny with pendulous crops in the regular 1934 matings were sired by two apparently normal males which were brothers of the two females that produced 19 abnormal poults in the special matings. These four individuals were sired by a male that produced most of the cases of pendulous crops in 1933.

No.

316 two years specifically to demonstrate in a purely practical manner the effect of this practice. The results indicate that definite injury can be done to chicks by feeding sodium bicarbonate in the drinking water. Soda will increase water consumption and make the droppings more moist, but if given in excess or over too long a period will definitely damage the kidneys, reduce the vitality of the chicks, and produce mortality. Therefore, sodium bicarbonate is not an entirely safe drug for poultrymen to use. If it is recommended at all, the dose and duration of its administration must be carefully stipulated, and must be gauged to satisfy the age tolerance of the chicks.

82. FIVE YEARS' MANAGEMENT TESTS WITH CHICKS AND GROWING PULLETS D. C. KENNARD AND V. D. CHAMBERLIN

Ohio Experiment Station These experiments were conducted to test different management procedures in vogue for brooding and rearing white Leghorn pullets, and to determine how the respective managements affected the pullets as layers. Five different managements were tested: (1) Chicks and pullets confined to wire sun porch; (2) Fresh range; (3) Used range after 2 weeks; (4) Used range after 8 weeks (chicks previously confined in battery or to wire sun porch); (5) Chicks brooded and pullets raised in batteries. The pullets were tested as layers both in laying house and in individual laying batteries during the last 3 years' tests.

SCIENCE

No difference in livability, development, or body weight of the chicks and growing pullets could be attributed the different management procedures. The tests of the various groups of pullets as layers clearly revealed that a management procedure may be directly reflected upon the behavior and performance of the pullets as layers. This was substantiated by the first two years' tests when the chicks were brooded in batteries until 8 weeks old so that they were 10 weeks old before being subjected to the different managements including the used range. The results were decidedly in favor ol the fresh range and wire sun porch groups as against those on used range. Believing that the used range would prove more disastrous if the chicks were exposed to it at an earlier age the chicks in the third year's test were subjected to the different managements when and after 2 weeks of age. Contrary to expectations the early exposure proved beneficial so that the livability and production of the used range pullets was equal to that of the fresh range pullets and better than those confined to the wire sun porch. In the next or fourth year's tests the fresh range pullets laid more eggs and in the fifth or present year's test the egg production has been practically the same for the fresh range and used range (after 2 weeks). To test further the effect of age of exposure of the chicks to the used range another group was included in the last two years' tests. This group was confined to the wire sun porch until 8 weeks of age before exposure to the used range. As in the first two years' tests the pullets not exposed to the used range until 8 to 10 week of age were decidedly inferior both as to livability and production in comparison with the pullets exposed to the same range after 2 weeks. The pullets brooded and raised in batteries which were included in the last 2 years' tests proved inferior to all the other groups except the groups exposed to used range after 8 weeks old, which ranked about the same.

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81. INFLUENCE OF EGG PRODUCTION ON HEMOGLOBIN CONTENT OF CHICKEN BLOOD A. R. WINTER, Ohio State University Some pullets "go light" and appear to develop anemia after they have been in production for a time. Other birds develop a characteristic gray eye color and a few go blind. A study has been made of the iron content of the blood of nearly 200 Leghorn pullets to see if egg production causes a reduction in the hemoglobin level of the blood. Birds in production showed a range in grams percentage of hemoglobin per 100 c.c. of blood from 7.4 to 10.9 with an average of 9.3 ± .04. Birds out of production showed a range from 7.9 to 13.4 with an average of 10.1 ± 12. Therefore, egg production does cause a decrease in the hemoglobin level of the blood. High-producing pullets which develop a gray eye color appear to have as high percentage of hemoglobin as normal birds.

POULTRY

The mortality of the chicks, growing pullets, or the pullets as layers was practically the same regardless of the different managements. The five different groups of pullets were tested as layers both in the laying house and in individual laying batteries during the last 3 years' tests. There was practically no difference in the egg production of the housed and caged pullets, but the mortality of the caged layers was considerably less. While the S years' data presented suggests much food for thought, a project of this nature will need to be continued for not less than 10 years before conclusive evidence may be secured.

SEPTEMBER,

1935.

VOL. XIV,

83. EPIDEMIC TREMORS IN CHICKENS C. A. BOTTEMT, C. L. MARTIN, A. E. TEPPAR, T. B. CHARLES, F. D. REED, S. H. SHIMER

No.

317

S

84. TRANSMISSION OF FOWL PARALYSIS (NEUROL YMPHOMATOSIS) E. M.

GILDOW, J. K. WILLIAMS AND C.

E.

LAMPMAN, University of Idaho

AND T. G. PHILLIPS

University of New Hampshire

Various phases of management such as all types of brooding, variation in temperatures of brooder, and feeding, were negative in all cases. Blood counts and body temperatures showed no significant difference in the cases studied. Field observations indicate that several breeds are susceptible. So far no means of prevention or treatment have been found to be of any value. TABLE 1. Percentage of

In two consecutive trials, 450 and 350 chicks respectively were obtained from two paralysis-free flocks and were placed with a similar number of chicks from a flock in which paralysis was present. As a result of these trials the following points have been established: (1) When chicks from a paralysis-free flock were placed with chicks from an affected flock they developed symptoms and lesions of the disease just as early in life as the chicks from the affected flock. (2) A greater percentage of the chicks from the clean source developed the disease than of those from the affected flock (see table). (3) In the affected flock, progeny from old-hen breeding stock were less susceptible than the progeny from pullet-breeding stock (see table). (4) A distinct inheritance of resistance to the disease was demonstrated by certain families in the affected flock. (5) There was no difference in the incidence of the disease in pullets raised on range as compared with those grown in confinement.

chicks developing paralysis

Hen breeders

Pullet breeders

Range raised

Confined raised

Infected flock

Clean flock

Trial I 17 mos. of age

27.4%

34.7%

37.3%

37.1%

31.1%

43.3%

Trial I I 14 mos. of age

16.0%

21.1%

25.0%

26.3%

17.9%

33.5%

Source

EFFECT OF X-RAYS ON T H E INCUBATION PERIOD, SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT, AND EGG-LAYING IN WHITE AND BROWN LEGHORN CHICKENS (Continued from page 293) months. Then a gradual decrease set in which was during their most active part of life, i.e., the first followed by total cessation of egg production. three years. The effects of irradiation may be sumPeriods of rest of several months occurred in some marized as follows: as long as six months, which was followed by anThe incubation period in x-rayed eggs varies with other exaggerated laying period and another rest the dosage used. In small dosages, less than 80 r, period. The subsequent laying periods were usualthere was acceleration and in dosages more than ly marked by shorter time and lesser productivity. 80 r, there was retardation in the developmental The egg-laying course in the non-rayed pullets was process. different. Productivity during the five or six months Sexual development was accelerated in both after sexual maturity was irregular and low, averagsexes. ing 6.8 per month. Egg production was materially reduced in the Summary.—More than 600 White and Brown experimental birds. Leghorn chicken eggs have been x-rayed with dosJ . M . ESSENBERG ages varying from 30 to 600 r, and with incubaLoyola University tion ages ranging from 19 to 243 hours. The viable School of Medicine chicks were raised to maturity and were observed

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Epidemic tremors is a disease of the nervous system. It is evidenced by a distinct and rapid tremor of the head, neck, and tail. An ataxia condition may or may not be present. Mortality may run as high as 65% in severe cases, but usually the average mortality has been but IS to 20%. All experiments on the method of transmission have failed to show any definite results on how this disease is transmitted. Brooding susceptible chicks with affected chicks failed to reproduce the disease. Pedigree-hatched chicks from affected, parent stock, with all possible reciprocal crosses, failed to show any signs of the disease.