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Rail research projects: Case studies
Research in Transportation Economics 41 (2013) 76e83
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Rail research projects: Case studies Adam Motraghi* NewRail, School of Mechanical and Systems Engineering, Newcastle University, Stephenson Building, Claremont Road, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, UK
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Available online 30 November 2012
This paper presents eight research projects developed during an intensive rail programme. The projects are as follows: Comparative Assessment of the Impacts of Rail Deregulation on Rail Transport Performance; Overcoming the intermodal transport barriers; Standing seats for high-capacity trains; Logistics principals for efficient rail systems; Access charge systems in European countries; Efficient energy use for sustainable rail transport; Analysis of Rail Yard and Terminal Performances; and Urban freight movement by rail. For each project a short description is provided covering the project key components, including the aims, objectives, methodology, results and the conclusions. Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Railway research Projects Case studies
1. Comparative assessment of the impacts of rail deregulation on rail transport performance 1.1. Aims The primary aim of this project is to compare the effects of different rail deregulation programmes across Europe. By looking at variables, indicators and case studies, additional aims are the analysis of relative performance, the identification of high and low performances and the understanding of the potential impacts on other EU countries. 1.2. Objectives The objectives to be achieved in the project are as follows: Comprehend the laws and regulations of the three EU Rail deregulation reforms. Analyse the current situation. Identify possible gaps between the reforms and their implementation. Identify the effects of the reforms on system performance in the different EU members. Suggest improvements on the application of the railway deregulation reforms. 1.3. Methodology A literature review is carried out, covering the laws and regulations of the three deregulation reforms, the implementation of
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the packages (indexes), the impacts of deregulation and freight and passenger train indicators for EU members. Information obtained from official sources such as the European Commission, OECD and Eurostat formed the foundations of the research and has been illustrated in the results graphically. The results are extracted, analysed and discussed. Ultimately, analysis of the results helps towards the conclusions and recommendations about how to improve the European railway system.
1.4. Results In terms of Licensing, there was an observed doubling of railway license numbers during the period of 2003e2006. Although, in some countries the railway license numbers remained constant. Between 2000 and 2007, the market share of freight transport by rail grew in most member states and especially in countries where non-incumbent rail undertakings acquired significant market shares. In 2007 EU-27 countries observed a 2.8% rise of freight transport by rail, whilst in EU-12 countries and EU-15 countries there was a noted rise of 1.1% and 3.7% respectively. Notably, 2008 brought a lot of volatility across the EU in terms of freight transport by rail, where some countries experienced a 9.7% increase (Denmark) and some countries experienced a 29.2% decrease (Estonia). In regard to passenger transport between 2000 and 2007, the majority of member states experienced increased passenger transport by rail. Most notable increases were seen in Ireland (44.6%) and Latvia (36.1%), however some significant drops were also observed particularly in Romania, Lithuania and Bulgaria of 35.7%, 32.3% and 30.8% respectively. In addition, the highest increase in traffic is the high-speed sector where an observed increase from 59 million people in 2000 to 92 million people in
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2007. 2008 brought further increases in rail passenger traffic for the majority of EU members, and although the global economic crisis occurred in 2008, decreases in passenger traffic only became apparent in 2009 and 2010. These decreases varied from member state to member state, depending on a number of factors such as economy, logistics systems, etc. As an important indicator to measure the quality of service, punctuality was examined (for combined transport trains) and despite improvements in delays over scheduled arrival times from 1999 to 2007, space for improvement is still there. 1.5. Conclusions All EU-Members began the legal process of transposing EU Directives into national law and obtained legal separation between Infrastructure Managers and Operators. However, due to differences in interpretation, the proper separation of the two entities has not yet been achieved which produces inequality in the market and in infrastructure access conditions. From the punctuality indicators, it is concluded that there has been no visible improvements in recent years. There has been a notable increase in rail passenger service quality, which is evident in Germany, France and the UK. Slight increases have been observed in the remaining EU countries. Changes in the rail freight sector have been less visible, with the ton-kilometre indicator remaining stable in recent years. The freight sector leader is Germany, which is still growing.
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2.2. Objectives Identify the barriers in intermodal transport Research those existing barriers Generate possible solutions for those barriers in intermodal transport 2.3. Methodology A literature review focused around current government policy is carried out in order to identify the existing barriers to intermodal transport and to suggest some improvements. 2.4. Barriers 1. Segmentation, fragmentation and a general lack of cooperation among the intermodal transport operators. 2. Non-integration of Intelligent Transport Systems and absence of multimodal travel information services. 3. Competition between transport modes e inability of some modes to compete with other modes. 4. Conditions for the operational and technical integration of the different national railway systems in the European Union and accession countries (interoperability and safety requirements). 5. Infrastructural barriers. 6. Barriers regarding logistics concepts and practice services. 7. Barriers regarding financial and economic issues.
1.6. Suggestions In anticipation of possible lay-offs and job shifts from the stateowned rail companies to the private sector rail companies, training programs may be necessary to help railway workers acquire new skills in order to obtain jobs in more technically advanced railway companies. Knowledge retention and dissemination schemes could be undertaken in order to reduce the risk of losing knowledge as rail workers across Europe retire. This knowledge is critical to training new rail employees. Administrative and financial support could be made available to future rail companies who wish to enter rail freight and passenger markets. This support could be useful to emergent companies in recruitment processes to integrate redundant workers from state-owned companies, who possess technical and practical know-how. The ERA could prioritise the spreading of railway-related information and training on a wider range. The performance indicators could then be published regularly by an official source, like the ERA, so that the impacts of policy can be monitored and recorded more effectively. 2. Overcoming the intermodal transport barriers 2.1. Motivation As the European Union expands, there are growing needs for more efficient integration and harmonised transport systems. This includes intermodal transport systems that help to service the flows of passengers and freight in between borders. Intermodal transport goes some way to ensuring fair play and competition between the different transport modes, and plays to their respective strengths. If used to its maximum potential and without restrictions, it can offer a lot of advantages such as speed, safety, efficiency and flexibility. The barriers to intermodal transport will be traced and researched, before solutions are presented.
2.5. Suggestions and solutions In order to tackle the problem of segmentation and fragmentation of transport operators, further and improved collaboration between the authorities and transport operators is desired. Establishing a new authority to supervise this collaboration and to create unity between transport modes would go some way to doing this. The non-integration of ITS, which makes traffic management more difficult, must be solved. ITS systems can easily be interconnected and this could expedite the communication between the different transport modes. Considering that the quality of ITS is strongly correlated to the quality of transport, this barrier is an important one to overcome. Promoting rail transport and eliminating borders and regulation in rail could help with the problem of the lack of competition between other transport modes and road transport, which ultimately can slow intermodal system development. A united and well-connected Europe, with simple cross border transactions can facilitate a competitive market across the continent. To make this a reality, each member of the EU should focus on solving their own respective interoperability issues related to signalling and dispatching systems and national regulations of different infrastructure systems. Infrastructural issues, logistics concepts and practice services, financial and economical issues might be fixed through further integration of current system equipment, telematics systems for remote access control and developing standardised infrastructure for intermodal systems. Creating a common language that all transport managers can understand may ease integration and boost intermodal transport. Creating an environment in which a fair and competitive transport market can grow is very important. Otherwise there is no incentive for dominant transport modes to collaborate with other means of transport, as they can manage freight or passengers on their own.
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It is worth noting that at the moment projects like TEN-T and Marco Polo attempt to overcome these barriers, and are being developed and implemented across Europe. 2.6. Conclusions Because of the fast changing nature of the world today, today’s transport systems have fell behind the curve. Today’s marketplace demands fast, reliable travel and deliveries on a global scale. For relatively short distances, road transportation is still the leader but over longer distances, other modes of transport, like rail, become stronger choices. In order to have an optimal transport system, the advantages of each transport mode should be exploited and thus, inter-modal transport is the best solution. In the future, door-to-door transport will most likely be best achieved through intermodal transport (ie. using at least two transport modes). Governments and authorities should contemplate a future where transportation is predominantly intermodal and therefore must create the conditions to allow it to grow. Whether it’s through writing litigation, creating infrastructure, building networks, or educating people on the benefits of intermodal systems. 3. Standing seats for high-capacity trains 3.1. Motivation Rail’s position as the transport mode with the greatest capacity makes it particularly useful in cities where it can reduce congestion problems. In London, Rail’s market share is larger than any other area in the UK and the quality and capacity of London’s rail system affects more people than anywhere else in the UK. Historically when people have looked at increasing capacity, they have looked to invest in infrastructure or rolling stock. However these large capital investments are sometimes not financially viable. One solution to increasing capacity in rolling stock could be achieved through increasing passenger density inside the vehicle. Modern commuter trains typically have a seating density of 2.5e3 passengers per square metre and the normal acceptable density for standing passengers is around 4e5 passengers per square metre. In Asian countries, this can reach as high as 8 passengers per square metre. As standing passenger density is almost double that of seating passenger density, one measure towards increasing capacity could be to remove seating capacity and only allow standing passengers. However these measures may have some implementation blockers, particularly passenger acceptability as this measure will reduce comfort for passengers.
This anthropometric data feeds into the dimensions for seat width (500 mm), spacing between seats (530 mm), seat height (adjustable between 650 mm and 850 mm from ground to seating pad), seat inclination and armrests. The proposed seat is manufactured in a similar fashion to current train seats. The head rest is made of fire resistant foam and reinforced with a plastic (injection moulded) casing. The backing of the seat is made in a similar way to current seat technologies, but with an internal support, for example springs. The standing seat is held up by the support, which is a hollow steel pipe at the back of the seat. This is extruded and cut to the correct length, and is painted to avoid corrosion. The design means that a passenger density of almost 4 passengers per square metre can be achieved, reaching a compromise between the normal seating density (2.5e3 passengers per square metre) and the acceptable standing density in Europe (5 passengers per square metre). A new carriage layout is also formulated that can be married with the standing seat design in order to maximise its effects. 3.4. Human factors design The standing seat design brings with it a perceived utility loss by the user. This perceived loss is mitigated by other vehicle improvements in order to garner support and acceptability for the standing seat solution. Using ITS (Intelligent Transport Systems) to complement other systems in the vehicle is a potential improvement. In particular, the input of information from ITS into the air conditioning and ventilation systems as well as the suspension systems, could ensure passenger comfort and safety. 3.5. Conclusions The design tackles one of the most important areas of rail designs; increasing capacity per vehicle and efficiency per passenger. An increase of sitting capacity from 70 to 108 is achieved. The loss of comfort is offset by reducing ticket cost, by only using this design on relatively short journeys (30 mine1 h) or by providing good levels of thermal and spatial comfort through the use of proper design. The concept can ultimately boost the demand for rail travel, as it provides a cheaper way to travel. Safety benefits are achieved relative to standing without a seat. In the event of an accident, the passenger would only move less than half a metre before they would impact on a surface (the next seat in front of them).
3.2. Methodology
4. Logistics principals for efficient rail systems
A “standing seat” design is formulated and studied, with assessments on the vehicle impacts made concerning comfort, capacity and safety. Finally an appraisal on the benefits of the solution is carried out including blockers to its implementation.
4.1. Motivation
3.3. Design Key considerations in the design of the standing seat are human factors and ergonomics, in the hope that the interaction between user and the seat is optimised in terms of safety, performance and satisfaction. Anthropometric data feeds into the design process to ensure that the standing seat is a good fit for the majority of potential users.
Transportation has been an important part of daily life since ancient times. To put it into context, approximately 10% of global GDP is related to mobility and logistic activities. However not all modes of transport contribute equally, with rail being neglected over recent history due to a number of reasons; most of them related to the attractiveness of road transport (with which rail cannot directly compete) and to the resistance of embracing intermodal transport. Although it has been neglected, rail has the potential to be at the forefront of the marketplace once again because of its attractive characteristics (such as high capacity, relatively higher safety, reduced externalities, etc.). In order for this to become
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a reality, systems should be developed to become more efficient to fall in line with customer expectations and demands. Additionally, policies and regulation must be put in place to stimulate stakeholders to take action. Hence this project focuses on the logistic principles that underpin and contribute to the development of rail transport. 4.2. Objectives This project focuses on system efficiency and the best practices that have been successfully implemented in Europe. Efficient rail systems are not easily achievable as it involves several players and actions, therefore the paper will start with a disaggregate vision of the initial problem and then proceed to a global view of the issues addressed. Although there is no expectation on finding a unique and optimised solution to the initial problem, the intention is to clarify the friction points where innovation can certainly contribute to improve the systems’ performance. A reflection on the outcomes of a number of recent projects is carried out, with the objective to bring to light their respective positive aspects and to analyse the characteristics which do not prove to be efficient. 4.3. Methodology A literature review will be carried out, in order to highlight barriers to efficiency in rail systems and to propose improvements on the attractiveness and efficiency of railways.
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4.5. Conclusions In order to improve European railways, a few fundamental points must be addressed: The need for implementation of inter-modality and the suppression of friction points. Providing more effective incentives and lowering the barrier to entry for new rail market entrants. The relatively “fragmented” view of the rail network in the EU and the need for it to be a wider ranging and overall view. Actively endorsing the prerequisites for sustainable development No matter how the barriers to progress are categorised, it is important to remember that they are interdependent. It is thought that it is a better approach to focus on improving barriers equally, rather than a focused effort on just one aspect of the efficiency problem. As a result, developing a top-down policy framework based solution that can offer flexibility is preferred. In addition, the standardisation of the entire network in terms of documents and track units is very desirable. One decisive step towards this goal would be the unification of the various transport policies that exist throughout the European Union. Given the current economic realities in Europe, whilst the technical issues are concerning and need improvement, there is likely more value to be had in focussing more on the intangible problems of the railway efficiency issue. A significant investment, to tackle the technical issues, may not be forthcoming. Finally, a balanced development of transport modes should be promoted in line with the promotion of inter-modality.
4.4. State of the art 5. Access charge systems in European countries Within the UK alone, 10 billion pounds are lost each year to congestion and related inefficiencies. These losses are a knock on effect from the dominance of road transport, and the lack of a combined multi-modal approach towards which rail can positively contribute. The main reasons that formed this resultant situation are the lack of regulation on road transport and subsidies (for the year 2004/05 the road transport industry received £73 billion more than the rail industry in the EU-15 countries). 4.4.1. Project case studies The main objective of logistics and market research is to define the market opportunities for the transportation of goods to be served by new and innovative rail concepts. According to the SPECTRUM project, logistics and market research is the crucial first step that determines which part of the market can be served by innovative rail freight offerings. Whilst the rail logistics market is divided, there are some companies and organisations who have grouped together. As part of the EU’s 6th and 7th framework programme, a number of companies aim to produce a roadmap and action plans to nurture an integrated e-logistics platform across the EU. Some of the notable stakeholders are mentioned below: RETRACK is a consortium of 13 partners that is focused on applying an innovative rail freight service concept to the movement of rail freight across Europe, and aims to secure a significant modal shift of cargo from road to rail with a market share of 15% by 2020. The e-freight integrated project brings together 30 partners across Europe, to address the development, validation and demonstration of innovative e-freight capabilities. “E-freight” is the vision of paperless freight transport processes where electronic flows of information are linked to the physical flow of goods. Efreight will feed into the concept of “intelligent cargo” where goods are location aware and can communicate with each other.
5.1. Motivation An important change that has happened in railways since the 1990s is the vertical separation of the railway sector. Division of infrastructural and operational responsibilities occurred with two new roles created; the infrastructure manager (IM) and railway undertakings (RU). This split was responsible for the creation of access charge systems, which is the core of this project. Depending on the country there is a different method of calculation for these charges, which can create conflicts and problems for international transport. These problems work against the end goal of a unified European transport network. 5.2. Objectives Bring to light the current situation in access charge systems in Europe; Compare and contrast the various access charge models. 5.3. Methodology In order to achieve those objectives, there is a distinct methodology to be followed. First and foremost a historical picture of EU railways is built, before analysis of pricing theories and discussion over the effect of liberalisation. Finally, a case study concerning liberalisation in the Turkish railway system is built and comparisons are drawn between the different access charges in a TEN-T corridor. 5.4. Pricing theories In the directive 2001/14/EC, the problem of harmonisation of access charges was pointed out by the European Commission. The
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directive specifically states that “the charges for the minimum access package and track access to service facilities shall be set at the cost that is directly incurred as a result of operating the train service”. Therefore there are three fundamental approaches that can be used to calculate access charges: 1. The cost allocation approach (which disaggregates costs into two distinct types; fixed and variable costs) 2. The econometric approach (which uses statistical methods to find cost functions) 3. The engineering approach (which derives functional relationships based on measurements or models of maintenance required) The cost allocation approach has shown to be disadvantageous in some instances because of its standardising of costs into groups, which does not accurately model the different cost categories in each country. The econometric approach has some limitations also; most importantly its inability to account for the disaggregated levels of expenditure between the different countries. The engineering approach often leads to complex formulae and cost drivers must be determined for marginal cost differentiation. As the drivers vary, they tend to increase the complexity in the formulae used. Railway companies have not developed a standard guide amongst themselves to adapt a simple mechanism using this approach, as to do so is difficult to establish.
part of larger efforts to become accredited by the EU commission), whereby the TCDD became the IM and the private companies became the RU. 5.7. Conclusions The variety of access charge regimes in the EU countries has led to differing outcomes for each of them. These different access charging systems have been causing some difficulties in the current railway network, both for transport operators and infrastructure managers. There are two basic systems in access charges, the two part tariff and the single/simple part tariff. The two part tariff is considered by some as a hindrance to the development of the rail freight market, and this could be eliminated through a turn from the two part tariff to the simple part tariff. One way to implement this would be through collaboration between infrastructure managers and this could make planning and managing train operation much easier between competitors. Whilst simple part tariffs are suggested for rail freight services, two part tariffs are considered a better solution for suburban services. The current access charging system is facing a lot of difficulties across the EU and a unified pricing method would be highly recommended, although understandably this is not easy to implement. 6. Efficient energy use for sustainable rail transport
5.5. Liberalisation and access charges
6.1. Motivation
Liberalisation and access charges are closely related to government policy, specifically subsidies. Often the IM will have to use procured financial aid in the form of subsidies in order to cover the company costs. This problem arises because of the different methods used to calculate the access charges and generally they are not enough to cover the costs. The government subsidises the sector in order to keep it “alive”. The state has an important role to play in terms of financing and subsiding policies but because of the variance in the money received by the IMs and in the ways of public intervention, that changes from country to country, it makes the current system unstable. For example in Spain, 15% of the IM revenues are derived from state subsidies and this is caused by the high cost of infrastructure and the access charge system. Support from government is essential to keep this system running. Liberalisation has had some mixed results, well received by some countries but met with resistance in others. Whilst the idea of liberalisation can deliver success and high quality, at the moment it could be seen to be far from its ideal implementation.
Energy efficient technologies have a major part to play in the promotion of rail as a transport mode, through the curbing of energy consumption and by providing ecological benefits. Because of the aged infrastructure and ageing technologies in rail, there is the potential for significant improvement in rail. In addition, to fully take advantage of the financial benefits of rail, energy consumption costs could be lowered further and renewable energies could receive more focus.
5.6. Liberalisation in Turkish railways The Turkey General Directorate of State Railway Administration (TCDD) was founded in an attempt for Turkey to gain more control over its railways. Its functions are defined as follows: 1. Construction of new railway lines, expansion and renewal of the railways; 2. To set up warehouses, deports and passenger facilities; 3. To manufacture rolling stocks and similar vehicles; 4. To operate the trains. As an attempt to transform their system into a more liberal market, the Turkish government created a package of policies (as
6.2. Objectives The main objective is to successfully analyse the current situation and to seek opportunities to further improve energy use and efficiency in rail. Secondary to this objective, barriers to energy efficient technologies will be explored and solutions as to how to overcome them proposed. 6.3. Methodology For this paper several different methods have been used. Mainly methods of comparative analysis have been used in conjunction with case studies, archival research, article research and metaanalysis. 6.4. Logistics The Internet of Things (IoT) is a technology that could possibly solve several problems at the same time. In particular, it will be able to optimise the limited flexibility of the many different information systems across European countries. IoT is an intelligent technology that allows many different objects to interact with each other, through sensors, tags, Radio-Frequency identification etc. Based on the information that the objects receive from their neighbours, they can react to a changing environment in real-time (Atzori et al,
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2010). If IoT is combined with railway infrastructure (e.g. tracks, hubs, etc.) railway organisation and efficiency could be improved. 6.5. Green buildings Green buildings bring the advantages of less energy consumption, a more diversified energy portfolio and greater energy efficiency. As buildings use approximately one third of all energy consumed in the world, there can be a significant saving in designing eco-friendly buildings. One recent example is the Guangzhou South Railway Station in China, which has open ended tracks to allow natural ventilation, photovoltaic panels to power the station and a transparent roof, shaped like a banana to allow more natural sunlight into the building, which provides a natural heating effect. 6.6. Conventional energy sources vs renewable energy sources Rail historically has always had an edge over other modes of transport when it came to addressing sustainability issues. However in an environment where sustainability is becoming ever more important, railway operators are focussing on this critical issue even more in order to maintain their advantage. Railway companies such as DB and Amtrak have made their intentions known, that they are seriously committed to switching over to renewable energy sources or to complete electrification of their network. In particular, DB has announced that by 2050 they intend to completely shift to renewable energy sources for their railway network. In the face of increasing demand for rail transport in the last 5 years, and increasing political pressure with regards to energy consumption, it makes the issue of renewable energy sources even more important for rail. 6.7. Freight train aerodynamics Air resistance at high speeds is one of the primary causes for energy consumption by trains. For instance, when travelling at very high speeds the French TGV uses 80% of its energy to withstand aerodynamic forces and maintain a constant speed. Despite travelling at much lower speeds, the same energy consumption is reached by freight trains because of irregular shape of the wagons and inefficient train layout. Advancements in wagon design to make them more aerodynamic, and correct arrangement of existing wagons (by putting empty wagons at the back of the train for example) would combat energy losses due to air resistance. In the past this could have been a time intensive and costly exercise, however with today’s technology, algorithms such as the Aerodynamic Loading Assignment Model (ALAM) can be used to optimise the aerodynamic profile of an intermodal container train.
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For energy production, rail transport may wish to look to receive a larger percentage of its power from renewable power sources, following the lead of the likes of Blackfriars station in London, where 4400 solar panels generate 1 MW of energy to fulfil the station’s needs. Energy saving and recovery measures could be made to be more widespread. Technologies such as NEITECH, where rail vehicles are tilted on an incline whilst manoeuvring curves to help maintain line speed and regenerative braking, which allows trains to recover the energy lost during braking. Propulsion system and energy storage innovation, such as batteries and double layer capacitors should be researched further so they can help towards a future with zero emissions (at point of use) and minimise environmental impact. Also computer programming can produce algorithms for driving assistance that can be implemented to reduce energy consumption. Whilst many solutions exist to boost the sustainable development of rail, there must be market uptake for the greatest chance of success. If major operators and infrastructure managers have sufficient motivation to take these ideas and technologies forward, this will act as a stimulant to the entire industry, with other actors hopefully following their lead. Also it is important to keep in mind that ensuring an eco-friendly chain all the way down to energy production could secure a place for rail as one of the leading modes of transport for the future. 7. Analysis of rail yard and terminal performances 7.1. Motivation and aims Rail yards and terminals ensure the movement of passengers and freight, and thus are important pieces of the railway network. The majority of the transit time is spent in transhipment and shunting operations. It is important that these processes are continually improved and optimised, in order for progress to be achieved and to ensure that yards and terminals keep up with changes in other areas. Nowadays, the materials that are transported by rail have changed from heavy goods, to light-weight, palletised goods. This not only has an effect on the trains, but on the terminals also, which opens up a gateway for new terminal ideas. The aims of this project are twofold, namely: Describe different terminals of passengers and freight, as well as the varieties of rail freight yards and to outline their advantages and disadvantages. Explore the short, mid and long term improvements that should be made for future terminals. 7.2. Rail terminals and yards
6.8. Conclusions Improvements could be achieved across a wide area of technologies in order to further the sustainability and efficiency of rail transport. Logistically speaking, “green corridors” could be created for trains to travel longer distances at higher speeds and new rolling stock with microchips that enable them to communicate (such as the Radio-Frequency Identification system) with each other and other objects would allow for better monitoring and information flows. In terms of Civil engineering, “green buildings” that consume less energy and are more energy efficient could replace existing older rail stations and terminals.
Passenger stations’ main goals are to facilitate passenger transport. There are three main basic topologies of this type of station; running station, junction station and crossing station. Intermodal terminals allow the meeting of two or more modes of transport for the purpose of exchanging cargo. The physical characteristics of intermodal terminals can vary greatly, therefore to better identify intermodal terminals there are 5 key features that are used; the pairs of modes that are connected, the type of cargo handled, the type of intermodal transfers for which the terminal is designed, (direct, short-term or long-term storage), whether the terminal is public or private, and whether the terminal is restricted or not relative to either carriers or shippers.
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The capacity of road-rail terminals is determined by a few key factors; the size and shape of the land, the length of the handling tracks, the positioning of the terminal with respect to the road and rail networks and the handling equipment capabilities. Sea-rail terminals come in many varieties, but the most common one variety is the container terminal (LoeLo). Lift oneLift off (LoeLo) vessels are able to transport a wide range of different products because of their flexible cargo space, container capacity and on board cranes. Rail freight yards (aka shunting yards) are a cornerstone of the railway freight operations industry. They allow the uncoupling and reassembly of trains according to their destination. 10e50% of the total transit time of trains is typically spent in the shunting process, and hence the performance of these yards can have an impact on the quality of railway freight network operations. It is important to note that the load itself is not moved from one train to another in rail freight yards. Yard capacity is determined by the number of parallel tracks, however as space and rail infrastructure is expensive, it is more economical to improve the management of yards rather than to increase track length. Rail freight yards are typically split into three types; flat-shunted yards, hump yards and gravity yards. The largest and most effective type of yard being the hump yard, where wagons of a complete train run down an incline (the hump) in order to be reassembled for departure.
idea was combined with the former idea of dual-purpose terminals, investment costs for infrastructure could be lowered. Although it is important to note that there would have to be design considerations made for passengers with regards to the additional emissions, noise and vibrations brought about by having freight operations in the vicinity. Finally with the decreasing cost and size of electronics, employing a higher level of automation within terminals could be very advantageous. There would be benefits in terms of efficiency, and the required personnel to monitor the terminal would decrease. 8. Urban freight movement by rail 8.1. Motivation As significant problems in urban areas in Europe, congestion and pollution could be solved by urban rail projects. The motivating factors behind new urban rail projects are the ability to create an efficient distribution of goods by increasing productivity, the economic and environmental benefits, and the reduction of traffic congestion and associated noise pollution. However these goals tend to require large investments, in infrastructure and maintenance, in order to be achieved. 8.2. Objective
7.3. Conclusions In the short term, better human resource management could improve the performance of yards and terminals. By providing a continual feedback and learning process, workers can keep up to date with the continuously changing working environment and technologies. Also to decrease the dwell time of trains in stations in the short term, improvements could be made to the circulation of passengers through the better planning and placement of platforms, escalators, and lifts. Finally, the installation of automatic code readers could allow wagons to be identified more quickly and without the need for human supervision. This could also reduce the operational cost. For the medium term, improvements in control centres for passenger’s stations would be very beneficial. By bettering the signalling systems and the information feedback to the control centre, this might be able to decrease the gap between trains and improve train circulation on the network. The application of ERTMS level 3 would be an important benchmark for the medium-term. Second, for rail freight terminals, operational flexibility can be maximised and the implementation of new, innovative transhipment operations (such as Cargo Beamer, Cargo Mover, Modalohr and Mobiler) to allow the direct loading and unloading from trucks to train and vice versa, would be highly beneficial. Third, the adoption of IT systems that increase the data quality and exchange between the different stakeholders would be very useful, the most relevant technology being the EDI (Electronic Data Interchange) which can coordinate information flows between the different participants. Concerning the long term, there are three main ideas; a combined passenger & freight terminal, the construction of new multi-level terminals/stations and the implementation of higher orders of automation. Combined passenger & freight terminals may be difficult to apply currently, however if the current trend of transported goods continues, whereby they become less heavy and palletised, then it may be easier to accommodate as cranes and heavy equipment may no longer be necessary or as widespread. Thereby, making these terminals more passenger friendly from an accessibility, health and safety perspective is envisaged. Following the lead of stations such as Berlin Hauptbahnhof, multi-level terminals could serve rail traffic on several levels which would reduce land-use and the costs associated with it. Also if this
The main objective of this paper is to determine whether the concept of urban freight movement by rail is feasible or not, by examining real cases where this solution has been implemented and if it is, what are the most critical issues and which standards should be kept. 8.3. Methodology General principles of freight movement are introduced and six case studies where urban freight movement by rail has been implemented are presented and explored. A comparison is made between the cases, using some of their technical characteristics and highlighting advantages and disadvantages of each case. Following on from this analysis, conclusions and suggestions were then developed. 8.4. Theoretical background The main problems in freight transport across cities are congestion, environmental pollution and noise. The freight transportation market demands that freight is delivered on time, however not every product category is as time-sensitive as each other, nor is every freight category delivered in an urban environment. There is significant number of deliveries fewer than 50 km, which could fall under the umbrella of “urban freight transport”. This suggests that there is room for vehicles adapted for delivering urban freight, which at the same time reduce space, cost and energy usage. One possible solution is delivering urban freight by rail and conveniently, big European cities have existing large rail networks be they Metro systems, Tram systems or Light rail systems. 8.5. Case studies discussed in the project Six case studies were presented in order to show the current state of the art in urban freight by rail in Europe. CarGo Tram in Dresden, Germany was established in collaboration with DVB, Dresden’s traffic enterprise. The CarGo Tram connects the Volkswagen “Transparent Factory” (in the heart of
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the historical city centre) with its logistics centre, located in Dresden-Friedrichstadt. Cargo Tram Zurich was used to provide a good but inexpensive refuse collection service. The extensive tram network in Zurich serves the majority of the neighbourhoods, which allowed it to not only reduce congestion and pollution, but also to provide a valuable service to residents. CityCargo Amsterdam was launched in 2007 with the aim to reduce the number of trucks in the inner city by 50% and replacing them with trams, thus reducing pollution by up to 20%. In addition, CityCargo complemented the trams by utilising a fleet of electric delivery vans (e-cars) to navigate the last few metres of the journey, thus ensuring “door-to-door” delivery. Monoprix implemented a system that combined rail and ecological vehicles to deliver non-perishable products for 90 supermarkets since November 2007. This system replaced ten thousand trucks per year, saving seventy thousand litres of fuel. TruckTrain is a prototype which aims to maintain rail’s strengths of speed and energy efficiency, but at the same time makes it more competitive by marrying those traditional rail strengths with the competitive capabilities of the road freight sector such as readiness and economy. Newcastle Metro was explored as a potential urban freight transport system through the creation of an event based simulation model. Through the use of urban consolidation centres at key locations, it was concluded that the existing system could facilitate an urban freight system as well as increase utilisation of the entire system.
8.6. Conclusions 8.6.1. Feasibility Based on the analysis and the existing four case studies where it has been implemented, urban freight by rail is deemed to be
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feasible since it brings some advantages with the main ones being reduction of emissions and congestion. The ability for urban freight by rail to remove trucks from the road should be taken into account and promoted especially in light of the continuous challenges large European cities face with congestion. 8.6.2. Challenges However, urban freight movement by rail faces a number of challenges that must be addressed. The initial investment cost is high, and can be a barrier to entry even for a great idea (as evidenced by CityCargo Amsterdam). This investment cost should be kept as low as possible, for example by re-using existing rail infrastructure. In addition, passenger service disruptions must be handled carefully and passengers must be educated and reminded of the advantages (the abatement of emissions and congestion), in order to establish passenger tolerance to eventual disruptions. Political support is also critical, be this in the form of incentives, new legislation or commitment to the system/project. 8.6.3. Standards Semi-finished or finished products are the most compatible with urban freight, and within this category, low volume, highvalue items should be considered. Urban rail freight systems can work on both tram and metro networks. One possible solution could be to use a tram/metro vehicle specifically adapted for freight transport (ie. With all the seats removed), which could deliver goods all along the network. The system could operate during off-peak hours after the last passenger service of the day, in order to minimise operational costs. This approach would be less effective at reducing congestion (as it is during off-peak times), but could vastly improve utilisation of the tram/metro networks. It is thought that this model could be easily implemented in most cases, by creating and utilising urban consolidation centres in the network.
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Research in Transportation Economics journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/retrec
Rail research projects: Case studies Adam Motraghi* NewRail, School of Mechanical and Systems Engineering, Newcastle University, Stephenson Building, Claremont Road, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, UK
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Available online 30 November 2012
This paper presents eight research projects developed during an intensive rail programme. The projects are as follows: Comparative Assessment of the Impacts of Rail Deregulation on Rail Transport Performance; Overcoming the intermodal transport barriers; Standing seats for high-capacity trains; Logistics principals for efficient rail systems; Access charge systems in European countries; Efficient energy use for sustainable rail transport; Analysis of Rail Yard and Terminal Performances; and Urban freight movement by rail. For each project a short description is provided covering the project key components, including the aims, objectives, methodology, results and the conclusions. Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Railway research Projects Case studies
1. Comparative assessment of the impacts of rail deregulation on rail transport performance 1.1. Aims The primary aim of this project is to compare the effects of different rail deregulation programmes across Europe. By looking at variables, indicators and case studies, additional aims are the analysis of relative performance, the identification of high and low performances and the understanding of the potential impacts on other EU countries. 1.2. Objectives The objectives to be achieved in the project are as follows: Comprehend the laws and regulations of the three EU Rail deregulation reforms. Analyse the current situation. Identify possible gaps between the reforms and their implementation. Identify the effects of the reforms on system performance in the different EU members. Suggest improvements on the application of the railway deregulation reforms. 1.3. Methodology A literature review is carried out, covering the laws and regulations of the three deregulation reforms, the implementation of
* Tel.: þ44 (0) 191 222 8648. E-mail address: [email protected]. 0739-8859/$ e see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.retrec.2012.10.001
the packages (indexes), the impacts of deregulation and freight and passenger train indicators for EU members. Information obtained from official sources such as the European Commission, OECD and Eurostat formed the foundations of the research and has been illustrated in the results graphically. The results are extracted, analysed and discussed. Ultimately, analysis of the results helps towards the conclusions and recommendations about how to improve the European railway system.
1.4. Results In terms of Licensing, there was an observed doubling of railway license numbers during the period of 2003e2006. Although, in some countries the railway license numbers remained constant. Between 2000 and 2007, the market share of freight transport by rail grew in most member states and especially in countries where non-incumbent rail undertakings acquired significant market shares. In 2007 EU-27 countries observed a 2.8% rise of freight transport by rail, whilst in EU-12 countries and EU-15 countries there was a noted rise of 1.1% and 3.7% respectively. Notably, 2008 brought a lot of volatility across the EU in terms of freight transport by rail, where some countries experienced a 9.7% increase (Denmark) and some countries experienced a 29.2% decrease (Estonia). In regard to passenger transport between 2000 and 2007, the majority of member states experienced increased passenger transport by rail. Most notable increases were seen in Ireland (44.6%) and Latvia (36.1%), however some significant drops were also observed particularly in Romania, Lithuania and Bulgaria of 35.7%, 32.3% and 30.8% respectively. In addition, the highest increase in traffic is the high-speed sector where an observed increase from 59 million people in 2000 to 92 million people in
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2007. 2008 brought further increases in rail passenger traffic for the majority of EU members, and although the global economic crisis occurred in 2008, decreases in passenger traffic only became apparent in 2009 and 2010. These decreases varied from member state to member state, depending on a number of factors such as economy, logistics systems, etc. As an important indicator to measure the quality of service, punctuality was examined (for combined transport trains) and despite improvements in delays over scheduled arrival times from 1999 to 2007, space for improvement is still there. 1.5. Conclusions All EU-Members began the legal process of transposing EU Directives into national law and obtained legal separation between Infrastructure Managers and Operators. However, due to differences in interpretation, the proper separation of the two entities has not yet been achieved which produces inequality in the market and in infrastructure access conditions. From the punctuality indicators, it is concluded that there has been no visible improvements in recent years. There has been a notable increase in rail passenger service quality, which is evident in Germany, France and the UK. Slight increases have been observed in the remaining EU countries. Changes in the rail freight sector have been less visible, with the ton-kilometre indicator remaining stable in recent years. The freight sector leader is Germany, which is still growing.
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2.2. Objectives Identify the barriers in intermodal transport Research those existing barriers Generate possible solutions for those barriers in intermodal transport 2.3. Methodology A literature review focused around current government policy is carried out in order to identify the existing barriers to intermodal transport and to suggest some improvements. 2.4. Barriers 1. Segmentation, fragmentation and a general lack of cooperation among the intermodal transport operators. 2. Non-integration of Intelligent Transport Systems and absence of multimodal travel information services. 3. Competition between transport modes e inability of some modes to compete with other modes. 4. Conditions for the operational and technical integration of the different national railway systems in the European Union and accession countries (interoperability and safety requirements). 5. Infrastructural barriers. 6. Barriers regarding logistics concepts and practice services. 7. Barriers regarding financial and economic issues.
1.6. Suggestions In anticipation of possible lay-offs and job shifts from the stateowned rail companies to the private sector rail companies, training programs may be necessary to help railway workers acquire new skills in order to obtain jobs in more technically advanced railway companies. Knowledge retention and dissemination schemes could be undertaken in order to reduce the risk of losing knowledge as rail workers across Europe retire. This knowledge is critical to training new rail employees. Administrative and financial support could be made available to future rail companies who wish to enter rail freight and passenger markets. This support could be useful to emergent companies in recruitment processes to integrate redundant workers from state-owned companies, who possess technical and practical know-how. The ERA could prioritise the spreading of railway-related information and training on a wider range. The performance indicators could then be published regularly by an official source, like the ERA, so that the impacts of policy can be monitored and recorded more effectively. 2. Overcoming the intermodal transport barriers 2.1. Motivation As the European Union expands, there are growing needs for more efficient integration and harmonised transport systems. This includes intermodal transport systems that help to service the flows of passengers and freight in between borders. Intermodal transport goes some way to ensuring fair play and competition between the different transport modes, and plays to their respective strengths. If used to its maximum potential and without restrictions, it can offer a lot of advantages such as speed, safety, efficiency and flexibility. The barriers to intermodal transport will be traced and researched, before solutions are presented.
2.5. Suggestions and solutions In order to tackle the problem of segmentation and fragmentation of transport operators, further and improved collaboration between the authorities and transport operators is desired. Establishing a new authority to supervise this collaboration and to create unity between transport modes would go some way to doing this. The non-integration of ITS, which makes traffic management more difficult, must be solved. ITS systems can easily be interconnected and this could expedite the communication between the different transport modes. Considering that the quality of ITS is strongly correlated to the quality of transport, this barrier is an important one to overcome. Promoting rail transport and eliminating borders and regulation in rail could help with the problem of the lack of competition between other transport modes and road transport, which ultimately can slow intermodal system development. A united and well-connected Europe, with simple cross border transactions can facilitate a competitive market across the continent. To make this a reality, each member of the EU should focus on solving their own respective interoperability issues related to signalling and dispatching systems and national regulations of different infrastructure systems. Infrastructural issues, logistics concepts and practice services, financial and economical issues might be fixed through further integration of current system equipment, telematics systems for remote access control and developing standardised infrastructure for intermodal systems. Creating a common language that all transport managers can understand may ease integration and boost intermodal transport. Creating an environment in which a fair and competitive transport market can grow is very important. Otherwise there is no incentive for dominant transport modes to collaborate with other means of transport, as they can manage freight or passengers on their own.
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It is worth noting that at the moment projects like TEN-T and Marco Polo attempt to overcome these barriers, and are being developed and implemented across Europe. 2.6. Conclusions Because of the fast changing nature of the world today, today’s transport systems have fell behind the curve. Today’s marketplace demands fast, reliable travel and deliveries on a global scale. For relatively short distances, road transportation is still the leader but over longer distances, other modes of transport, like rail, become stronger choices. In order to have an optimal transport system, the advantages of each transport mode should be exploited and thus, inter-modal transport is the best solution. In the future, door-to-door transport will most likely be best achieved through intermodal transport (ie. using at least two transport modes). Governments and authorities should contemplate a future where transportation is predominantly intermodal and therefore must create the conditions to allow it to grow. Whether it’s through writing litigation, creating infrastructure, building networks, or educating people on the benefits of intermodal systems. 3. Standing seats for high-capacity trains 3.1. Motivation Rail’s position as the transport mode with the greatest capacity makes it particularly useful in cities where it can reduce congestion problems. In London, Rail’s market share is larger than any other area in the UK and the quality and capacity of London’s rail system affects more people than anywhere else in the UK. Historically when people have looked at increasing capacity, they have looked to invest in infrastructure or rolling stock. However these large capital investments are sometimes not financially viable. One solution to increasing capacity in rolling stock could be achieved through increasing passenger density inside the vehicle. Modern commuter trains typically have a seating density of 2.5e3 passengers per square metre and the normal acceptable density for standing passengers is around 4e5 passengers per square metre. In Asian countries, this can reach as high as 8 passengers per square metre. As standing passenger density is almost double that of seating passenger density, one measure towards increasing capacity could be to remove seating capacity and only allow standing passengers. However these measures may have some implementation blockers, particularly passenger acceptability as this measure will reduce comfort for passengers.
This anthropometric data feeds into the dimensions for seat width (500 mm), spacing between seats (530 mm), seat height (adjustable between 650 mm and 850 mm from ground to seating pad), seat inclination and armrests. The proposed seat is manufactured in a similar fashion to current train seats. The head rest is made of fire resistant foam and reinforced with a plastic (injection moulded) casing. The backing of the seat is made in a similar way to current seat technologies, but with an internal support, for example springs. The standing seat is held up by the support, which is a hollow steel pipe at the back of the seat. This is extruded and cut to the correct length, and is painted to avoid corrosion. The design means that a passenger density of almost 4 passengers per square metre can be achieved, reaching a compromise between the normal seating density (2.5e3 passengers per square metre) and the acceptable standing density in Europe (5 passengers per square metre). A new carriage layout is also formulated that can be married with the standing seat design in order to maximise its effects. 3.4. Human factors design The standing seat design brings with it a perceived utility loss by the user. This perceived loss is mitigated by other vehicle improvements in order to garner support and acceptability for the standing seat solution. Using ITS (Intelligent Transport Systems) to complement other systems in the vehicle is a potential improvement. In particular, the input of information from ITS into the air conditioning and ventilation systems as well as the suspension systems, could ensure passenger comfort and safety. 3.5. Conclusions The design tackles one of the most important areas of rail designs; increasing capacity per vehicle and efficiency per passenger. An increase of sitting capacity from 70 to 108 is achieved. The loss of comfort is offset by reducing ticket cost, by only using this design on relatively short journeys (30 mine1 h) or by providing good levels of thermal and spatial comfort through the use of proper design. The concept can ultimately boost the demand for rail travel, as it provides a cheaper way to travel. Safety benefits are achieved relative to standing without a seat. In the event of an accident, the passenger would only move less than half a metre before they would impact on a surface (the next seat in front of them).
3.2. Methodology
4. Logistics principals for efficient rail systems
A “standing seat” design is formulated and studied, with assessments on the vehicle impacts made concerning comfort, capacity and safety. Finally an appraisal on the benefits of the solution is carried out including blockers to its implementation.
4.1. Motivation
3.3. Design Key considerations in the design of the standing seat are human factors and ergonomics, in the hope that the interaction between user and the seat is optimised in terms of safety, performance and satisfaction. Anthropometric data feeds into the design process to ensure that the standing seat is a good fit for the majority of potential users.
Transportation has been an important part of daily life since ancient times. To put it into context, approximately 10% of global GDP is related to mobility and logistic activities. However not all modes of transport contribute equally, with rail being neglected over recent history due to a number of reasons; most of them related to the attractiveness of road transport (with which rail cannot directly compete) and to the resistance of embracing intermodal transport. Although it has been neglected, rail has the potential to be at the forefront of the marketplace once again because of its attractive characteristics (such as high capacity, relatively higher safety, reduced externalities, etc.). In order for this to become
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a reality, systems should be developed to become more efficient to fall in line with customer expectations and demands. Additionally, policies and regulation must be put in place to stimulate stakeholders to take action. Hence this project focuses on the logistic principles that underpin and contribute to the development of rail transport. 4.2. Objectives This project focuses on system efficiency and the best practices that have been successfully implemented in Europe. Efficient rail systems are not easily achievable as it involves several players and actions, therefore the paper will start with a disaggregate vision of the initial problem and then proceed to a global view of the issues addressed. Although there is no expectation on finding a unique and optimised solution to the initial problem, the intention is to clarify the friction points where innovation can certainly contribute to improve the systems’ performance. A reflection on the outcomes of a number of recent projects is carried out, with the objective to bring to light their respective positive aspects and to analyse the characteristics which do not prove to be efficient. 4.3. Methodology A literature review will be carried out, in order to highlight barriers to efficiency in rail systems and to propose improvements on the attractiveness and efficiency of railways.
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4.5. Conclusions In order to improve European railways, a few fundamental points must be addressed: The need for implementation of inter-modality and the suppression of friction points. Providing more effective incentives and lowering the barrier to entry for new rail market entrants. The relatively “fragmented” view of the rail network in the EU and the need for it to be a wider ranging and overall view. Actively endorsing the prerequisites for sustainable development No matter how the barriers to progress are categorised, it is important to remember that they are interdependent. It is thought that it is a better approach to focus on improving barriers equally, rather than a focused effort on just one aspect of the efficiency problem. As a result, developing a top-down policy framework based solution that can offer flexibility is preferred. In addition, the standardisation of the entire network in terms of documents and track units is very desirable. One decisive step towards this goal would be the unification of the various transport policies that exist throughout the European Union. Given the current economic realities in Europe, whilst the technical issues are concerning and need improvement, there is likely more value to be had in focussing more on the intangible problems of the railway efficiency issue. A significant investment, to tackle the technical issues, may not be forthcoming. Finally, a balanced development of transport modes should be promoted in line with the promotion of inter-modality.
4.4. State of the art 5. Access charge systems in European countries Within the UK alone, 10 billion pounds are lost each year to congestion and related inefficiencies. These losses are a knock on effect from the dominance of road transport, and the lack of a combined multi-modal approach towards which rail can positively contribute. The main reasons that formed this resultant situation are the lack of regulation on road transport and subsidies (for the year 2004/05 the road transport industry received £73 billion more than the rail industry in the EU-15 countries). 4.4.1. Project case studies The main objective of logistics and market research is to define the market opportunities for the transportation of goods to be served by new and innovative rail concepts. According to the SPECTRUM project, logistics and market research is the crucial first step that determines which part of the market can be served by innovative rail freight offerings. Whilst the rail logistics market is divided, there are some companies and organisations who have grouped together. As part of the EU’s 6th and 7th framework programme, a number of companies aim to produce a roadmap and action plans to nurture an integrated e-logistics platform across the EU. Some of the notable stakeholders are mentioned below: RETRACK is a consortium of 13 partners that is focused on applying an innovative rail freight service concept to the movement of rail freight across Europe, and aims to secure a significant modal shift of cargo from road to rail with a market share of 15% by 2020. The e-freight integrated project brings together 30 partners across Europe, to address the development, validation and demonstration of innovative e-freight capabilities. “E-freight” is the vision of paperless freight transport processes where electronic flows of information are linked to the physical flow of goods. Efreight will feed into the concept of “intelligent cargo” where goods are location aware and can communicate with each other.
5.1. Motivation An important change that has happened in railways since the 1990s is the vertical separation of the railway sector. Division of infrastructural and operational responsibilities occurred with two new roles created; the infrastructure manager (IM) and railway undertakings (RU). This split was responsible for the creation of access charge systems, which is the core of this project. Depending on the country there is a different method of calculation for these charges, which can create conflicts and problems for international transport. These problems work against the end goal of a unified European transport network. 5.2. Objectives Bring to light the current situation in access charge systems in Europe; Compare and contrast the various access charge models. 5.3. Methodology In order to achieve those objectives, there is a distinct methodology to be followed. First and foremost a historical picture of EU railways is built, before analysis of pricing theories and discussion over the effect of liberalisation. Finally, a case study concerning liberalisation in the Turkish railway system is built and comparisons are drawn between the different access charges in a TEN-T corridor. 5.4. Pricing theories In the directive 2001/14/EC, the problem of harmonisation of access charges was pointed out by the European Commission. The
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directive specifically states that “the charges for the minimum access package and track access to service facilities shall be set at the cost that is directly incurred as a result of operating the train service”. Therefore there are three fundamental approaches that can be used to calculate access charges: 1. The cost allocation approach (which disaggregates costs into two distinct types; fixed and variable costs) 2. The econometric approach (which uses statistical methods to find cost functions) 3. The engineering approach (which derives functional relationships based on measurements or models of maintenance required) The cost allocation approach has shown to be disadvantageous in some instances because of its standardising of costs into groups, which does not accurately model the different cost categories in each country. The econometric approach has some limitations also; most importantly its inability to account for the disaggregated levels of expenditure between the different countries. The engineering approach often leads to complex formulae and cost drivers must be determined for marginal cost differentiation. As the drivers vary, they tend to increase the complexity in the formulae used. Railway companies have not developed a standard guide amongst themselves to adapt a simple mechanism using this approach, as to do so is difficult to establish.
part of larger efforts to become accredited by the EU commission), whereby the TCDD became the IM and the private companies became the RU. 5.7. Conclusions The variety of access charge regimes in the EU countries has led to differing outcomes for each of them. These different access charging systems have been causing some difficulties in the current railway network, both for transport operators and infrastructure managers. There are two basic systems in access charges, the two part tariff and the single/simple part tariff. The two part tariff is considered by some as a hindrance to the development of the rail freight market, and this could be eliminated through a turn from the two part tariff to the simple part tariff. One way to implement this would be through collaboration between infrastructure managers and this could make planning and managing train operation much easier between competitors. Whilst simple part tariffs are suggested for rail freight services, two part tariffs are considered a better solution for suburban services. The current access charging system is facing a lot of difficulties across the EU and a unified pricing method would be highly recommended, although understandably this is not easy to implement. 6. Efficient energy use for sustainable rail transport
5.5. Liberalisation and access charges
6.1. Motivation
Liberalisation and access charges are closely related to government policy, specifically subsidies. Often the IM will have to use procured financial aid in the form of subsidies in order to cover the company costs. This problem arises because of the different methods used to calculate the access charges and generally they are not enough to cover the costs. The government subsidises the sector in order to keep it “alive”. The state has an important role to play in terms of financing and subsiding policies but because of the variance in the money received by the IMs and in the ways of public intervention, that changes from country to country, it makes the current system unstable. For example in Spain, 15% of the IM revenues are derived from state subsidies and this is caused by the high cost of infrastructure and the access charge system. Support from government is essential to keep this system running. Liberalisation has had some mixed results, well received by some countries but met with resistance in others. Whilst the idea of liberalisation can deliver success and high quality, at the moment it could be seen to be far from its ideal implementation.
Energy efficient technologies have a major part to play in the promotion of rail as a transport mode, through the curbing of energy consumption and by providing ecological benefits. Because of the aged infrastructure and ageing technologies in rail, there is the potential for significant improvement in rail. In addition, to fully take advantage of the financial benefits of rail, energy consumption costs could be lowered further and renewable energies could receive more focus.
5.6. Liberalisation in Turkish railways The Turkey General Directorate of State Railway Administration (TCDD) was founded in an attempt for Turkey to gain more control over its railways. Its functions are defined as follows: 1. Construction of new railway lines, expansion and renewal of the railways; 2. To set up warehouses, deports and passenger facilities; 3. To manufacture rolling stocks and similar vehicles; 4. To operate the trains. As an attempt to transform their system into a more liberal market, the Turkish government created a package of policies (as
6.2. Objectives The main objective is to successfully analyse the current situation and to seek opportunities to further improve energy use and efficiency in rail. Secondary to this objective, barriers to energy efficient technologies will be explored and solutions as to how to overcome them proposed. 6.3. Methodology For this paper several different methods have been used. Mainly methods of comparative analysis have been used in conjunction with case studies, archival research, article research and metaanalysis. 6.4. Logistics The Internet of Things (IoT) is a technology that could possibly solve several problems at the same time. In particular, it will be able to optimise the limited flexibility of the many different information systems across European countries. IoT is an intelligent technology that allows many different objects to interact with each other, through sensors, tags, Radio-Frequency identification etc. Based on the information that the objects receive from their neighbours, they can react to a changing environment in real-time (Atzori et al,
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2010). If IoT is combined with railway infrastructure (e.g. tracks, hubs, etc.) railway organisation and efficiency could be improved. 6.5. Green buildings Green buildings bring the advantages of less energy consumption, a more diversified energy portfolio and greater energy efficiency. As buildings use approximately one third of all energy consumed in the world, there can be a significant saving in designing eco-friendly buildings. One recent example is the Guangzhou South Railway Station in China, which has open ended tracks to allow natural ventilation, photovoltaic panels to power the station and a transparent roof, shaped like a banana to allow more natural sunlight into the building, which provides a natural heating effect. 6.6. Conventional energy sources vs renewable energy sources Rail historically has always had an edge over other modes of transport when it came to addressing sustainability issues. However in an environment where sustainability is becoming ever more important, railway operators are focussing on this critical issue even more in order to maintain their advantage. Railway companies such as DB and Amtrak have made their intentions known, that they are seriously committed to switching over to renewable energy sources or to complete electrification of their network. In particular, DB has announced that by 2050 they intend to completely shift to renewable energy sources for their railway network. In the face of increasing demand for rail transport in the last 5 years, and increasing political pressure with regards to energy consumption, it makes the issue of renewable energy sources even more important for rail. 6.7. Freight train aerodynamics Air resistance at high speeds is one of the primary causes for energy consumption by trains. For instance, when travelling at very high speeds the French TGV uses 80% of its energy to withstand aerodynamic forces and maintain a constant speed. Despite travelling at much lower speeds, the same energy consumption is reached by freight trains because of irregular shape of the wagons and inefficient train layout. Advancements in wagon design to make them more aerodynamic, and correct arrangement of existing wagons (by putting empty wagons at the back of the train for example) would combat energy losses due to air resistance. In the past this could have been a time intensive and costly exercise, however with today’s technology, algorithms such as the Aerodynamic Loading Assignment Model (ALAM) can be used to optimise the aerodynamic profile of an intermodal container train.
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For energy production, rail transport may wish to look to receive a larger percentage of its power from renewable power sources, following the lead of the likes of Blackfriars station in London, where 4400 solar panels generate 1 MW of energy to fulfil the station’s needs. Energy saving and recovery measures could be made to be more widespread. Technologies such as NEITECH, where rail vehicles are tilted on an incline whilst manoeuvring curves to help maintain line speed and regenerative braking, which allows trains to recover the energy lost during braking. Propulsion system and energy storage innovation, such as batteries and double layer capacitors should be researched further so they can help towards a future with zero emissions (at point of use) and minimise environmental impact. Also computer programming can produce algorithms for driving assistance that can be implemented to reduce energy consumption. Whilst many solutions exist to boost the sustainable development of rail, there must be market uptake for the greatest chance of success. If major operators and infrastructure managers have sufficient motivation to take these ideas and technologies forward, this will act as a stimulant to the entire industry, with other actors hopefully following their lead. Also it is important to keep in mind that ensuring an eco-friendly chain all the way down to energy production could secure a place for rail as one of the leading modes of transport for the future. 7. Analysis of rail yard and terminal performances 7.1. Motivation and aims Rail yards and terminals ensure the movement of passengers and freight, and thus are important pieces of the railway network. The majority of the transit time is spent in transhipment and shunting operations. It is important that these processes are continually improved and optimised, in order for progress to be achieved and to ensure that yards and terminals keep up with changes in other areas. Nowadays, the materials that are transported by rail have changed from heavy goods, to light-weight, palletised goods. This not only has an effect on the trains, but on the terminals also, which opens up a gateway for new terminal ideas. The aims of this project are twofold, namely: Describe different terminals of passengers and freight, as well as the varieties of rail freight yards and to outline their advantages and disadvantages. Explore the short, mid and long term improvements that should be made for future terminals. 7.2. Rail terminals and yards
6.8. Conclusions Improvements could be achieved across a wide area of technologies in order to further the sustainability and efficiency of rail transport. Logistically speaking, “green corridors” could be created for trains to travel longer distances at higher speeds and new rolling stock with microchips that enable them to communicate (such as the Radio-Frequency Identification system) with each other and other objects would allow for better monitoring and information flows. In terms of Civil engineering, “green buildings” that consume less energy and are more energy efficient could replace existing older rail stations and terminals.
Passenger stations’ main goals are to facilitate passenger transport. There are three main basic topologies of this type of station; running station, junction station and crossing station. Intermodal terminals allow the meeting of two or more modes of transport for the purpose of exchanging cargo. The physical characteristics of intermodal terminals can vary greatly, therefore to better identify intermodal terminals there are 5 key features that are used; the pairs of modes that are connected, the type of cargo handled, the type of intermodal transfers for which the terminal is designed, (direct, short-term or long-term storage), whether the terminal is public or private, and whether the terminal is restricted or not relative to either carriers or shippers.
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The capacity of road-rail terminals is determined by a few key factors; the size and shape of the land, the length of the handling tracks, the positioning of the terminal with respect to the road and rail networks and the handling equipment capabilities. Sea-rail terminals come in many varieties, but the most common one variety is the container terminal (LoeLo). Lift oneLift off (LoeLo) vessels are able to transport a wide range of different products because of their flexible cargo space, container capacity and on board cranes. Rail freight yards (aka shunting yards) are a cornerstone of the railway freight operations industry. They allow the uncoupling and reassembly of trains according to their destination. 10e50% of the total transit time of trains is typically spent in the shunting process, and hence the performance of these yards can have an impact on the quality of railway freight network operations. It is important to note that the load itself is not moved from one train to another in rail freight yards. Yard capacity is determined by the number of parallel tracks, however as space and rail infrastructure is expensive, it is more economical to improve the management of yards rather than to increase track length. Rail freight yards are typically split into three types; flat-shunted yards, hump yards and gravity yards. The largest and most effective type of yard being the hump yard, where wagons of a complete train run down an incline (the hump) in order to be reassembled for departure.
idea was combined with the former idea of dual-purpose terminals, investment costs for infrastructure could be lowered. Although it is important to note that there would have to be design considerations made for passengers with regards to the additional emissions, noise and vibrations brought about by having freight operations in the vicinity. Finally with the decreasing cost and size of electronics, employing a higher level of automation within terminals could be very advantageous. There would be benefits in terms of efficiency, and the required personnel to monitor the terminal would decrease. 8. Urban freight movement by rail 8.1. Motivation As significant problems in urban areas in Europe, congestion and pollution could be solved by urban rail projects. The motivating factors behind new urban rail projects are the ability to create an efficient distribution of goods by increasing productivity, the economic and environmental benefits, and the reduction of traffic congestion and associated noise pollution. However these goals tend to require large investments, in infrastructure and maintenance, in order to be achieved. 8.2. Objective
7.3. Conclusions In the short term, better human resource management could improve the performance of yards and terminals. By providing a continual feedback and learning process, workers can keep up to date with the continuously changing working environment and technologies. Also to decrease the dwell time of trains in stations in the short term, improvements could be made to the circulation of passengers through the better planning and placement of platforms, escalators, and lifts. Finally, the installation of automatic code readers could allow wagons to be identified more quickly and without the need for human supervision. This could also reduce the operational cost. For the medium term, improvements in control centres for passenger’s stations would be very beneficial. By bettering the signalling systems and the information feedback to the control centre, this might be able to decrease the gap between trains and improve train circulation on the network. The application of ERTMS level 3 would be an important benchmark for the medium-term. Second, for rail freight terminals, operational flexibility can be maximised and the implementation of new, innovative transhipment operations (such as Cargo Beamer, Cargo Mover, Modalohr and Mobiler) to allow the direct loading and unloading from trucks to train and vice versa, would be highly beneficial. Third, the adoption of IT systems that increase the data quality and exchange between the different stakeholders would be very useful, the most relevant technology being the EDI (Electronic Data Interchange) which can coordinate information flows between the different participants. Concerning the long term, there are three main ideas; a combined passenger & freight terminal, the construction of new multi-level terminals/stations and the implementation of higher orders of automation. Combined passenger & freight terminals may be difficult to apply currently, however if the current trend of transported goods continues, whereby they become less heavy and palletised, then it may be easier to accommodate as cranes and heavy equipment may no longer be necessary or as widespread. Thereby, making these terminals more passenger friendly from an accessibility, health and safety perspective is envisaged. Following the lead of stations such as Berlin Hauptbahnhof, multi-level terminals could serve rail traffic on several levels which would reduce land-use and the costs associated with it. Also if this
The main objective of this paper is to determine whether the concept of urban freight movement by rail is feasible or not, by examining real cases where this solution has been implemented and if it is, what are the most critical issues and which standards should be kept. 8.3. Methodology General principles of freight movement are introduced and six case studies where urban freight movement by rail has been implemented are presented and explored. A comparison is made between the cases, using some of their technical characteristics and highlighting advantages and disadvantages of each case. Following on from this analysis, conclusions and suggestions were then developed. 8.4. Theoretical background The main problems in freight transport across cities are congestion, environmental pollution and noise. The freight transportation market demands that freight is delivered on time, however not every product category is as time-sensitive as each other, nor is every freight category delivered in an urban environment. There is significant number of deliveries fewer than 50 km, which could fall under the umbrella of “urban freight transport”. This suggests that there is room for vehicles adapted for delivering urban freight, which at the same time reduce space, cost and energy usage. One possible solution is delivering urban freight by rail and conveniently, big European cities have existing large rail networks be they Metro systems, Tram systems or Light rail systems. 8.5. Case studies discussed in the project Six case studies were presented in order to show the current state of the art in urban freight by rail in Europe. CarGo Tram in Dresden, Germany was established in collaboration with DVB, Dresden’s traffic enterprise. The CarGo Tram connects the Volkswagen “Transparent Factory” (in the heart of
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the historical city centre) with its logistics centre, located in Dresden-Friedrichstadt. Cargo Tram Zurich was used to provide a good but inexpensive refuse collection service. The extensive tram network in Zurich serves the majority of the neighbourhoods, which allowed it to not only reduce congestion and pollution, but also to provide a valuable service to residents. CityCargo Amsterdam was launched in 2007 with the aim to reduce the number of trucks in the inner city by 50% and replacing them with trams, thus reducing pollution by up to 20%. In addition, CityCargo complemented the trams by utilising a fleet of electric delivery vans (e-cars) to navigate the last few metres of the journey, thus ensuring “door-to-door” delivery. Monoprix implemented a system that combined rail and ecological vehicles to deliver non-perishable products for 90 supermarkets since November 2007. This system replaced ten thousand trucks per year, saving seventy thousand litres of fuel. TruckTrain is a prototype which aims to maintain rail’s strengths of speed and energy efficiency, but at the same time makes it more competitive by marrying those traditional rail strengths with the competitive capabilities of the road freight sector such as readiness and economy. Newcastle Metro was explored as a potential urban freight transport system through the creation of an event based simulation model. Through the use of urban consolidation centres at key locations, it was concluded that the existing system could facilitate an urban freight system as well as increase utilisation of the entire system.
8.6. Conclusions 8.6.1. Feasibility Based on the analysis and the existing four case studies where it has been implemented, urban freight by rail is deemed to be
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feasible since it brings some advantages with the main ones being reduction of emissions and congestion. The ability for urban freight by rail to remove trucks from the road should be taken into account and promoted especially in light of the continuous challenges large European cities face with congestion. 8.6.2. Challenges However, urban freight movement by rail faces a number of challenges that must be addressed. The initial investment cost is high, and can be a barrier to entry even for a great idea (as evidenced by CityCargo Amsterdam). This investment cost should be kept as low as possible, for example by re-using existing rail infrastructure. In addition, passenger service disruptions must be handled carefully and passengers must be educated and reminded of the advantages (the abatement of emissions and congestion), in order to establish passenger tolerance to eventual disruptions. Political support is also critical, be this in the form of incentives, new legislation or commitment to the system/project. 8.6.3. Standards Semi-finished or finished products are the most compatible with urban freight, and within this category, low volume, highvalue items should be considered. Urban rail freight systems can work on both tram and metro networks. One possible solution could be to use a tram/metro vehicle specifically adapted for freight transport (ie. With all the seats removed), which could deliver goods all along the network. The system could operate during off-peak hours after the last passenger service of the day, in order to minimise operational costs. This approach would be less effective at reducing congestion (as it is during off-peak times), but could vastly improve utilisation of the tram/metro networks. It is thought that this model could be easily implemented in most cases, by creating and utilising urban consolidation centres in the network.