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Questionnaire typography and production
Appfied Ergonomics 1975, 6.2, 81-89
Questionnaire typography and production Morven Gray Graphic Designer/Typographer, Loughborough, Leicestershire
This article describes the typographic principles and practice which provide the basis of good design and print, the relevant printing processes which can be used, and the graphic designer's function in questionnaire production. As they impose constraints on design decisions to be discussed later in the text, the various methods of printing and production are discussed first.
Relevant terminology
Imposition
Layout
The arrangement of pages in position for printing, corresponding to the correct sequence when the paper has been folded and cut.
There are two very different kinds of layout. One may be a very carefully drawn and finished layout for the client; the other is visually much simpler but technically more detailed. This second, working layout is for the printer and is the equivalent of the architect's working drawing.
Marked up copy This is the typewritten final draft bearing the designer's instructions to the printer such as typeface, its size and weight, length of line, etc.
Galley proofs Preliminary proofs of the text setting on cheap newsprint paper.
Justified text setting The equal and exact spacing of letters and words to a given measure, to create a straight right hand edge. This means the word spacing varies from lille to fine, according to the number of words (as m newspaper setting).
Unjustified text setting The word spacing is even throughout, which creates lines of unequal length according to the number of words per line. This journal uses this form of setting. Ranged left - straight left hand and ragged right hand edges. Ranged right - straight right hand and ragged left hand edges.
Paste-ups Galley proofs which are pasted up by the designer according to his layout, so that the printer can make up the set type into pages.
Repro proofs Accurate and carefully printed proofs which are pasted up and photographed for offset lithography.
Measure Length of line or column width.
Casting off Assessing the length of a typewritten draft to estimate the number of pages of a chosen size of type.
Leading Artwork The reproduction work the designer has to do by hand, such as the pasting up of repro proofs and the careful drawing of boxes round coding columns.
Lhw block The required image is transposed photographically onto a metal plate which is then etched so that the area for printing stands in relief. The etched plate is mounted o11 a platform of wood to bring the printing area to the same level as the type.
Strips of lead less than type height, set in between lines to space out the lines of type.
The major printing methods See Figs. l and 2 for examples.
Letterpress This is the original printing process, and the print is made from a relief surface, where the printing areas are
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1975
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higher than those which do not print. The print surface is inked by rollers and is then pressed onto the paper. There are two approaches to letterpress printing. If the work is submitted by the designer as marked up copy, with a working layout, the printer will set the type, make it up into pages and send page proofs for correction by the designer and author. When a paste-up of each page is to be made by the designer, he sends the printer marked-up copy for setting, and receives from him galley proofs of the text. These proofs are read for mistakes, and a corrected set is returned to the printer with the page paste-ups. Working from these paste-up layouts, the printer will make-up the page and supply further sets of page proofs for checking. This second technique allows for modifications to be made to a layout without incurring expense at the printers. Any special treatment for particular sections can be made by the designer, but he is not involved in the chore of accurately casting off each section. Any illustrations or boxes will have to be produced as artwork by the designer and sent separately to the printer for making into line blocks. Proofs of these are returned to the designer along with the galley or page proofs.
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I
inked plate Fig. 1 Basic letterpress process
r u b b e r blanket
When all the pages have been passed as correct by the designer and author, they are imposed as a torme: they are locked by quoins (expanding metal wedges) into a chase (a metal frame) ready for printing.
Offset Lithography This process is referred to as 'offset titho' and is printed from a thin metal plate. The printing areas are greasy and the non-printing areas bare metal. During printing, the nonprinting areas are de-sensitized (made grease repellent) by a fountain solution of water and chemicals and the plate is then inked. Ink adheres to the greasy parts, and the print is made from them. Most commercial lithography is produced 'offset'. The thin metal plate is wrapped round a plate cylinder, is dampened and then inked. The ink is transferred to a rubber blanket on a second cylinder which in turn transfers offsets - it to the paper. (Fig. 2). -
A paste-up technique is also used for offset litho and the method of production is the same as that of letterpress up to the corrected galley proof stage. Working from the corrected galleys, the printer makes a set of repro proofs for the designer to use as part of the artwork for the individual pages which are photographed and imposed for platemaking.
Offset duplicators Relatively inexpensive, these machines (such as the Multilith and Rotaprint) are the link between stencil duplicators and full scale offset printing machines, and are capable of producing work of excellent quality. They will print up to 571 mm x 444 mm (22½in x 17½ in), but most machines have a maximum sheet size of about foolscap 343 mm x432 mm (13½ in x 17 in). The text for such systems is set from marked-up copy on a typewriter, usually of the newer kind in which the letterforms are based on type designs and have variable widths. These machines are capable of producing an image comparable to the letterpress repro proof, which can be transferred by photography, photocopying or xerography (in descending order of quality) on to small litho plates.
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AppliedErgonomics June 1975
Fig.2 Offset lithography process (planographic)
The minor printing methods Spirit and stencil duplicating are low cost reproduction processes. Though they will not produce work as good as printed work, they are far cheaper and deserve a mention in printing methods. If the typewriter used to prepare the stencil has a "type' like face rather than the traditional typewriter face. the work can look reasonably well.
Spirit duplicating A single sheet of chromo paper ( a heavy art paper with a very high gloss) is placed face down on to a special carbon, and the copy is typed on the back of the chromo sheet. Under typing pressure, the image m reverse is recorded in carbon on the chromo paper thus creating a master. This master is mounted on the cylinder of the duplicating machine. As the cylinder revolves, the master is moistened with spirit, and when paper is forced against it. a minute amount of carbon is transferred from the master image to the paper. Different colours can be duplicated by changing the carbon sheet used to produce the master. Seven different colours are available; purple is the most commonly used as it contains the most effective dye. Other colour carbons produce fewer copies, the least effective being yellow Spirit duplicating needs a specially made paper, one which is smooth and non-absorbent. The output from one master depends on the skill of the person who makes it. but it can produce 100 copies. Light can affect - and
]
reduce - the duplicating image. The non-absorbent paper will accept any form of writing - fountain, ball point and felt tip pens.
dimensions o f which are in inches or centimetres, and on which all internal measures are in picas and points, which have no direct relationship to either inches or centimetres.
Stencil duplicating
Monotype composition
The image is typed upon the stencil, a very thin paper sheet coated with wax or a cellulose nitrate solution. In the duplicating areas the wax surface coating is removed to produce a stencil in which the paper fibres are the equivalent of a silk screen mesh.
In the monotype system there are two stages, involving two machines - a keyboard and a caster. On the keyboard, an operator produces a punched spool of paper which later controls the caster. On this, type is cast either for hand setting, or more usually in lines of separate characters set to the measure indicated by the designer.
If the stencil is to carry an illustration, rules or boxes, a textured plate is placed beneath the stencil, and the image is cut through the coating with wheel and stylus pens. Stencils can be made photographically. A specially coated sheet is exposed to the original and then developed to remove the coating from the duplicating areas. Line illustrations, rules and boxes, also transfer lettering such as Letraset on the originals can be reproduced. Electronic stencils are made by scanning the original with a light spot. Reflected light is transferred into electric current by a photo electric cell. This current when amplified is used to generate a spark which burns away the stencil coating to form the duplicating areas. The stencil is fixed to a cylinder on the duplicating machine and ink is forced through the open areas onto an absorbent paper. Duplicating machines are fairly sophisticated with automatic paper feeds and inking, and they can be set to duplicate a specific number of copies. A cut stencil should give up to 5000 copies, and photographic and electronic stencils 8000 copies. The absorbent paper required for this process is only suitable for writing with a ball point pen.
The keyboard has keys for up to seven alphabets: roman capitals, small capitals and lower case, italic capitals and lower case, bold capitals and lower case plus a complete range of figures, punctuation marks, space and justification keys.
Linotype and Intertype composition These two ranges of machines have the same basic principles. Free running matrices are assembled in the correct order; they are automatically spaced out to the proper line length; a line of type is cast from the matrices, is trimmed at the base and to the correct point size, and is ejected on to the galley. On a mixer machine, the operator can set from any pair of adjacent magazines, one containing roman and italic matrices, the other roman and bold, thus giving the same range of alphabets as Monotype. The main difference between Monotype and Linotype is that the former casts individual characters and easily corrected mistakes can be done by hand, whereas the latter casts individual lines (known as 'slugs') and all corrections involve setting new lines.
Pho to copying There are many types of photocopying machines, each with their own patented process of reproduction. Those which operate photographically require a photo-sensitized paper and will only print on one side, while others like the Xerox will take almost any type and colour of paper and are capable of printing both sides.
Type and typesetting The point system Printing measurements in the English-speaking world are based on the 'point', actually 0"0138 in (0"351 mm), which is approximately one seventy-second of an inch. Type sizes are always given in points.
IBM Selectric composer This machine is a development of the IBM 'golf-ball' typewriter and has an adequate range of typefaces which compare favourably in visual terms with their 'hot metal' counterparts. The characters are held on a sphere which clips on to the keyboard mechanism. Instead of the normal, moveable platen roller, the sphere travels across a fixed paper carriage. When the copy is to be justified, the line is first typed to measure its length. On a dial, the operator matches the number or word spaces to the space remaining, and then retypes the line. During this second typing, justification takes place automatically.
Large areas are always measured in 12 point units called 'picas' or 'pica ems'. Type is always set to pica measurements. For example, a magazine might be set in 9 point type to a measure of 18 picas (nearly 3 in (76 mm)).
Typefaces, sizes and weights within a range of 7 to 12 point are changed by substituting one sphere for another. A six-alphabet range - roman, italic and bold - which compares with the range in a Monotype die case, will need three type elements.
Throughout Europe (other than the UK and the Irish Republic) the Didot point system is used. Its basis is a point slightly larger than the American-English point (0"376 mm as against 0-351 mm).
Typewriter composition
Imperfect though the printers' systems may be, they are standard and the designer needs to be as familiar with them as with metric and American-English linear measurements.
An electric typewriter together with a carbon acetate ribbon is capable of producing satisfactory photographic copy for making small litho plates. If the machine used has differential spacing (where an 'i' does not occupy the same width as a 'W') the setting can be much improved visually.
The printer uses point measures, but paper is cut in inches or centimetres. One therefore has a page, the
The main drawback to typewriter composition is that the most commonly used machines have faces which give
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10 or 12 characters to the inch, whereas a 10 point setting in Monotype, Linotype and IBM gives approximately 16 characters to the inch. Where there is a large amount of copy, such typewriters are uneconomic in their use of space and paper. The result also lacks the subtle nuances at the designers command from mechanical typesetting, such as medium and bold or italic, large and small type, which can be used to give typographical emphasis to one section over another. Only capitals and under-lining are available, which will possibly detract from the aesthetic appearance of the page.
Paper and binding
Paper As a questionnaire has to be written on, it would seem logical to select a paper expressly made for that purpose, ie, those most commonly used for stationery. Writings are papers with a smooth surface and are sized to take writing inks. Banks and Bonds are tougher and crisper than ordinary writings, but generallly weigh less. ManifoMs are very thin banks. All these papers come in a wide variety of colours and are suitable for most printing processes. It is also possible, though more expensive, to use a
Cartridge, a tough, white wove paper, or an Art paper
from the first page to the last, whe,e :they are clinched, (difficult to open fiat).
Per]cot bindittg The folded sections are gathered, tire back fold is trimmed off and the pages glued by their back edges to the cover a very neat looking method. A thickness of !d in (6.5 mm) is necessary for perfect binding. If it is less than this and the pages are flimsy, the back often becomes rounded and the pages are not always glued securely.
l~dding Where the questionnaire is short in length, it call be divided into pages or sections by various folding methods, see Fig. 5.
Decisions on production The choice of printing, typesetting, paper and finishing is governed on one hand by the length~ form, complexity and quantity of questionnaire to be produced, and on the other by the budget available, the author's decision for the need for producing a quality item. and the amount ot ume the designer has in which to produce the finished job.
which is coated with china clay to produce a very smooth sheet. This is usually polished, but matt finishes are available, which reduce the glare of reflected light. If the printing is on both sides of the paper, a heavier weight is needed to prevent the printing on one side from showing through on the other. Paper is graded in grammes per square metre (gsm or gm 2), eg, 89 gsm (gm 2).
Loose-leaf binding See Fig. 3 for examples.
Plastic grip spine
Fig.3 Plastic grip spine (left) and plastic comb spine binding
A plastic extrusion is slid over a square backed or single fold cover, gripping the contents by means of tension in the plastic material (difficulty - will not open fiat).
Plastic comb spine
t
Cover and text pages are punched with rectmlgular slots and a plastic comb is fitted by means of curved prongs which feed into the slots.
Permanent binding See Fig. 4 for examples.
Fig.4 Permanent bindings: saddle-stitched with wire (left) side-stitched with wire (centre) ; and perfect bound (right)
Saddle-stitching The folded sections are insetted (one put inside the other) and are then stitched with wire through the folded backs to clinch at the centre spread. It is almost impossible to saddle-stitch work which is more than ¼ in (6"5 mm) thick, and very bulky questionnaire booklets are best side-stitched or perfectbound.
SMe-stitching The folded sections are gathered (placed one on top of the other). Wire stitches are forced through the sections
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Applied Ergonomics June 1975
Fig.5 Methods of folding: single fold (left) ; double (gate) fold (centre); and double (concertina) fold (right}
Offset litho is generally considered to be more economic than letterpress on fairly large runs only (10000 + ); the proofing and photographic stages involve extra expense and delay the production of the printing surface, when compared with letterpress. However, on a shorter run 1000 to 10 000), particularly where the make up of the type is complicated and would be costly if set by the compositor in metal, offset litho can be made economic by supplying the printer with finished artwork of the pages from IBM typesetting. Where the questionnaire is in the form of a single sheet, with a small quantity of simple questions and codes, and a run of 1000 to 5000, it can be produced quite economically by typewriter composition and one of the duplicating processes, but it must be remembered that the end result can only be as good as the original from which it is printed. A larger run would have to be printed on a Multilith or Rotaprint. When superior quality is desired and sufficient time is allowed, it would be printed letterpress with either Monotype, Linotype or Intertype setting. If, however, the finished work is required very quickly, IBM typesetting and Multilith (small offset litho) provide a quicker turnround time. Questionnaires requiring special finishes such as permanent binding or special folding are more easily handled by a major printer, unless of course the questionnaire author has sufficient staff and time to tackle the collating and binding himself. He would be well advised to consider this action for a quantity of 100-200 only, and if the number of pages to be collated is small.
The designer's role as part of the team Often the last decision to be made in producing a questionnaire is whether or not to employ a graphic designer to do the layout and supervise printing. Much depends on the budget available, the quantity required and the author's awareness of the part the designer can play in bringing about a satisfactory survey. Although the designer may come last in the chain of questionnaire production, his contribution, in layout and presentation, is often the first thing to register on the eye of the recipient. His role as part of the team is to bridge the communication gap between the author of the questionnaire and the persons required to fill it in. Because the designer of printed material thus stands at the crossroads of communication, he must fully understand the information to be transmitted, and be thoroughly conversant with printing techniques. He must take the words and codes and mould them into a homogeneous unit which is both effective as a piece of communication and visually interesting. The need for a design approach, therefore, is at two levels functional and aesthetic. Functional
Much legibility research has been concerned with questions of typeface, line length, interlinear spacing, margins and other facets of the use of space in typography; but such research has been largely confined to the problems of continuous text such as book and magazine work, and relatively little attention has been paid to the more
complex requirements of information publishing such as questionnaires. However, many of the requirements for magazine layout apply to questionnaire design, but where there are gaps in research the designer has to use his own judgement, which can either be substantiated or altered by feedback information. A questionnaire has two functions to fulfill from the layout: it is to be filled in;it is to be coded and punched. These aspects have to work together in the first category and separately in the second; therefore the space within the page has to be divided in such a way as to meet these requirements (see Fig. 6). The questions can have three parts: questions, instructions on how to code or answer, and possible answers. For example, let us say the page size is A4 (297 mm x 210 mm). A three column grid will allow column 1 for questions and instructions, column 2 for possible answers, leaving column 3 for codes. Fig. 7 shows how the flexibility of a three-column grid can cope with complex coding, and Fig. 8 a two-column grid with simple coding. As the complexity of the coding varies from page to page, one seldom finds it occupying the full column width from top to bottom. Therefore it stands in a large area of space, sharply defined on the left by the straight edge of the answer columns.
Length of column Lines should be 1"5 to 2"5 alphabets long (Burt, 1959; Poulton, 1960; Tinker, 1963), ie, 3 9 - 6 5 characters per line. The average word for casting-off purposes equals 6 characters (Lewis, 1963), therefore the number of words per line should be 6 - 1 0 .
Separation between columns 2-5 mm separation is adequate (Tinker, 1963). In a three-column questionnaire layout, 1 to 1½ picas (4 mm to 6 ram) is usually necessary on aesthetic grounds.
Margins Curved paper slows down the reading of print (Tinker, 1963). A margin of 2½ picas is adequate, and can incorporate the question number.
Justified or unjustified setting Unjustified setting is easier for poor readers as it avoids uneven letter and word spacing (Gregory and Poulton, 1970). Dots are necessary to fill out the lines of possible answers as an aid to circling the appropriate code, or to align the answer with the correct box to be ticked.
Design of type The choice is between serif (eg, Times, hot metal; Press Roman, IBM) and sans serif (eg, Univers). Although tests have shown that a sans serif face reduces the rate of comprehension (Poulton, 1965), it must be remembered that these refer to long passages of continuous text. In questionnaire layout, where the lengths of text are short, it could be argued that the effect of a sans serif face is considerably reduced. Therefore, it is suggested that the choice of typeface is open to the designer's discretion.
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7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
I I
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I i l
i
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Fig.6 A three-column grid structure (left) allows greater flexibility within the page. A two-column grid (right) gives a reasonable line length and a simple layout structure
Size of type For the main text matter, type should not be smaller than 10 point (Burt, 1959; Poulton, 1960; Tinker, 1963).
of the box is critical; code numbers should be larger than the main text and in bold (see Fig. 9).
Leading Means of emphasis Within the question structure, as already discussed, there can be three elements to be considered: the question itself, an instruction on how to answer or code, and a list of possible answers. On aesthetic and practical grounds, the designer may wish to differentiate between these three elements. Keeping to the same typeface, there are four major ways of doing this in questionnaire layout. 1. Size of type (increasing or reducing size). 2. Weight of type (light, medium, bold). 3. Variation of type (roman capitals, roman capitals and lower case, italics). 4. Colour variation. The choice of means most suited to the task is governed by aesthetic or economic considerations. For example (as in Figs. 7 and 8): main question - bold; instruction italic; possible answers - medium. Coding can also be broken into three possible elements: computer card column numbers, code headings, and code numbers. As the column numbers are only a check, and must not interfere with the codes, they can be very small, 7 point to 8 point roman or italic ; for the code headings likewise 7 point or even smaller is possible where the width
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1975
The interlinear spacing is determined by the depth ot the coding boxes as the responses, obviously, have to match up. The minimum depth which will house an 1 t point character, an d enable it to be circled clearly, is 14 point (6 mm); therefore if the main text is set in 10 point type, the leading required is 4 points. Aesthetic Visual impression is most important, particularly in the case of mailing shot questionnaires. The psychological approach to the effort of reading "alters according to the nature of the reading matter. Because a questionnaire places great demands of time and concentration upon the respondent, its overall appearance al the outset, together with a sense of order and clarity, must have a direct influence on his willingness to fill it in.
A newspaper, for example, offers limited amounts of text in the form of long columns broken by frequent headings and sub-headings. There is constant variation in both literary style and content, wkich stimulates interest, and the reader is prepared to tolerate any short-comings in the perfection of the print. The opposite is probably true of questionnaires, especially those sent by mail. The greater the imperfections
Show Card C Which of the following means is normally used for getting to or from work or school? I f respondent changed from one form o f transport to another, please tick boxes for each one.
A Y o u r o w n car, van, l o r r y or heavy v e h i c l e . A f r i e n d ' s car, van, l o r r y or heavy vehicle.. Y o u r o w n m o t o r c y c l e , scooter o r m o p e d .. A f r i e n d ' s m o t o r c y c l e , scooter or moped .. A powered invalid vehicle .........................
E
C
B
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67
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7O
71
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40
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48
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50
51
56 64 72
57 65 73
58 66 74
6
Public t r a n s p o r t ......................................... A taxi ....................................................... Walking ..................................................... O t h e r (please specify in box below) ..........
[
7
7 ] 5 J
Repeat columns 1-5
A b i c y c l e ...................................................
H
G
F
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l 48
How long have you lived in this house/flat?
less t h a n 1 year .....................................
1
Please circle the appropriate number
1 year ...................................................
2
2 years .................................................
3
3 years ................................................
4
4 years .................................................
5
5 years .................................................
6
6 or more years ....................................
7 49
Do you rent, or own hour house/flat? Please circle the appropriate number
O w n i n c l u d i n g leasehold ...................... Rent furnished ..................................... Rent u n f u r n i s h e d ................................ O t h e r ...................................................
50
I f rented - ask .... 6
Is the landlord private or public?
Private ..................................................
Please circle the appropriate number
Public .................................................. 51
7 Note down the type ofdwelfing, but
Detached house or b u n g a l o w ................
i f in doubt, probe.
Semi-detached house or b u n g a l o w ........
Please circle the appropriate number
Terrace house ...................................... Basement flat ....................................... G r o u n d f l o o r f l a t ................................. Flat on o t h e r f l o o r ...............................
S p e c i f y w h i c h f l o o r .............................. ( G r o u n d = 0, First = 1 etc)
54
O t h e r ................................................... 55
Does your home have its own garden
Yes .......................................................
attached?
No ........................................................
(Do N O T include any communal open space round a block of flats).
I f NO, go toQ11
Please circle the appropriate number
Fig.7 The flexibility of a three-column grid copes easily with complex coding
Applied Ergonomics June 1 9 7 5
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PART
1 -
General
Have you had any vehicle failures in the last year?
1 What are the risks in your brigade area? Please show the distribution o f risks by putting a
No
percentage in the box. (e.g. i f your brigade is a county with B-D risk, the B risk might represent
I f Yes, p/ease tick the relevant boxes %
High risk
60% o f the area, C 25% and D 20%
Mechanical
A risk
Engine
B risk
Transmission
~
Axles
C risk Other (p/ease specify)
D risk
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E risk Remote rural risk Electrical
2 Do you consider that there is a suitable production
Batteries
commercial vehicle chassis currently on the market that will meetthe demands of the Fire Service? Yes
.o
~
Generators
~.
ii
Wiring Other (p/ease specify)
I f Yes, who manufactures it? "]
I
. . . . . . . . . . .
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i
1
I f No, what features render them unacceptable for your use?
Ancilliary Pump
,~_~
Compressors
I
Tank Ladders L Other iplease specify/
3 Do your drivers receive training similar to the programmes given to police drivers?
Yes ~__. ~ No L__~J
7 Do you have particular problems in obtaining spare or replacement parts for your fleet?
I f Yes, p/ease describe the training procedure.
Yes ~i-----~-J No C
~
i f k'es, are there any particular parts which are alwavs difhcu/t to obtain?
4 How frequently are your vehicles involved in accidents? Total Calls
8 Are your vehicles out on the road performing fire
Total Accidents
Ont.e
I ,oad
I
ofrthe
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prevention and other duties during the day?
Att.e
,,rog ....d
I f Yes. can Vou give an approximate percentage of
1970 ... 1971 ...
sets on the way to a call?
11-50 times per year
Applied Ergonomics June 1975
L___~ i- - - - - ]
10 As brigade procedure do crew members don BA
50-100 times per year
88
F--~
total calls in your brigade last year? .......................
you used open water, with either a main or portable pump? More than 100 times per year _ _ ~ - ~
Fig.8 A t w o - c o l u m n grid w i t h simple c o d i n g
those on the road against those giving cover at Fire Stations?...
9 What was the percentage of special calls against
In fighting fires in recent years how many times have
0-10 times per year
Yes ~____,_~ No L.___J
I
L ~
r-----'3 Yes No L _ _ _ J
Where the amount of work involved is small, (say a single A4 sheet, printed both sides, folded twice, IBM typeset, printed offset litho, one colour on a Multilith, and a run of ! 000 copies), a comfortable margin for total production time would be 3 weeks.
28
Away from home all day ......................... Away mornings only ............................... Away afternoons only ............................
For a booklet, where the amount of work involved is more complex, (say A4, 16 pages, IBM typeset, printed offset litho one colour, run of 1000 and saddle-stitched), a comfortable margin of total production time would be 7 weeks.
Other ......................................................
21 Too many ............................................
l
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Enough ................................................ Not enough .......................................... No opinion ...........................................
Fig.9 Code numbers were increased in size and weight for easier recognition
in the visual presentation and quality of print, the more difficult it is to capture and hold the interest of the respondent, the greater the strain upon his mental intake of questions and output of answers, and the lower the probability that he will take the time and trouble to complete and return it. A well produced questionnaire must make the interviewer's task simpler, and can perhaps enable him to perform it more efficiently so that he can draw the maximum information from the interviewee.
Note: the length of the run does not affect the time span, as printing machines are capable of printing 5000 copies per hour under normal conditions. It is always the preparation and finishing work which occupies the major portion of print production.
Cost benefit The need for the design approach is somewhat substantiated by the results from two major ~arveys, involving over 2000 respondents. Compared with the first typewritten version in one survey, the questionnaire redesigned and produced by the graphic designer gave a response rate increased by approximately 30%. Moreover, in the second survey, the interview and questionnaire completion time was reduced by a half from about 40 rain to 20 rain, and the time taken in card-punching was reduced by a third (Sinclair, 1972).
References The design and print sequence The usual sequence is as follows: 1. A rough draft of the copy is studied. 2. The format, printing method and basic layout plan are designed and a time schedule prepared. 3. A specification tbr print is made up and sent out to printers for quotation. 4. The final draft of the copy is made to an agreed type style and cast off for length. 5. Detailed layouts are made and sent to the printer together with marked-up copy. 6. Proofs from the printer are read and corrected for layout and literal errors. 7. Paste-up artwork is made from corrected proofs, and is sent to the printer for platemaklng. 8. The delivery dates are checked and specimen copies examined. The length of time involved in performing these operations varies according to the size and complexity of the questionnaire. However, the following guidelines may prove useful.
Burt, C. 1959 'A psychological study of typography' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Gregory, M. and Poulton, E.C. 1970 Ergonomics, 13,427-434. Even versus uneven righthand margins, and the rate of comprehension in reading. Lewis, J. 1963 Typography : basic principles, p 58.
Poulton, E.C. 1960 Ergonomics, 3, 245--248. A note on printing to make comprehension easier.
Poulton, E.C. 1965 Journal of Applied Psychology, 49, 358-362. Letter differentiation and the rate of comprehension in reading. Tinker, M.A. 1963 'Legibility of Print'. Iowa State Press, Ames, Iowa. Sinclair, M.A. 1972 Personal communication from Department of Human Sciences, University of Technology, Loughborough.
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Questionnaire typography and production Morven Gray Graphic Designer/Typographer, Loughborough, Leicestershire
This article describes the typographic principles and practice which provide the basis of good design and print, the relevant printing processes which can be used, and the graphic designer's function in questionnaire production. As they impose constraints on design decisions to be discussed later in the text, the various methods of printing and production are discussed first.
Relevant terminology
Imposition
Layout
The arrangement of pages in position for printing, corresponding to the correct sequence when the paper has been folded and cut.
There are two very different kinds of layout. One may be a very carefully drawn and finished layout for the client; the other is visually much simpler but technically more detailed. This second, working layout is for the printer and is the equivalent of the architect's working drawing.
Marked up copy This is the typewritten final draft bearing the designer's instructions to the printer such as typeface, its size and weight, length of line, etc.
Galley proofs Preliminary proofs of the text setting on cheap newsprint paper.
Justified text setting The equal and exact spacing of letters and words to a given measure, to create a straight right hand edge. This means the word spacing varies from lille to fine, according to the number of words (as m newspaper setting).
Unjustified text setting The word spacing is even throughout, which creates lines of unequal length according to the number of words per line. This journal uses this form of setting. Ranged left - straight left hand and ragged right hand edges. Ranged right - straight right hand and ragged left hand edges.
Paste-ups Galley proofs which are pasted up by the designer according to his layout, so that the printer can make up the set type into pages.
Repro proofs Accurate and carefully printed proofs which are pasted up and photographed for offset lithography.
Measure Length of line or column width.
Casting off Assessing the length of a typewritten draft to estimate the number of pages of a chosen size of type.
Leading Artwork The reproduction work the designer has to do by hand, such as the pasting up of repro proofs and the careful drawing of boxes round coding columns.
Lhw block The required image is transposed photographically onto a metal plate which is then etched so that the area for printing stands in relief. The etched plate is mounted o11 a platform of wood to bring the printing area to the same level as the type.
Strips of lead less than type height, set in between lines to space out the lines of type.
The major printing methods See Figs. l and 2 for examples.
Letterpress This is the original printing process, and the print is made from a relief surface, where the printing areas are
Applied ErgonomicsJune
1975
81
higher than those which do not print. The print surface is inked by rollers and is then pressed onto the paper. There are two approaches to letterpress printing. If the work is submitted by the designer as marked up copy, with a working layout, the printer will set the type, make it up into pages and send page proofs for correction by the designer and author. When a paste-up of each page is to be made by the designer, he sends the printer marked-up copy for setting, and receives from him galley proofs of the text. These proofs are read for mistakes, and a corrected set is returned to the printer with the page paste-ups. Working from these paste-up layouts, the printer will make-up the page and supply further sets of page proofs for checking. This second technique allows for modifications to be made to a layout without incurring expense at the printers. Any special treatment for particular sections can be made by the designer, but he is not involved in the chore of accurately casting off each section. Any illustrations or boxes will have to be produced as artwork by the designer and sent separately to the printer for making into line blocks. Proofs of these are returned to the designer along with the galley or page proofs.
< .../
I
inked plate Fig. 1 Basic letterpress process
r u b b e r blanket
When all the pages have been passed as correct by the designer and author, they are imposed as a torme: they are locked by quoins (expanding metal wedges) into a chase (a metal frame) ready for printing.
Offset Lithography This process is referred to as 'offset titho' and is printed from a thin metal plate. The printing areas are greasy and the non-printing areas bare metal. During printing, the nonprinting areas are de-sensitized (made grease repellent) by a fountain solution of water and chemicals and the plate is then inked. Ink adheres to the greasy parts, and the print is made from them. Most commercial lithography is produced 'offset'. The thin metal plate is wrapped round a plate cylinder, is dampened and then inked. The ink is transferred to a rubber blanket on a second cylinder which in turn transfers offsets - it to the paper. (Fig. 2). -
A paste-up technique is also used for offset litho and the method of production is the same as that of letterpress up to the corrected galley proof stage. Working from the corrected galleys, the printer makes a set of repro proofs for the designer to use as part of the artwork for the individual pages which are photographed and imposed for platemaking.
Offset duplicators Relatively inexpensive, these machines (such as the Multilith and Rotaprint) are the link between stencil duplicators and full scale offset printing machines, and are capable of producing work of excellent quality. They will print up to 571 mm x 444 mm (22½in x 17½ in), but most machines have a maximum sheet size of about foolscap 343 mm x432 mm (13½ in x 17 in). The text for such systems is set from marked-up copy on a typewriter, usually of the newer kind in which the letterforms are based on type designs and have variable widths. These machines are capable of producing an image comparable to the letterpress repro proof, which can be transferred by photography, photocopying or xerography (in descending order of quality) on to small litho plates.
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AppliedErgonomics June 1975
Fig.2 Offset lithography process (planographic)
The minor printing methods Spirit and stencil duplicating are low cost reproduction processes. Though they will not produce work as good as printed work, they are far cheaper and deserve a mention in printing methods. If the typewriter used to prepare the stencil has a "type' like face rather than the traditional typewriter face. the work can look reasonably well.
Spirit duplicating A single sheet of chromo paper ( a heavy art paper with a very high gloss) is placed face down on to a special carbon, and the copy is typed on the back of the chromo sheet. Under typing pressure, the image m reverse is recorded in carbon on the chromo paper thus creating a master. This master is mounted on the cylinder of the duplicating machine. As the cylinder revolves, the master is moistened with spirit, and when paper is forced against it. a minute amount of carbon is transferred from the master image to the paper. Different colours can be duplicated by changing the carbon sheet used to produce the master. Seven different colours are available; purple is the most commonly used as it contains the most effective dye. Other colour carbons produce fewer copies, the least effective being yellow Spirit duplicating needs a specially made paper, one which is smooth and non-absorbent. The output from one master depends on the skill of the person who makes it. but it can produce 100 copies. Light can affect - and
]
reduce - the duplicating image. The non-absorbent paper will accept any form of writing - fountain, ball point and felt tip pens.
dimensions o f which are in inches or centimetres, and on which all internal measures are in picas and points, which have no direct relationship to either inches or centimetres.
Stencil duplicating
Monotype composition
The image is typed upon the stencil, a very thin paper sheet coated with wax or a cellulose nitrate solution. In the duplicating areas the wax surface coating is removed to produce a stencil in which the paper fibres are the equivalent of a silk screen mesh.
In the monotype system there are two stages, involving two machines - a keyboard and a caster. On the keyboard, an operator produces a punched spool of paper which later controls the caster. On this, type is cast either for hand setting, or more usually in lines of separate characters set to the measure indicated by the designer.
If the stencil is to carry an illustration, rules or boxes, a textured plate is placed beneath the stencil, and the image is cut through the coating with wheel and stylus pens. Stencils can be made photographically. A specially coated sheet is exposed to the original and then developed to remove the coating from the duplicating areas. Line illustrations, rules and boxes, also transfer lettering such as Letraset on the originals can be reproduced. Electronic stencils are made by scanning the original with a light spot. Reflected light is transferred into electric current by a photo electric cell. This current when amplified is used to generate a spark which burns away the stencil coating to form the duplicating areas. The stencil is fixed to a cylinder on the duplicating machine and ink is forced through the open areas onto an absorbent paper. Duplicating machines are fairly sophisticated with automatic paper feeds and inking, and they can be set to duplicate a specific number of copies. A cut stencil should give up to 5000 copies, and photographic and electronic stencils 8000 copies. The absorbent paper required for this process is only suitable for writing with a ball point pen.
The keyboard has keys for up to seven alphabets: roman capitals, small capitals and lower case, italic capitals and lower case, bold capitals and lower case plus a complete range of figures, punctuation marks, space and justification keys.
Linotype and Intertype composition These two ranges of machines have the same basic principles. Free running matrices are assembled in the correct order; they are automatically spaced out to the proper line length; a line of type is cast from the matrices, is trimmed at the base and to the correct point size, and is ejected on to the galley. On a mixer machine, the operator can set from any pair of adjacent magazines, one containing roman and italic matrices, the other roman and bold, thus giving the same range of alphabets as Monotype. The main difference between Monotype and Linotype is that the former casts individual characters and easily corrected mistakes can be done by hand, whereas the latter casts individual lines (known as 'slugs') and all corrections involve setting new lines.
Pho to copying There are many types of photocopying machines, each with their own patented process of reproduction. Those which operate photographically require a photo-sensitized paper and will only print on one side, while others like the Xerox will take almost any type and colour of paper and are capable of printing both sides.
Type and typesetting The point system Printing measurements in the English-speaking world are based on the 'point', actually 0"0138 in (0"351 mm), which is approximately one seventy-second of an inch. Type sizes are always given in points.
IBM Selectric composer This machine is a development of the IBM 'golf-ball' typewriter and has an adequate range of typefaces which compare favourably in visual terms with their 'hot metal' counterparts. The characters are held on a sphere which clips on to the keyboard mechanism. Instead of the normal, moveable platen roller, the sphere travels across a fixed paper carriage. When the copy is to be justified, the line is first typed to measure its length. On a dial, the operator matches the number or word spaces to the space remaining, and then retypes the line. During this second typing, justification takes place automatically.
Large areas are always measured in 12 point units called 'picas' or 'pica ems'. Type is always set to pica measurements. For example, a magazine might be set in 9 point type to a measure of 18 picas (nearly 3 in (76 mm)).
Typefaces, sizes and weights within a range of 7 to 12 point are changed by substituting one sphere for another. A six-alphabet range - roman, italic and bold - which compares with the range in a Monotype die case, will need three type elements.
Throughout Europe (other than the UK and the Irish Republic) the Didot point system is used. Its basis is a point slightly larger than the American-English point (0"376 mm as against 0-351 mm).
Typewriter composition
Imperfect though the printers' systems may be, they are standard and the designer needs to be as familiar with them as with metric and American-English linear measurements.
An electric typewriter together with a carbon acetate ribbon is capable of producing satisfactory photographic copy for making small litho plates. If the machine used has differential spacing (where an 'i' does not occupy the same width as a 'W') the setting can be much improved visually.
The printer uses point measures, but paper is cut in inches or centimetres. One therefore has a page, the
The main drawback to typewriter composition is that the most commonly used machines have faces which give
Applied Ergonomics June 1975
83
10 or 12 characters to the inch, whereas a 10 point setting in Monotype, Linotype and IBM gives approximately 16 characters to the inch. Where there is a large amount of copy, such typewriters are uneconomic in their use of space and paper. The result also lacks the subtle nuances at the designers command from mechanical typesetting, such as medium and bold or italic, large and small type, which can be used to give typographical emphasis to one section over another. Only capitals and under-lining are available, which will possibly detract from the aesthetic appearance of the page.
Paper and binding
Paper As a questionnaire has to be written on, it would seem logical to select a paper expressly made for that purpose, ie, those most commonly used for stationery. Writings are papers with a smooth surface and are sized to take writing inks. Banks and Bonds are tougher and crisper than ordinary writings, but generallly weigh less. ManifoMs are very thin banks. All these papers come in a wide variety of colours and are suitable for most printing processes. It is also possible, though more expensive, to use a
Cartridge, a tough, white wove paper, or an Art paper
from the first page to the last, whe,e :they are clinched, (difficult to open fiat).
Per]cot bindittg The folded sections are gathered, tire back fold is trimmed off and the pages glued by their back edges to the cover a very neat looking method. A thickness of !d in (6.5 mm) is necessary for perfect binding. If it is less than this and the pages are flimsy, the back often becomes rounded and the pages are not always glued securely.
l~dding Where the questionnaire is short in length, it call be divided into pages or sections by various folding methods, see Fig. 5.
Decisions on production The choice of printing, typesetting, paper and finishing is governed on one hand by the length~ form, complexity and quantity of questionnaire to be produced, and on the other by the budget available, the author's decision for the need for producing a quality item. and the amount ot ume the designer has in which to produce the finished job.
which is coated with china clay to produce a very smooth sheet. This is usually polished, but matt finishes are available, which reduce the glare of reflected light. If the printing is on both sides of the paper, a heavier weight is needed to prevent the printing on one side from showing through on the other. Paper is graded in grammes per square metre (gsm or gm 2), eg, 89 gsm (gm 2).
Loose-leaf binding See Fig. 3 for examples.
Plastic grip spine
Fig.3 Plastic grip spine (left) and plastic comb spine binding
A plastic extrusion is slid over a square backed or single fold cover, gripping the contents by means of tension in the plastic material (difficulty - will not open fiat).
Plastic comb spine
t
Cover and text pages are punched with rectmlgular slots and a plastic comb is fitted by means of curved prongs which feed into the slots.
Permanent binding See Fig. 4 for examples.
Fig.4 Permanent bindings: saddle-stitched with wire (left) side-stitched with wire (centre) ; and perfect bound (right)
Saddle-stitching The folded sections are insetted (one put inside the other) and are then stitched with wire through the folded backs to clinch at the centre spread. It is almost impossible to saddle-stitch work which is more than ¼ in (6"5 mm) thick, and very bulky questionnaire booklets are best side-stitched or perfectbound.
SMe-stitching The folded sections are gathered (placed one on top of the other). Wire stitches are forced through the sections
84
Applied Ergonomics June 1975
Fig.5 Methods of folding: single fold (left) ; double (gate) fold (centre); and double (concertina) fold (right}
Offset litho is generally considered to be more economic than letterpress on fairly large runs only (10000 + ); the proofing and photographic stages involve extra expense and delay the production of the printing surface, when compared with letterpress. However, on a shorter run 1000 to 10 000), particularly where the make up of the type is complicated and would be costly if set by the compositor in metal, offset litho can be made economic by supplying the printer with finished artwork of the pages from IBM typesetting. Where the questionnaire is in the form of a single sheet, with a small quantity of simple questions and codes, and a run of 1000 to 5000, it can be produced quite economically by typewriter composition and one of the duplicating processes, but it must be remembered that the end result can only be as good as the original from which it is printed. A larger run would have to be printed on a Multilith or Rotaprint. When superior quality is desired and sufficient time is allowed, it would be printed letterpress with either Monotype, Linotype or Intertype setting. If, however, the finished work is required very quickly, IBM typesetting and Multilith (small offset litho) provide a quicker turnround time. Questionnaires requiring special finishes such as permanent binding or special folding are more easily handled by a major printer, unless of course the questionnaire author has sufficient staff and time to tackle the collating and binding himself. He would be well advised to consider this action for a quantity of 100-200 only, and if the number of pages to be collated is small.
The designer's role as part of the team Often the last decision to be made in producing a questionnaire is whether or not to employ a graphic designer to do the layout and supervise printing. Much depends on the budget available, the quantity required and the author's awareness of the part the designer can play in bringing about a satisfactory survey. Although the designer may come last in the chain of questionnaire production, his contribution, in layout and presentation, is often the first thing to register on the eye of the recipient. His role as part of the team is to bridge the communication gap between the author of the questionnaire and the persons required to fill it in. Because the designer of printed material thus stands at the crossroads of communication, he must fully understand the information to be transmitted, and be thoroughly conversant with printing techniques. He must take the words and codes and mould them into a homogeneous unit which is both effective as a piece of communication and visually interesting. The need for a design approach, therefore, is at two levels functional and aesthetic. Functional
Much legibility research has been concerned with questions of typeface, line length, interlinear spacing, margins and other facets of the use of space in typography; but such research has been largely confined to the problems of continuous text such as book and magazine work, and relatively little attention has been paid to the more
complex requirements of information publishing such as questionnaires. However, many of the requirements for magazine layout apply to questionnaire design, but where there are gaps in research the designer has to use his own judgement, which can either be substantiated or altered by feedback information. A questionnaire has two functions to fulfill from the layout: it is to be filled in;it is to be coded and punched. These aspects have to work together in the first category and separately in the second; therefore the space within the page has to be divided in such a way as to meet these requirements (see Fig. 6). The questions can have three parts: questions, instructions on how to code or answer, and possible answers. For example, let us say the page size is A4 (297 mm x 210 mm). A three column grid will allow column 1 for questions and instructions, column 2 for possible answers, leaving column 3 for codes. Fig. 7 shows how the flexibility of a three-column grid can cope with complex coding, and Fig. 8 a two-column grid with simple coding. As the complexity of the coding varies from page to page, one seldom finds it occupying the full column width from top to bottom. Therefore it stands in a large area of space, sharply defined on the left by the straight edge of the answer columns.
Length of column Lines should be 1"5 to 2"5 alphabets long (Burt, 1959; Poulton, 1960; Tinker, 1963), ie, 3 9 - 6 5 characters per line. The average word for casting-off purposes equals 6 characters (Lewis, 1963), therefore the number of words per line should be 6 - 1 0 .
Separation between columns 2-5 mm separation is adequate (Tinker, 1963). In a three-column questionnaire layout, 1 to 1½ picas (4 mm to 6 ram) is usually necessary on aesthetic grounds.
Margins Curved paper slows down the reading of print (Tinker, 1963). A margin of 2½ picas is adequate, and can incorporate the question number.
Justified or unjustified setting Unjustified setting is easier for poor readers as it avoids uneven letter and word spacing (Gregory and Poulton, 1970). Dots are necessary to fill out the lines of possible answers as an aid to circling the appropriate code, or to align the answer with the correct box to be ticked.
Design of type The choice is between serif (eg, Times, hot metal; Press Roman, IBM) and sans serif (eg, Univers). Although tests have shown that a sans serif face reduces the rate of comprehension (Poulton, 1965), it must be remembered that these refer to long passages of continuous text. In questionnaire layout, where the lengths of text are short, it could be argued that the effect of a sans serif face is considerably reduced. Therefore, it is suggested that the choice of typeface is open to the designer's discretion.
Applied Ergonomics June 1975
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7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
I I
I
I i l
i
I
Fig.6 A three-column grid structure (left) allows greater flexibility within the page. A two-column grid (right) gives a reasonable line length and a simple layout structure
Size of type For the main text matter, type should not be smaller than 10 point (Burt, 1959; Poulton, 1960; Tinker, 1963).
of the box is critical; code numbers should be larger than the main text and in bold (see Fig. 9).
Leading Means of emphasis Within the question structure, as already discussed, there can be three elements to be considered: the question itself, an instruction on how to answer or code, and a list of possible answers. On aesthetic and practical grounds, the designer may wish to differentiate between these three elements. Keeping to the same typeface, there are four major ways of doing this in questionnaire layout. 1. Size of type (increasing or reducing size). 2. Weight of type (light, medium, bold). 3. Variation of type (roman capitals, roman capitals and lower case, italics). 4. Colour variation. The choice of means most suited to the task is governed by aesthetic or economic considerations. For example (as in Figs. 7 and 8): main question - bold; instruction italic; possible answers - medium. Coding can also be broken into three possible elements: computer card column numbers, code headings, and code numbers. As the column numbers are only a check, and must not interfere with the codes, they can be very small, 7 point to 8 point roman or italic ; for the code headings likewise 7 point or even smaller is possible where the width
86
Applied Ergonomics
June
1975
The interlinear spacing is determined by the depth ot the coding boxes as the responses, obviously, have to match up. The minimum depth which will house an 1 t point character, an d enable it to be circled clearly, is 14 point (6 mm); therefore if the main text is set in 10 point type, the leading required is 4 points. Aesthetic Visual impression is most important, particularly in the case of mailing shot questionnaires. The psychological approach to the effort of reading "alters according to the nature of the reading matter. Because a questionnaire places great demands of time and concentration upon the respondent, its overall appearance al the outset, together with a sense of order and clarity, must have a direct influence on his willingness to fill it in.
A newspaper, for example, offers limited amounts of text in the form of long columns broken by frequent headings and sub-headings. There is constant variation in both literary style and content, wkich stimulates interest, and the reader is prepared to tolerate any short-comings in the perfection of the print. The opposite is probably true of questionnaires, especially those sent by mail. The greater the imperfections
Show Card C Which of the following means is normally used for getting to or from work or school? I f respondent changed from one form o f transport to another, please tick boxes for each one.
A Y o u r o w n car, van, l o r r y or heavy v e h i c l e . A f r i e n d ' s car, van, l o r r y or heavy vehicle.. Y o u r o w n m o t o r c y c l e , scooter o r m o p e d .. A f r i e n d ' s m o t o r c y c l e , scooter or moped .. A powered invalid vehicle .........................
E
C
B
45
46
47
52
53
54
55
59
60
61
62
63
67
68
69
7O
71
75
76
77
78
79
40
41
42
48
49
50
51
56 64 72
57 65 73
58 66 74
6
Public t r a n s p o r t ......................................... A taxi ....................................................... Walking ..................................................... O t h e r (please specify in box below) ..........
[
7
7 ] 5 J
Repeat columns 1-5
A b i c y c l e ...................................................
H
G
F
44
43
!8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
l 48
How long have you lived in this house/flat?
less t h a n 1 year .....................................
1
Please circle the appropriate number
1 year ...................................................
2
2 years .................................................
3
3 years ................................................
4
4 years .................................................
5
5 years .................................................
6
6 or more years ....................................
7 49
Do you rent, or own hour house/flat? Please circle the appropriate number
O w n i n c l u d i n g leasehold ...................... Rent furnished ..................................... Rent u n f u r n i s h e d ................................ O t h e r ...................................................
50
I f rented - ask .... 6
Is the landlord private or public?
Private ..................................................
Please circle the appropriate number
Public .................................................. 51
7 Note down the type ofdwelfing, but
Detached house or b u n g a l o w ................
i f in doubt, probe.
Semi-detached house or b u n g a l o w ........
Please circle the appropriate number
Terrace house ...................................... Basement flat ....................................... G r o u n d f l o o r f l a t ................................. Flat on o t h e r f l o o r ...............................
S p e c i f y w h i c h f l o o r .............................. ( G r o u n d = 0, First = 1 etc)
54
O t h e r ................................................... 55
Does your home have its own garden
Yes .......................................................
attached?
No ........................................................
(Do N O T include any communal open space round a block of flats).
I f NO, go toQ11
Please circle the appropriate number
Fig.7 The flexibility of a three-column grid copes easily with complex coding
Applied Ergonomics June 1 9 7 5
87
PART
1 -
General
Have you had any vehicle failures in the last year?
1 What are the risks in your brigade area? Please show the distribution o f risks by putting a
No
percentage in the box. (e.g. i f your brigade is a county with B-D risk, the B risk might represent
I f Yes, p/ease tick the relevant boxes %
High risk
60% o f the area, C 25% and D 20%
Mechanical
A risk
Engine
B risk
Transmission
~
Axles
C risk Other (p/ease specify)
D risk
]
E risk Remote rural risk Electrical
2 Do you consider that there is a suitable production
Batteries
commercial vehicle chassis currently on the market that will meetthe demands of the Fire Service? Yes
.o
~
Generators
~.
ii
Wiring Other (p/ease specify)
I f Yes, who manufactures it? "]
I
. . . . . . . . . . .
]
i
1
I f No, what features render them unacceptable for your use?
Ancilliary Pump
,~_~
Compressors
I
Tank Ladders L Other iplease specify/
3 Do your drivers receive training similar to the programmes given to police drivers?
Yes ~__. ~ No L__~J
7 Do you have particular problems in obtaining spare or replacement parts for your fleet?
I f Yes, p/ease describe the training procedure.
Yes ~i-----~-J No C
~
i f k'es, are there any particular parts which are alwavs difhcu/t to obtain?
4 How frequently are your vehicles involved in accidents? Total Calls
8 Are your vehicles out on the road performing fire
Total Accidents
Ont.e
I ,oad
I
ofrthe
I
prevention and other duties during the day?
Att.e
,,rog ....d
I f Yes. can Vou give an approximate percentage of
1970 ... 1971 ...
sets on the way to a call?
11-50 times per year
Applied Ergonomics June 1975
L___~ i- - - - - ]
10 As brigade procedure do crew members don BA
50-100 times per year
88
F--~
total calls in your brigade last year? .......................
you used open water, with either a main or portable pump? More than 100 times per year _ _ ~ - ~
Fig.8 A t w o - c o l u m n grid w i t h simple c o d i n g
those on the road against those giving cover at Fire Stations?...
9 What was the percentage of special calls against
In fighting fires in recent years how many times have
0-10 times per year
Yes ~____,_~ No L.___J
I
L ~
r-----'3 Yes No L _ _ _ J
Where the amount of work involved is small, (say a single A4 sheet, printed both sides, folded twice, IBM typeset, printed offset litho, one colour on a Multilith, and a run of ! 000 copies), a comfortable margin for total production time would be 3 weeks.
28
Away from home all day ......................... Away mornings only ............................... Away afternoons only ............................
For a booklet, where the amount of work involved is more complex, (say A4, 16 pages, IBM typeset, printed offset litho one colour, run of 1000 and saddle-stitched), a comfortable margin of total production time would be 7 weeks.
Other ......................................................
21 Too many ............................................
l
I
]
Enough ................................................ Not enough .......................................... No opinion ...........................................
Fig.9 Code numbers were increased in size and weight for easier recognition
in the visual presentation and quality of print, the more difficult it is to capture and hold the interest of the respondent, the greater the strain upon his mental intake of questions and output of answers, and the lower the probability that he will take the time and trouble to complete and return it. A well produced questionnaire must make the interviewer's task simpler, and can perhaps enable him to perform it more efficiently so that he can draw the maximum information from the interviewee.
Note: the length of the run does not affect the time span, as printing machines are capable of printing 5000 copies per hour under normal conditions. It is always the preparation and finishing work which occupies the major portion of print production.
Cost benefit The need for the design approach is somewhat substantiated by the results from two major ~arveys, involving over 2000 respondents. Compared with the first typewritten version in one survey, the questionnaire redesigned and produced by the graphic designer gave a response rate increased by approximately 30%. Moreover, in the second survey, the interview and questionnaire completion time was reduced by a half from about 40 rain to 20 rain, and the time taken in card-punching was reduced by a third (Sinclair, 1972).
References The design and print sequence The usual sequence is as follows: 1. A rough draft of the copy is studied. 2. The format, printing method and basic layout plan are designed and a time schedule prepared. 3. A specification tbr print is made up and sent out to printers for quotation. 4. The final draft of the copy is made to an agreed type style and cast off for length. 5. Detailed layouts are made and sent to the printer together with marked-up copy. 6. Proofs from the printer are read and corrected for layout and literal errors. 7. Paste-up artwork is made from corrected proofs, and is sent to the printer for platemaklng. 8. The delivery dates are checked and specimen copies examined. The length of time involved in performing these operations varies according to the size and complexity of the questionnaire. However, the following guidelines may prove useful.
Burt, C. 1959 'A psychological study of typography' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Gregory, M. and Poulton, E.C. 1970 Ergonomics, 13,427-434. Even versus uneven righthand margins, and the rate of comprehension in reading. Lewis, J. 1963 Typography : basic principles, p 58.
Poulton, E.C. 1960 Ergonomics, 3, 245--248. A note on printing to make comprehension easier.
Poulton, E.C. 1965 Journal of Applied Psychology, 49, 358-362. Letter differentiation and the rate of comprehension in reading. Tinker, M.A. 1963 'Legibility of Print'. Iowa State Press, Ames, Iowa. Sinclair, M.A. 1972 Personal communication from Department of Human Sciences, University of Technology, Loughborough.
Applied Ergonomics June 1975
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