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Reconstructing Late Bronze Age diet in mainland Greece using stable isotope analysis
Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2010) 614–620
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Reconstructing Late Bronze Age diet in mainland Greece using stable isotope analysis Eirini I. Petroutsa a, b, Sotiris K. Manolis a, * a b
Department of Animal & Human Physiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis, 157 01 Athens, Greece Department of Archaeological Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford BD7 1DP, UK
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 10 March 2009 Received in revised form 14 October 2009 Accepted 16 October 2009
The Late Bronze Age is a period of great importance in prehistoric Greece, due to the rise of the Mycenaean and Minoan civilizations. Settlements, palatial complexes and cemeteries have been excavated whilst a plethora of findings among which wall paintings and artifacts provided a large amount of information regarding the period. In this paper we examine the sources of dietary protein of four populations, from mainland Greece, in light of documentary and archaeological evidence in an effort to identify dietary trends within and between groups that reflect everyday behavior. These are being studied with the aid of biomolecular archaeology using stable isotope analysis in human and faunal remains. Isotopic data to date suggests a rather homogeneous diet mainly based on C3 plant and animal protein. There are no individuals with d13C and d15N values that could represent important marine protein intake, despite proximity to the Aegean Sea. Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Stable isotope Carbon Nitrogen Bone collagen Diet Late Bronze Age Greece
1. Introduction The importance of studying dietary habits in past populations is well established for all prehistoric and historic periods, not only on the basis of survival, but also because it can shed light on issues of characteristic trends. Diet during the Late Bronze Age period has been studied both from archaeologists and anthropologists through different view points, resulting to complementary evidence (Vermeule, 1983; Halstead, 1995; Halstead and Isaakidou, 2004; Isaakidou et al., 2002; Valamoti, 2004). Stable isotope analysis strengthens such studies by enabling direct estimation of the animal and plant protein input. Additionally, it can provide information on the dietary habits of both individuals and the community as a whole. In this study, we performed stable isotope analysis (C, N) on Late Bronze Age bone samples (femur midshaft) that were recovered from four archaeological sites of Central and Southern Greece. The aim was to investigate the subsistence strategies and the possible differences among the four Late Bronze Age sites of mainland Greece, with a more direct and accurate methodology than are otherwise available.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ30 210 7274 640; fax: þ30 210 7274 635. E-mail address: [email protected] (S.K. Manolis). 0305-4403/$ – see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2009.10.026
Additionally, the results of the current study are compared with previous stable isotope research on Late Bronze Age populations – Voudeni (Petroutsa et al., 2004, 2009), Rhymnio, Spathes and Korinos (Triantaphyllou, 2001) – and thoroughly discussed in order to explore possible isotopic variations or similarities in populations of this prehistoric era.
2. Late Bronze Age Diet: what is known and unknown The Late Bronze Age in the Aegean Basin (1600–1100 BC) witnessed the rise of two interdependent civilizations, the Minoan on Crete and the Mycenaean in Central and Southern Greece. The foundation of Knossos (Crete) was a unique expansion of human society into the Aegean and in many respects it remains strongly individualized. The discovery of obsidian in Crete, at Thessalian sites and the Cyclades, suggests their participation in a network of sea-born contacts through which this was disseminated (Dickinson, 1977). On the other hand, Mycenae was also very important and forceful, because of its ability to dominate in a great size of land and a high number of workers in order to produce and possess a significant amount of agricultural and animal food products (Chadwick, 1976; Vermeule, 1983; Ruiperez and Melena, 1996). An example of a well studied Late Bronze Age site in Peloponnesus is the Nestor palace at Pylos (Messenia), where food was also
E.I. Petroutsa, S.K. Manolis / Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2010) 614–620
documented as a mean to express worship to gods (Isaakidou et al., 2002). In sum, the Aegean trade system was extensive and administrated by the palaces during the Late Bronze Age. It brought into contact a variety of cultures with both well-developed economies and an appetite for prestige and utilitarian goods (Kardulias, 1996). Sources used to evidence for the diet during the Late Bronze Age in Greece emanate from archaeozoological and archaeobotanical studies, while relevant reports evidence from the Linear B plates are also very important (Chadwick, 1976). Various species of grains were cultivated, among which at least six cereal species. What has been widely recognized is: emmer (Triticum dicoccum), wheat (Triticum monococcum, Triticum spelta), peas (Lathyrus sativus, L. ariculatus), tare (Vicia sativa), chick-peas (Vicia ervila, Icer arietinum), millet (Panicum miliaceum), lentil (Lens eulinaris), and barley (Hordeum vulgare) (Halstead, 1995). The majority of the above species have been found in various excavation sites dated to the Bronze Age, in Southern mainland Greece (Mycenae), in Crete (Knossos), and in Central mainland Greece (Thebes), apart from wheat (Triticum spelta) and millet (Panicum miliaceum), that have been found also in the Late Bronze Age sites of Assiros and Kastanas in Northern Greece (Halstead, 1995; Jones, 1987, 2002). In Dikili and Mandalo there is clear evidence of fruit storage, such as apples, figs, and grapes, but also nuts that were gathered. There are also indications of wheat and to a lesser extent, of barley, at the sites of Makry, Makrygiallos, and Mandalo (Valamoti, 2004). Furthermore, one of the most detailed Mycenaean wall fresco was found in the area of the joint Helleno–British excavation site in Mycenae and it provides information concerning dietary habits, as in one portion of the fresco a female form is depicted holding a bundle of corn (Wardle, 1999). The cultivation of wheat, barley, olive and grape, the consumption of peas, lentils, figs, walnuts and chick-peas, as well as the stock-farming of pig, sheep, goat and cattle, are also recorded by Vermeule (1983) and Treuil et al. (1996), whereas Halstead and Isaakidou (2004) report the recognition of animal species, as the cow, deer, pig, sheep and goat that were consumed in rituals at Nestor’s palace in Pylos (Peloponnesus). The study of the linear B tablets shed light on habits of consumption of plant and animal products. Thus, the practice of animal husbandry of livestock such as sheep, pigs, and cows is evident in Knossos and Pylos, along with the associated production and consumption of dairy products (Chadwick, 1976). The discovery of faunal remains in the palace of Nestor (Pylos) confirms the existing archaeological evidence based on text evidence which indicate the significance of symposia in Mycenaean society. The study of the composition of burnt remains suggests consumption of venison, beef, pork, and wild sheep (Isaakidou et al., 2002). Cooking vessels that were excavated in the Early Bronze Age site of Kadmeia near Thebes were analyzed using gas chromatography coupled with mass spectroscopy and plant and animal lipids appear to have been present (Roumpou et al., 2007). The study of the changes in ceramic forms from the Cretan Early Minoan (Protominoan) II period, with an emphasis on the artifacts associated with Knossos, indicates that the changes in material culture are associated with an increase in consumption practices, implying social competition (Day and Wilson, 2004). The study of linear B from Bronze Age tablets does provide dietary information, despite the texts’ emphasis on palatial society, and a lack of information on specific social groups. The tablets from Knossos, Mycenae, and Pylos indicate consumption of wheat, barley, olives, and figs (Killen, 2004). What still remains unknown is the proportion of plant and animal protein consumption reflecting the synthesis of their diet. Although significant differences are not likely to occur, be worth it
615
Fig. 1. Map of Greece with the four Late Bronze Age sites.
to explore this ratio. Since two (of the four) sites are located in Central Greece and the other two in Peloponnesus may reveal modifications at least in the consumption of different plant species. This due to the geographic terrain of the Greek peninsula which creates micro-ecosystems with variable floral composition, and consequently differences in consumed plant species between Northern, Central and Southern Greece. For example, Triantaphyllou (2001) reported the consumption of C4 plants in Northern Greece while in Southern Greece it seems that C4 plants are consumed in the Early Bronze Age Perachora near Ancient Corinth (Petroutsa et al., 2007). With respect to the consumption of animal protein, is not known the analogy of terrestrial and marine foods in the diet of this period. The question arising is what was the amount of marine foods (fish and seafood) in the diet of the LBA people in everyday life? To date the relevant researches have performed have failed to provide an answer. The only evidence comes from the MBA Mycenae (Hedges and Richards, 1999a, b), where it seems that the aristocracy of this era was consumed seafood. The Greek peninsula is surrounded by sea and we now know from the archaeological findings (fishing-tackles and bony fish remains) (i.e. Cave of Cyclops in Youra Island, and Franchthi Cave in Argolis) that the ancient inhabitants were aware of the fishing technology (MoundreaAgrafioti, 2003; Farrand, 2003). However, there are costal sites such as Perachora (Petroutsa et al., 2007) and Lerna (Triantaphyllou et al., 2009), in which the analyses of stable isotopes (C, N) surprisingly did not reveal any consumption of seafood.
3. Material 3.1. The archaeological sites We analyzed stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes in human collagen from four Late Bronze Age sites presented in Fig. 1. Whenever possible, animal bone material was also analysed for comparative purposes. 3.1.1. Aghia Triada (Elis, Peloponnesus) Aghia Triada is dated to the Late Helladic period (1450 and 1150 BC). The site is located north of Ancient Olympia and is about
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40 km from the sea, on the borders of Elis prefecture with Achaia. The excavation took place from 1980 to 1983 by the archaeologists O. Vikatou and X. Arapogianni and they revealed only Thollos tombs with commingled burials. There were no special burial customs or artifacts that can detect any social or gender differences. From the skeletal study we estimated that the minimum number of individuals was 258, with 228 adults and 30 juveniles. Sex identification was conducted only for 176 individual of whish 101 were male and 75 female. Except from some degenerative diseases, like arthritis, there was no other evidence indicative of malnutrition (Petroutsa et al., 2002). 3.1.2. Almyri (Corinth, Peloponnesus) The skeletal study was conducted in the Department of Animal & Human Physiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Athens. No additional archaeological evidence was provided by the archaeologists except that some of the tombs had tholos architecture and that the site is dated to Late Bronze Age. The minimum number of individuals is 23, while the estimation of sex and age-at-death was very difficult to be assessed because of the fragmentary nature of the human skeletal remains.
Table 2 Animal d13C and d15N values from Aghia Triada. Animal samples
Cattle Cat Dog A Dog B Turtle Sheep A Sheep B
d13C&
d15N&
C/N
%C
V PDB
V AIR
atom
Average/range
18.90 19.60 20.60 20.00 20.10 20.60 23.20
4.60 5.90 6.50 7.00 3.80 4.10 6.00
3.23 3.04 3.23 3.18 3.27 3.12 3.18
41.04 45.47 31.30 41.02 31.50 39.41 40.36
%N
14.82 17.43 11.29 15.05 11.22 14.75 14.80
4. Methods
3.1.4. Kalapodi (Fthiotida, Central Greece) This site is also located on a hill near Atalanti, Fthiotida prefecture and as mentioned above, very close to Zeli. Kalapodi is a site that revealed four rich burials with a lot of golden artifacts, pots, jewels and weapons. The three tombs (TI, TII & TIII) are tholos tombs, while TIV is saddle-shaped. They all belong to the Late Bronze Age, more specifically, TI dates to the Late Helladic IIB–IIIA1 and the rest to the Late Helladic IIIA1 (pers. com. S. Dimaki, excavator).
The samples were prepared for isotope analysis in the Isotope Laboratory, Department of Archaeological Science, at University of Bradford, following the method described in Richards and Hedges (1999b) with some modifications. Bone powder and pieces of approximately 0.2–0.3 g demineralized in 0.5 M aq. HCl at 4 C. Samples were rinsed with distilled water and then gelatinized in acidic solution (pH 3) at 75–83 C for 48 h. The liquid fraction containing the gelatinized protein was isolated by filtration by the use of a Millipore Amicon Ultra-4 centrifugal filter (30,000 NMWL), evaporated to dryness, rehydrated, frozen and lyophilized to produce the final ‘‘collagen’’ product. Portions of this ‘‘collagen’’, 0.5–1.1 mg, were used for each analysis. Samples were processed in an automated carbon and nitrogen analyzer (Carlo Erba carbon and nitrogen elemental analyzer) coupled with a continuous-flow isotope ratio-monitoring mass spectrometer (Europa Geo 20/20 mass spectrometer). Where possible, samples were run in duplicates. 13C values were measured relative to the PDB standard, and 15N values were measured relative to the AIR standard reference. The analytical error (1) for all samples amounted to 0.2& for both d13C and d15N. All the samples were very well preserved and the quality of the collagen was studied based on C:N ratios, following criteria outlined by DeNiro et al., (1985) and collagen samples with a C:N ratio outside of the range 2.9–3.6 were discarded.
3.2. Choice of samples
5. Results
The choice of samples for stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis took into account archaeological information. All skeletal material has also been studied by the first author (E.P.) morphologically, with the purpose of examining bone abnormalities that could complicate the isotopic results. Human femur samples from healthy adults were used for collagen extraction, the number of which, for each site, is presented in Table 1. The sample retained was either bone powder or a 2–5 g bone fragment from the femur midshaft depending on the hardness and the preservation of the bone. Additionally, seven samples of long bone from fauna of Aghia Triada (Table 2) were selected in order to define a baseline of food chain consumed initially by the two populations and by the Late Bronze Greek populations generally.
The stable isotope ratios (C/N) from the human and animal skeletal material are between 3.3 and 3.6. Therefore, following the criteria given above collagen was fairly well preserved (see Tables 2 and 3).
3.1.3. Zeli (Fthiotida, Central Greece) The site is located on a hill near Atalanti, Fthiotida prefecture with a distance of a kilometer from Kalapodi, another site which is part of the study. In Zeli 3 pit tombs were excavated, with many skeletal remains and few artifacts. All tombs are dated the Late Helladic IIIA2 until the early Late Helladic IIIG periods (pers. com. S. Dimaki, excavator).
Table 1 The number of human samples from the four Late Bronze Age sites. Site
Sample number
Aghia Triada, Elis, Peloponnesus Zeli, Fthiotida, Central Greece Kalapodi, Fthiotida, Central Greece Almyri, Corinth, Peloponnesus
70 20 14 34
5.1. Animal bone samples In Table 2, we present the results from the isotopic analysis of faunal material from Aghia Triada. The faunal results from Aghia Triada are also presented together with the faunal material from the Late Bronze Age Voudeni (Petroutsa et al., 2004, 2009) (see Fig. 2), in order to use them as the baseline isotopic data against which the human values can be compared. The herbivore (sheep) bone collagen d13C values range from 21.14& to 20.10& and d15N values range from 3.24& to 4.10&, as expected for animals in terrestrial C3 ecosystems. On the other hand, although the cattle’s d15N value of 4.60& agrees with other herbivore values, the d13C value is 18.90& indicating partial C4 plant protein consumption. The two dogs and the cat from Aghia Triada present d13C values that range from 20.00& to 19.60&, following the range of values of the herbivore terrestrial C3 consumers, while the 15N
E.I. Petroutsa, S.K. Manolis / Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2010) 614–620 Table 3 Human d13C and d15N values from Aghia Triada (SAE), Zeli (ZL), Kalapodi (KL) and Almyri (AL). Sample no.
SAE01 SAE02 SAE03 SAE04 SAE05 SAE06 SAE07 SAE08 SAE09 SAE10 SAE11 SAE12 SAE13 SAE14 SAE15 SAE16 SAE17 SAE19 SAE20 SAE21 SAE22 SAE23 SAE24 SAE26 SAE27 SAE28 SAE29 SAE31 SAE33 SAE34 SAE35 SAE36 SAE37 SAE38 SAE39 SAE40 SAE41 SAE43 SAE44 SAE45 SAE46 SAE47 SAE48 SAE49 SAE50 SAE51 SAE53 SAE54 SAE56 SAE57 SAE58 SAE59 SAE60 SAE61 SAE62 SAE63 SAE64 SAE65 SAE68 SAE69 SAE70 SAE72 SAE73 SAE74 SAE75 SAE76 SAE77 SAE78 SAE79 SAE80 ZL01 ZL02
13
15
d C&
d N&
C/N
%C
V PDB
V AIR
atom
Average/range
19.8 19.3 21.5 19.6 19.7 20.0 19.3 20.4 19.5 18.1 19.7 18.6 19.5 20.2 20.1 19.5 21.7 19.4 19.3 19.4 19.8 20.5 20.5 21.7 20.9 20.8 19.9 20.7 20.4 22.5 20.5 19.7 19.9 19.8 20.0 20.0 20.8 19.7 19.7 19.7 19.6 19.5 19.5 19.7 19.8 21.4 19.9 21.9 20.1 19.7 19.8 19.4 19.4 20.0 19.5 19.8 19.5 20.0 19.6 19.8 19.8 19.9 17.8 19.8 19.5 19.8 19.8 19.4 19.9 19.8 19.6 19.8
7.3 6.1 6.8 7.1 7.3 6.8 7.8 7.4 7.0 8.1 7.3 6.1 6.6 7.9 7.3 7.5 7.4 7.6 8.0 7.8 7.1 7.0 7.1 6.5 7.0 6.2 6.5 6.7 7.2 6.4 7.5 7.5 7.9 6.9 6.9 6.4 7.1 6.6 7.1 7.1 7.0 7.9 6.4 6.5 7.8 6.8 6.7 7.7 7.7 7.7 7.0 7.3 7.5 7.5 7.9 7.6 7.0 7.1 7.4 7.6 8.6 8.0 8.1 7.3 7.2 7.2 6.3 7.3 7.4 7.7 8.1 7.3
3.1 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.1 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.4 3.2 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.4 3.1 3.3 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.1 3.6 3.1 3.6 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.0 3.4 3.2 3.1 3.3 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.1 3.4 3.3 3.1 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3
45.7 45.6 46.0 46.6 45.7 45.8 45.6 45.5 46.1 45.0 44.5 36.5 46.1 43.5 45.1 31.8 46.3 46.5 42.3 43.1 38.8 43.9 31.3 42.4 48.1 36.0 22.2 45.5 44.5 45.1 44.2 44.2 42.9 40.0 41.4 26.0 25.3 36.2 31.0 43.4 42.8 44.4 42.8 43.5 44.3 33.0 44.9 42.8 45.1 42.5 38.6 39.7 43.9 43.8 38.1 44.8 43.8 38.7 41.4 41.1 39.9 41.7 32.9 38.9 44.4 31.6 36.6 44.1 39.9 40.5 24.6 39.6
%N
17.9 17.3 17.4 17.6 16.9 16.3 17.3 17.4 17.5 16.6 15.8 13.0 17.5 16.4 17.2 10.9 17.0 17.6 15.7 16.0 14.3 16.4 10.1 16.1 16.6 13.4 7.8 17.4 16.9 16.7 16.4 16.4 15.9 14.1 15.6 8.5 9.4 11.8 11.0 15.9 15.4 17.1 14.8 15.9 16.9 11.9 17.2 16.2 16.6 15.4 13.9 15.3 16.9 16.8 14.6 17.3 16.7 13.7 14.9 14.7 15.1 14.2 11.5 14.7 15.8 11.2 12.7 16.2 16.5 14.2 8.7 14.1
Table 3 (continued ) Sample no.
% Collagen
4.0 4.4 8.9 6.7 1.4 0.9 5.7 5.2 6.8 3.3 12.0 3.0 8.1 7.3 7.7 1.8 2.8 13.9 8.3 1.2 2.5 4.9 4.1 3.6 12.6 3.3 2.0 7.2 4.8 1.9 5.0 1.4 1.4 2.8 10.3 1.8 4.4 3.0 2.2 12.2 9.4 13.6 14.2 13.7 6.5 1.7 4.7 8.7 3.5 5.9 6.0 11.3 5.6 7.4 1.8 12.5 7.5 5.6 7.6 11.2 3.8 1.7 3.5 3.5 3.9 4.2 4.2 12.6 3.6 2.4 0.4 3.3
617
ZL03 ZL04 ZL05 ZL06 ZL07 ZL08 ZL09 ZL10 ZL11 ZL12 ZL13 ZL14 ZL15 ZL16 ZL17 ZL18 ZL19 ZL20 KL01 KL02 KL03 KL04 KL05 KL06 KL07 KL08 KL09 KL10 KL11 KL12 KL13 KL14 AL01 AL02 AL03 AL04 AL05 AL06 AL07 AL08 AL09 AL10 AL11 AL12 AL13 AL14 AL15 AL16 AL17 AL18 AL19 AL20 AL21 AL22 AL23 AL24 AL25 AL26 AL27 AL28 AL29 AL30 AL31 AL32 AL33 AL34
d13C&
d15N&
C/N
%C
V PDB
V AIR
atom
Average/range
19.7 19.4 19.7 20.0 20.1 19.7 19.3 19.8 19.7 19.5 19.4 20.0 19.5 19.7 20.1 19.6 19.5 20.2 19.9 19.6 19.0 19.2 19.7 20.0 20.0 19.8 20.3 19.9 19.9 19.1 19.7 19.2 19.1 19.4 19.3 19.3 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.6 19.2 18.8 19.5 19.4 19.3 19.5 19.3 19.7 18.8 19.0 19.1 19.4 18.8 19.0 19.1 19.3 19.4 19.1 18.9 19.0 19.1 19.2 18.8 19.2 19.0 18.6
8.1 8.5 8.5 9.7 8.2 9.1 8.6 9.6 8.7 8.8 8.2 7.7 7.7 8.5 8.6 7.9 9.0 8.1 9.3 8.3 7.1 7.2 8.7 9.4 8.0 8.2 7.3 9.4 7.6 10.4 9.9 8.6 9.3 8.7 9.0 9.3 9.2 9.5 8.6 9.2 9.6 9.5 9.2 9.4 9.2 9.6 9.2 8.5 9.3 9.1 9.6 9.3 9.9 9.6 9.2 8.7 9.3 9.3 9.8 9.4 9.6 9.6 9.5 9.4 9.6 9.5
3.4 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.3 3.3 3.5 3.4 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.3 3.5 3.4 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.7 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.3
38.7 42.5 37.8 40.5 42.6 41.3 39.2 33.4 38.6 41.4 44.5 36.6 37.6 45.5 42.4 37.4 42.7 14.4 17.9 35.9 37.8 36.0 40.8 17.5 32.5 23.9 17.6 32.1 43.0 36.0 42.0 41.9 44.4 44.2 44.9 45.4 45.6 44.3 44.8 44.4 44.3 44.4 43.8 42.2 44.9 43.9 44.4 44.5 42.3 31.5 45.4 45.0 44.0 44.7 44.1 44.5 43.7 43.4 44.0 46.9 43.1 44.2 42.3 41.4 44.7 43.5
%N
13.4 14.8 13.3 14.1 14.4 14.6 13.7 11.3 13.5 14.5 15.7 12.7 13.3 16.2 15.0 12.9 15.0 4.8 6.2 12.5 13.5 12.8 14.2 5.9 11.7 6.2 6.0 10.2 15.2 13.1 15.0 15.1 15.9 15.8 16.2 16.5 16.6 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.2 15.8 14.8 16.2 15.5 16.3 16.5 14.8 10.9 16.3 16.2 15.8 16.1 15.9 16.1 15.6 15.8 16.0 16.7 15.5 15.8 15.2 15.0 15.8 15.4
% Collagen
2.6 3.0 1.8 2.7 2.4 3.1 2.2 1.8 3.5 3.8 3.6 3.5 2.6 4.3 0.3 2.2 3.4 0.3 2.9 0.0 2.3 0.1 2.4 2.6 3.4 0.3 2.1 0.5 2.4 0.8 1.5 3.4 7.3 7.0 6.2 5.7 9.0 4.1 5.9 6.3 7.4 4.0 3.5 1.2 5.3 4.0 5.1 6.1 1.3 1.0 6.2 5.5 4.0 5.1 5.7 8.0 4.4 6.5 7.9 2.5 3.3 7.7 4.0 6.3 4.1 3.6
values that range from 5.90& to 7.00&, are higher than herbivore values, indicating animal protein use. Taking into consideration published data from stable nitrogen isotope analysis in animal bone collagen (Bocherens et al., 1997; Boherens and Drucker, 2003; Das et al., 2003; Feranec, 2004; Iacumin et al., 1997; Iacumin et al., 2004; Richards and Hedges,
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Aghia Triada & Voudeni- Animal samples / AIR
6,0
15
8,0
N co l l ag e n
9,0
Cattle Aghia Triada Cat Aghia Triada
7,0
Sheep Aghia Triada Dog Aghia Triada
5,0 4,0
Sheep Voudeni Turtle Voudeni
2,0 -24,0
-22,0 13
-20,0
-18,0
-16,0
C collagen /PDB
Fig. 2. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope animal values (d13C, d15N) from Aghia Triada and Voudeni.
2003), we can conclude that both dogs and cats consumed animal protein (meat and/or milk) with cats consuming more plants (lower d15N) and dogs obtaining most of their protein from animal sources (high d15N values). Finally, the turtle from Aghia Triada has d13C (23, 2&) and d15N (6.00&) values indicative of the consumption of fresh water plants, as shown in the turtle isotopic values from Voudeni. 5.2. Human bone samples Late Bronze Age Aghia Triada d13C values range from 22.50& to 17.78 &, with and the d15N values range from 6.10& to 8.60&, while Almyri’s d13C and d15N values range from 19.80& to 18.60 and 8.50& to 9.90&, respectively (Table 3, Fig. 3). The two neighboring sites have similar d13C values with the range of 20.20& to 19.30& for Zeli and 20.30& to 19.00& for Kalapodi (Table 3, Fig. 3). The minimum d15N values (7.30& Zeli to 7.10&, Kalapodi) but the maximum values present more animal protein use in Kalapodi (10.40&) than in Zeli (9.70&). The extreme of d13C values are presented by the individuals from Aghia Triada, however, they belong only to a few individuals and the majority of the population had uniform diet. Additionally, even if Kalapodi presents the most positive d15N value of 10.40&, the average d15N values from Almyri (9.32&) present a population that relied more heavily in animal protein than the rest of the Late Bronze Age sites. Furthermore, Aghia Triada’s d15N values are the lowest, showing that the diet was primarily based on plant protein and less on animal protein. Table 4 presents the summary statistics of the four studied samples. It is worth mentioning that there are no statistically significant differences in the mean carbon isotopic values (d13C),
LATE BRONZE AGE SITES 12 N co l l a g e n ‰/ AIR
6. Discussion
Turtle Aghia Triada
3,0
15
while in the case of nitrogen there are some differences. Aghia Triada has the lower mean value (7.22 0.54&) and Almyri the highest (9.31 0.32&) while the other two sites (Zeli and Kalapodi) have almost identical mean values (8.45 0.61& and 8.53 1.04&, respectively).
10 AGHIA TRIADA
8
ZELI
6
KALAPODI
4
ALMYRI
2 0 -23
-21 13
-19
-17
C collagen‰/PDB
Fig. 3. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope values (d13C, d15N) from Aghia Triada, Zeli, Kalapodi and Almyri.
All four sites mainly present an input of C3 plant protein and the
d15N values indicate sufficient animal protein use. The animal isotopic results from Aghia Triada, Voudeni and published records indicate that the animal protein consumed by humans was coming mainly from sheep, goats and cattle by using either their meat or their milk. Kalapodi and Almyri sites show more preference to animal protein than Zeli, while the population from Aghia Triada presents the lesser d15N values of all. Furthermore, d13C values from Kalapoli and Zeli reflect a diet based mainly in C3 plant protein unlike individuals from Aghia Triada and Almyri that present partial C4 plant protein input, such as millet (Larsen, 1999; Richards and Hedges, 2003; Keenleyside et al., 2006). With reference to d15N values it is evident that there is significant consumption of terrestrial animal protein from 50% to 70%, either direct (e.g. meat consumption) or indirect (e.g. dairy products) (Richards and Mellars, 1998; Iacumin et al., 1998; Lillie and Richards, 2000; Coltrain et al., 2004; Jay and Richards, 2006). On the other hand presentation of d15N values in relation to d13C values do not imply any protein consumption coming from marine animal species (Chisholm et al., 1982; Schoeninger et al., 1983; Chisholm et al., 1983; Ambrose et al., 1997; Tomczak, 2003). In order to produce a more efficient study of Bronze Age diet we plotted our results against the published data from Late Bronze Age Rhymnio, Spathes and Korinos (Triantaphyllou, 2001), as well as Late Bronze Age Voudeni, Achaia (Petroutsa et al., 2004, 2009) (Table 5, Fig. 4). We also integrate the isotopic results from the Grave Circle A and B Mycenae (Hedges and Richards, 1999a, b). All sites with published stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic data present a regular staple consisting of C3 plant protein and animal protein. The results show the use of C4 plant protein which probably derives from millet also in Southern Greece. It is initially apparent in Early Bronze Age Perachora, further in Peiniada, Thessaly (Petroutsa, 2008, PhD) and continues in Peloponnesus in the Late Bronze Age sites of Almyri, Corinth and Aghia Triada, Elis. However, the significant question raised is, when did the use of C4 plant protein start? The use of millet is firstly observed in Northern Greece, with emphasis in Late Bronze Age period. The only references for the earlier use of millet are coming from the Neolithic Sesklo, Thessaly and in Early Bronze Age Makrygialos. Although C4 plants were revealed in archaeobotanical studies only in North Greece (Halstead, 1995; Jones, 1987, 2002; Valamoti, 2004) and it was stated by the isotopic results from Rhynio and Korinos, in our study there are d13C values from Aghia Triada and Almyri that show at least a few individuals consuming C4 plant protein. These data call for several suggestions about C4 plants and their domestication in the Greek peninsula. Firstly, we believe that there is no spatial limit in their presence and use, since they exist in North, Central and South Greece. Secondly, this does not appear to be the result of commerce because the individuals consuming them are settled in sites away from ports or with no recorded exchange activities like Aghia Triada. Thus, we assume that C4 plants existed in the Greek continent for a long time in the form of wild species that could be used as animal food either in sites close to C4 plant natural environment or in times with C3 plant shortage and human values come as a result of indirect protein input.
E.I. Petroutsa, S.K. Manolis / Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2010) 614–620
619
Table 4 Descriptive statistics of carbon and nitrogen isotope results per site. Sites
Variables
Mean
Median
SD
Range
Minimum
Maximum
Count
CI (95%)
Aghia Triada
d13C& d15N&
19.94 7.22 3.19 41.23 15.20 5.81
19.80 7.25 3.20 43.25 15.95 4.75
0.77 0.54 0.13 5.47 2.35 3.74
4.70 2.50 0.60 25.90 10.10 13.30
22.50 6.10 3.00 22.20 7.80 0.90
17.80 8.60 3.60 48.10 17.90 14.20
70 70 70 70 70 70
0.18 0.13 0.03 1.30 0.56 0.89
19.18 9.31 3.25 43.80 15.76 5.15
19.20 9.30 3.20 44.30 15.95 5.40
0.25 0.32 0.06 2.42 0.98 1.99
1.10 1.40 0.20 15.40 5.80 8.00
19.70 8.50 3.20 31.50 10.90 1.00
18.60 9.90 3.40 46.90 16.70 9.00
34 34 34 34 34 34
0.09 0.11 0.02 0.84 0.34 0.69
19.72 8.45 3.36 38.07 13.30 2.54
19.70 8.50 3.30 39.40 13.90 2.65
0.26 0.61 0.08 7.16 2.57 1.16
0.90 2.40 0.20 31.10 11.40 4.00
20.20 7.30 3.30 14.40 4.80 0.30
19.30 9.70 3.50 45.50 16.20 4.30
20 20 20 20 20 20
0.12 0.29 0.04 3.35 1.21 0.54
19.66 8.53 3.36 32.49 11.26 1.76
19.75 8.45 3.30 35.95 12.65 2.20
0.39 1.04 0.13 9.43 3.66 1.21
1.30 3.30 0.50 25.50 9.30 3.40
20.30 7.10 3.20 17.50 5.90 0.00
19.00 10.40 3.70 43.00 15.20 3.40
14 14 14 14 14 14
0.23 0.60 0.07 5.45 2.11 0.70
C/N %C %N % Collagen Almyri
d13C& d15N& C/N %C %N %Collagen
Zeli
d13C& d15N& C/N %C %N %Collagen
Kalapodi
d13C& d15N& C/N %C %N %Collagen
Additionally, the stable isotope nitrogen results support the archaeological data presenting the consumption of stock-farming pig, sheep, goat and cattle, as well as animal species such as deer or of dairy products (Halstead and Isaakidou, 2004). Most of the sites present a medium input of animal protein, except humans from Kalapodi and Almyri that show greater preference to animal protein than plant in their dietary habits. Besides the question about the consumption of different plant species, another issue arising is the consumption or not of marine food and other aquatic fauna and flora, the isotopic signatures of which did not appear in the human sample collagen in any analyzed Bronze Age site (Petroutsa, 2008, PhD) or in the vast majority of the published sites although the consumption of animal food is evident (especially birds). Marine food consumption is evident only in the case of the skeletal remains of the A0 and B0 Circle of Mycenae (Hedges & Richards, 1999a, b). The absence of consumption of marine and other aquatic faunal and floral species may be justified by the fact that fishery, although prevalent from the Mesolithic era as is obvious from the excavated artifacts, and fish bones in various archaeological sites, was not one of the main activities of the Bronze Age people, who showed a clear preference to agriculture and pastoralism. Thus, consumption of marine foods may have occurred but the amount and the frequency was probably very restricted, and overridden by the consumption of terrestrial
plants. Accordingly it is not evident in the isotopic values of carbon and nitrogen in the bone collagen. The present study of these four Late Bronze Age sites and the relevant studies that have been published (Triantaphyllou, 2001; Petroutsa et al., 2004, 2009) on the issue of marine food consumption suggest that there is not any significant contribution of seafoods in everyday dietary habits of LBA inhabitants of Greece. 7. Conclusions We found minor evidence for dietary variation in Late Bronze Age diets in mainland Greece using stable isotope analysis. The main plant staple consumed by all populations analyzed was C3 plants, while the likely sources of animal protein were sheep, goats and cattle. There is no evidence for marine foods in the diet of these individuals, with the only exception coming from high status Mycenaean individuals (Hedges and Richards, 1999a, b). Additionally, although written records indicate that C4 plants existed and they were consumed by some populations, either by human or by
LATE BRONZE AGE IN MAINLAND GREECE Aghia Triada
12,0
Aghia Triada Almyri Zeli Kalapodi Voudeni Rhymnio Spathes Korinos
Mean d13C& 19.94 19.18 19.72 19.66 20.10 17.64 18.61 19.20
Mean d15N& 7.22 9.31 8.45 8.53 8.30 8.61 7.39 8.74
/ A IR
Sites
9,0
Zeli
10,0
Kalapodi
8,0
Rhymnio
7,0
15
Table 5 Human d13C and d15N mean values from Aghia Triada, Zeli, Kalapodi, Almyri, Voudeni, Rhynio, Spathes & Korinos.
N co l l ag e n
Voudeni
11,0
Spathes
6,0 5,0 -20,5
Korinos
-20,0
-19,5
-19,0
-18,5
13C collagen
/PDB
-18,0
-17,5
Almyri
Fig. 4. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope mean values (d13C, d15N) from Aghia Triada, Zeli, Kalapodi, Almyri, Voudeni, Rhynio, Spathes & Korinos.
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animal, there is no evidence of their consistent use. In sum, Late Bronze Age people in mainland Greece present a rather homogeneous diet and the isotopic data are in agreement with written records. It should be also noticed that there is a lack of isotopic information available from archaeological plant and animal remains and further exploration of such issues would enhance the importance of human dietary reconstructions in Greece. Acknowledgements We would like to thank Professor Mike P. Richards for his guidance and help during the training period in the Isotopic Laboratory, Department of Archaeological Science, University of Bradford. This project was funded through a Marie Curie training fellowship awarded to E. Petroutsa. We also would like to thank the anonymous reviewer for his/her constructive comments on the earlier version of this article. References Ambrose, S.H., Butler, B.M., Hanson, D.B., Hunter-Anderson, R.L., Krueger, H.W., 1997. Stable isotopic analysis of human diet in the Marianas Archipelago, Western Pacific. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 104, 343–361. Bocherens, H., Billiou, D., Patou-Mathis, M., Bonjean, D., Otte, M., Mariotti, A., 1997. Paleobiological implications of the isotopic signatures (13C, 15N) of fossil mammal collagen in Scladina Cave (Sclayn, Belgium). Quaternary Research 408, 370–380. Boherens, H., Drucker, D., 2003. Trophic level isotopic enrichment of carbon and nitrogen in bone collagen: case studies from recent and ancient terrestrial ecosystems. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 13, 46–53. Chadwick, J., 1976. The Mycenaean World. Cambridge University Press, pp. 126-133. Chisholm, B.S., Nelson, D.E., Schwarcz, H.P., 1982. Stable-carbon isotope ratios as a measure of marine versus terrestrial protein in ancient diets. Science 216, 1131–1132. Chisholm, B.S., Nelson, E.D., Schwarcz, H.P., 1983. Marine and terrestrial protein in prehistoric diets on the British Columbia coast. Current Anthropology 24, 396–398. Coltrain, J.B., Harris, J.M., Cerling, T.E., Ehleringer, J.R., Deraing, M.-D., Ward, J., Allen, J., 2004. Rancho La Brea stable isotope biogeochemistry and its implications for the palaeoecology of the Late Pleistocene, coastal southern California. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 205, 199–219. Das, K., Beans, C., Holsbeek, L., Mauger, G., Berrow, S.D., Rogan, E., Bouquegneau, J.M., 2003. Marine mammals from northeast Atlantic: relationship between their trophic status as determined by d13C and d15N measurements and their trace metal concentrations. Marine Environmental Research 56, 349–365. Day, P.M., Wilson, D.E., 2004. Ceramic change and the practice of eating and drinking in Early Bronze Age Crete. In: Halstead, P., Barrett, J.C. (Eds.), Food, Cuisine and Society in Prehistoric Greece. Oxbow Books, pp. 45–62. DeNiro, M.J., Schoeninger, M.J., Hastorf, C.A., 1985. Effect of heating on the stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios of bone collagen. Journal of Archaeological Science 12, 1–7. Dickinson, O.T.P.K., 1977. The Origins of Mycenean Civilization (in Greek), second ed. Kardamitsas Publ. Co., Athens. Farrand, W.R., 2003. Depositional environments and site formation during Mesolithic occupations of Franchthi Cave, Peloponnesos, Greece. In: Galanidou, N., Perles, C. (Eds.), The Greek Mesolithic: Problems and Perspectives. British School at Athens, Studies 10, Chp, 4, pp. 69–78. Feranec, S.R., 2004. Geographic variation in the diet of Hypsodont herbivores from the Rancholabrean of Florida. Journal of Archaeological Science 207, 359–369. Halstead, P., 1995. Late Bronze Age grain crops and Linear B ideograms. The Annual of the British School at Athens 90, 229–234. Halstead, P., Isaakidou, V., 2004. Faunal evidence for feasting: burnt offering from the Palace of Nestor at Pylos. In: Halstead, P., Barrett, J.C. (Eds.), Food, Cuisine and Society in Prehistoric Greece. Oxbow Books, pp. 136–154. Hedges, R.E.M., Richards, M.P., 1999a. Grave Circle B Mycenae. In: Tzedakis, Y., Martlew, H. (Eds.), Minoans and Mycenaeans: Flavours of their Time. Greek Ministry of Culture, National Archaeological Museum, Kapon Publisher, Athens, Greece, pp. 223–224. Hedges, R.E.M., Richards, M.P., 1999b. Grave Circle A Mycenae. In: Tzedakis, Y., Martlew, H. (Eds.), Minoans and Mycenaeans: Flavours of their Times. Greek Ministry of Culture, National Archaeological Museum, Kapon Publisher, Athens, Greece, pp. 227–228. Iacumin, P., Bocherens, H., Huertas, A.D., Mariotti, A., Longinelli, A., 1997. A stable isotope study of fossil mammal remains from the Paglicci cave, Southern Italy. N
and C as palaeoenvironmental indicators. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 148, 349–357. Iacumin, P., Bocherens, H., Chaix, L., Mariotti, A., 1998. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes as dietary indicators of ancient Nubian populations (Northern Sudan). Journal of Archaeological Science 25, 293–301. Iacumin, P., Nikolaev, V., Genoni, L., Ramigni, M., Ryskov, Ya.G., Longinelli, A., 2004. Stable isotope analysis of mammal skeletal remains of Holocene age from European Russia: a way to trace dietary and environmental changes. Geobios 37, 37–47. Isaakidou, V., Halstead, P., Davis, J., Stocker, S., 2002. Burn animal sacrifice at the Mycenaean Palace of Nestor, Pylos. Antiquity 76, 86–92. Jay, M., Richards, M.P., 2006. Diet in the Iron Age cemetery population at Wetwang Slack, East Yorkshire, UK: carbon and nitrogen stable isotope evidence. Journal of Archaeological Science 33, 653–662. Jones, G., 1987. Agricultural practice in Greek Prehistory. The Annual of the British School at Athens 82, 115–123. Jones, G., 2002. Charred grain from Late Bronze Age Gla, Boiotia. The Annual of the British School at Athens 90, 237–238. Kardulias, P.N., 1996. Multiple levels in the Aegean Bronze Age World System. Journal of World Systems Research 2 (11), 1–35. Keenleyside, A., Scharcz, H., Panayotova, K., 2006. Stable isotopic evidence of diet in a Greek colonial population from the Black Sea. Journal of Archaeological Science 33, 1205–1215. Killen, J., 2004. Wheat, barley, flour, olives and figs on Linear B tablets. In: Halstead, P., Barrett, J.C. (Eds.), Food, Cuisine and Society in Prehistoric Greece. Oxbow Books, pp. 155–173. Larsen, C.S., 1999. Bioarchaeology. Interpreting Behavior from the Human Skeleton. Cambridge Univ. Press, pp. 270-290. Lillie, M., Richards, M.P., 2000. Stable isotope analysis and dental evidence of diet at the Mesolothic–Neolithic transition in Ukraine. Journal of Archaeological Science 27, 965–972. 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Journal of Archaeological Science journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas
Reconstructing Late Bronze Age diet in mainland Greece using stable isotope analysis Eirini I. Petroutsa a, b, Sotiris K. Manolis a, * a b
Department of Animal & Human Physiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis, 157 01 Athens, Greece Department of Archaeological Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford BD7 1DP, UK
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 10 March 2009 Received in revised form 14 October 2009 Accepted 16 October 2009
The Late Bronze Age is a period of great importance in prehistoric Greece, due to the rise of the Mycenaean and Minoan civilizations. Settlements, palatial complexes and cemeteries have been excavated whilst a plethora of findings among which wall paintings and artifacts provided a large amount of information regarding the period. In this paper we examine the sources of dietary protein of four populations, from mainland Greece, in light of documentary and archaeological evidence in an effort to identify dietary trends within and between groups that reflect everyday behavior. These are being studied with the aid of biomolecular archaeology using stable isotope analysis in human and faunal remains. Isotopic data to date suggests a rather homogeneous diet mainly based on C3 plant and animal protein. There are no individuals with d13C and d15N values that could represent important marine protein intake, despite proximity to the Aegean Sea. Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Stable isotope Carbon Nitrogen Bone collagen Diet Late Bronze Age Greece
1. Introduction The importance of studying dietary habits in past populations is well established for all prehistoric and historic periods, not only on the basis of survival, but also because it can shed light on issues of characteristic trends. Diet during the Late Bronze Age period has been studied both from archaeologists and anthropologists through different view points, resulting to complementary evidence (Vermeule, 1983; Halstead, 1995; Halstead and Isaakidou, 2004; Isaakidou et al., 2002; Valamoti, 2004). Stable isotope analysis strengthens such studies by enabling direct estimation of the animal and plant protein input. Additionally, it can provide information on the dietary habits of both individuals and the community as a whole. In this study, we performed stable isotope analysis (C, N) on Late Bronze Age bone samples (femur midshaft) that were recovered from four archaeological sites of Central and Southern Greece. The aim was to investigate the subsistence strategies and the possible differences among the four Late Bronze Age sites of mainland Greece, with a more direct and accurate methodology than are otherwise available.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ30 210 7274 640; fax: þ30 210 7274 635. E-mail address: [email protected] (S.K. Manolis). 0305-4403/$ – see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2009.10.026
Additionally, the results of the current study are compared with previous stable isotope research on Late Bronze Age populations – Voudeni (Petroutsa et al., 2004, 2009), Rhymnio, Spathes and Korinos (Triantaphyllou, 2001) – and thoroughly discussed in order to explore possible isotopic variations or similarities in populations of this prehistoric era.
2. Late Bronze Age Diet: what is known and unknown The Late Bronze Age in the Aegean Basin (1600–1100 BC) witnessed the rise of two interdependent civilizations, the Minoan on Crete and the Mycenaean in Central and Southern Greece. The foundation of Knossos (Crete) was a unique expansion of human society into the Aegean and in many respects it remains strongly individualized. The discovery of obsidian in Crete, at Thessalian sites and the Cyclades, suggests their participation in a network of sea-born contacts through which this was disseminated (Dickinson, 1977). On the other hand, Mycenae was also very important and forceful, because of its ability to dominate in a great size of land and a high number of workers in order to produce and possess a significant amount of agricultural and animal food products (Chadwick, 1976; Vermeule, 1983; Ruiperez and Melena, 1996). An example of a well studied Late Bronze Age site in Peloponnesus is the Nestor palace at Pylos (Messenia), where food was also
E.I. Petroutsa, S.K. Manolis / Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2010) 614–620
documented as a mean to express worship to gods (Isaakidou et al., 2002). In sum, the Aegean trade system was extensive and administrated by the palaces during the Late Bronze Age. It brought into contact a variety of cultures with both well-developed economies and an appetite for prestige and utilitarian goods (Kardulias, 1996). Sources used to evidence for the diet during the Late Bronze Age in Greece emanate from archaeozoological and archaeobotanical studies, while relevant reports evidence from the Linear B plates are also very important (Chadwick, 1976). Various species of grains were cultivated, among which at least six cereal species. What has been widely recognized is: emmer (Triticum dicoccum), wheat (Triticum monococcum, Triticum spelta), peas (Lathyrus sativus, L. ariculatus), tare (Vicia sativa), chick-peas (Vicia ervila, Icer arietinum), millet (Panicum miliaceum), lentil (Lens eulinaris), and barley (Hordeum vulgare) (Halstead, 1995). The majority of the above species have been found in various excavation sites dated to the Bronze Age, in Southern mainland Greece (Mycenae), in Crete (Knossos), and in Central mainland Greece (Thebes), apart from wheat (Triticum spelta) and millet (Panicum miliaceum), that have been found also in the Late Bronze Age sites of Assiros and Kastanas in Northern Greece (Halstead, 1995; Jones, 1987, 2002). In Dikili and Mandalo there is clear evidence of fruit storage, such as apples, figs, and grapes, but also nuts that were gathered. There are also indications of wheat and to a lesser extent, of barley, at the sites of Makry, Makrygiallos, and Mandalo (Valamoti, 2004). Furthermore, one of the most detailed Mycenaean wall fresco was found in the area of the joint Helleno–British excavation site in Mycenae and it provides information concerning dietary habits, as in one portion of the fresco a female form is depicted holding a bundle of corn (Wardle, 1999). The cultivation of wheat, barley, olive and grape, the consumption of peas, lentils, figs, walnuts and chick-peas, as well as the stock-farming of pig, sheep, goat and cattle, are also recorded by Vermeule (1983) and Treuil et al. (1996), whereas Halstead and Isaakidou (2004) report the recognition of animal species, as the cow, deer, pig, sheep and goat that were consumed in rituals at Nestor’s palace in Pylos (Peloponnesus). The study of the linear B tablets shed light on habits of consumption of plant and animal products. Thus, the practice of animal husbandry of livestock such as sheep, pigs, and cows is evident in Knossos and Pylos, along with the associated production and consumption of dairy products (Chadwick, 1976). The discovery of faunal remains in the palace of Nestor (Pylos) confirms the existing archaeological evidence based on text evidence which indicate the significance of symposia in Mycenaean society. The study of the composition of burnt remains suggests consumption of venison, beef, pork, and wild sheep (Isaakidou et al., 2002). Cooking vessels that were excavated in the Early Bronze Age site of Kadmeia near Thebes were analyzed using gas chromatography coupled with mass spectroscopy and plant and animal lipids appear to have been present (Roumpou et al., 2007). The study of the changes in ceramic forms from the Cretan Early Minoan (Protominoan) II period, with an emphasis on the artifacts associated with Knossos, indicates that the changes in material culture are associated with an increase in consumption practices, implying social competition (Day and Wilson, 2004). The study of linear B from Bronze Age tablets does provide dietary information, despite the texts’ emphasis on palatial society, and a lack of information on specific social groups. The tablets from Knossos, Mycenae, and Pylos indicate consumption of wheat, barley, olives, and figs (Killen, 2004). What still remains unknown is the proportion of plant and animal protein consumption reflecting the synthesis of their diet. Although significant differences are not likely to occur, be worth it
615
Fig. 1. Map of Greece with the four Late Bronze Age sites.
to explore this ratio. Since two (of the four) sites are located in Central Greece and the other two in Peloponnesus may reveal modifications at least in the consumption of different plant species. This due to the geographic terrain of the Greek peninsula which creates micro-ecosystems with variable floral composition, and consequently differences in consumed plant species between Northern, Central and Southern Greece. For example, Triantaphyllou (2001) reported the consumption of C4 plants in Northern Greece while in Southern Greece it seems that C4 plants are consumed in the Early Bronze Age Perachora near Ancient Corinth (Petroutsa et al., 2007). With respect to the consumption of animal protein, is not known the analogy of terrestrial and marine foods in the diet of this period. The question arising is what was the amount of marine foods (fish and seafood) in the diet of the LBA people in everyday life? To date the relevant researches have performed have failed to provide an answer. The only evidence comes from the MBA Mycenae (Hedges and Richards, 1999a, b), where it seems that the aristocracy of this era was consumed seafood. The Greek peninsula is surrounded by sea and we now know from the archaeological findings (fishing-tackles and bony fish remains) (i.e. Cave of Cyclops in Youra Island, and Franchthi Cave in Argolis) that the ancient inhabitants were aware of the fishing technology (MoundreaAgrafioti, 2003; Farrand, 2003). However, there are costal sites such as Perachora (Petroutsa et al., 2007) and Lerna (Triantaphyllou et al., 2009), in which the analyses of stable isotopes (C, N) surprisingly did not reveal any consumption of seafood.
3. Material 3.1. The archaeological sites We analyzed stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes in human collagen from four Late Bronze Age sites presented in Fig. 1. Whenever possible, animal bone material was also analysed for comparative purposes. 3.1.1. Aghia Triada (Elis, Peloponnesus) Aghia Triada is dated to the Late Helladic period (1450 and 1150 BC). The site is located north of Ancient Olympia and is about
616
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40 km from the sea, on the borders of Elis prefecture with Achaia. The excavation took place from 1980 to 1983 by the archaeologists O. Vikatou and X. Arapogianni and they revealed only Thollos tombs with commingled burials. There were no special burial customs or artifacts that can detect any social or gender differences. From the skeletal study we estimated that the minimum number of individuals was 258, with 228 adults and 30 juveniles. Sex identification was conducted only for 176 individual of whish 101 were male and 75 female. Except from some degenerative diseases, like arthritis, there was no other evidence indicative of malnutrition (Petroutsa et al., 2002). 3.1.2. Almyri (Corinth, Peloponnesus) The skeletal study was conducted in the Department of Animal & Human Physiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Athens. No additional archaeological evidence was provided by the archaeologists except that some of the tombs had tholos architecture and that the site is dated to Late Bronze Age. The minimum number of individuals is 23, while the estimation of sex and age-at-death was very difficult to be assessed because of the fragmentary nature of the human skeletal remains.
Table 2 Animal d13C and d15N values from Aghia Triada. Animal samples
Cattle Cat Dog A Dog B Turtle Sheep A Sheep B
d13C&
d15N&
C/N
%C
V PDB
V AIR
atom
Average/range
18.90 19.60 20.60 20.00 20.10 20.60 23.20
4.60 5.90 6.50 7.00 3.80 4.10 6.00
3.23 3.04 3.23 3.18 3.27 3.12 3.18
41.04 45.47 31.30 41.02 31.50 39.41 40.36
%N
14.82 17.43 11.29 15.05 11.22 14.75 14.80
4. Methods
3.1.4. Kalapodi (Fthiotida, Central Greece) This site is also located on a hill near Atalanti, Fthiotida prefecture and as mentioned above, very close to Zeli. Kalapodi is a site that revealed four rich burials with a lot of golden artifacts, pots, jewels and weapons. The three tombs (TI, TII & TIII) are tholos tombs, while TIV is saddle-shaped. They all belong to the Late Bronze Age, more specifically, TI dates to the Late Helladic IIB–IIIA1 and the rest to the Late Helladic IIIA1 (pers. com. S. Dimaki, excavator).
The samples were prepared for isotope analysis in the Isotope Laboratory, Department of Archaeological Science, at University of Bradford, following the method described in Richards and Hedges (1999b) with some modifications. Bone powder and pieces of approximately 0.2–0.3 g demineralized in 0.5 M aq. HCl at 4 C. Samples were rinsed with distilled water and then gelatinized in acidic solution (pH 3) at 75–83 C for 48 h. The liquid fraction containing the gelatinized protein was isolated by filtration by the use of a Millipore Amicon Ultra-4 centrifugal filter (30,000 NMWL), evaporated to dryness, rehydrated, frozen and lyophilized to produce the final ‘‘collagen’’ product. Portions of this ‘‘collagen’’, 0.5–1.1 mg, were used for each analysis. Samples were processed in an automated carbon and nitrogen analyzer (Carlo Erba carbon and nitrogen elemental analyzer) coupled with a continuous-flow isotope ratio-monitoring mass spectrometer (Europa Geo 20/20 mass spectrometer). Where possible, samples were run in duplicates. 13C values were measured relative to the PDB standard, and 15N values were measured relative to the AIR standard reference. The analytical error (1) for all samples amounted to 0.2& for both d13C and d15N. All the samples were very well preserved and the quality of the collagen was studied based on C:N ratios, following criteria outlined by DeNiro et al., (1985) and collagen samples with a C:N ratio outside of the range 2.9–3.6 were discarded.
3.2. Choice of samples
5. Results
The choice of samples for stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis took into account archaeological information. All skeletal material has also been studied by the first author (E.P.) morphologically, with the purpose of examining bone abnormalities that could complicate the isotopic results. Human femur samples from healthy adults were used for collagen extraction, the number of which, for each site, is presented in Table 1. The sample retained was either bone powder or a 2–5 g bone fragment from the femur midshaft depending on the hardness and the preservation of the bone. Additionally, seven samples of long bone from fauna of Aghia Triada (Table 2) were selected in order to define a baseline of food chain consumed initially by the two populations and by the Late Bronze Greek populations generally.
The stable isotope ratios (C/N) from the human and animal skeletal material are between 3.3 and 3.6. Therefore, following the criteria given above collagen was fairly well preserved (see Tables 2 and 3).
3.1.3. Zeli (Fthiotida, Central Greece) The site is located on a hill near Atalanti, Fthiotida prefecture with a distance of a kilometer from Kalapodi, another site which is part of the study. In Zeli 3 pit tombs were excavated, with many skeletal remains and few artifacts. All tombs are dated the Late Helladic IIIA2 until the early Late Helladic IIIG periods (pers. com. S. Dimaki, excavator).
Table 1 The number of human samples from the four Late Bronze Age sites. Site
Sample number
Aghia Triada, Elis, Peloponnesus Zeli, Fthiotida, Central Greece Kalapodi, Fthiotida, Central Greece Almyri, Corinth, Peloponnesus
70 20 14 34
5.1. Animal bone samples In Table 2, we present the results from the isotopic analysis of faunal material from Aghia Triada. The faunal results from Aghia Triada are also presented together with the faunal material from the Late Bronze Age Voudeni (Petroutsa et al., 2004, 2009) (see Fig. 2), in order to use them as the baseline isotopic data against which the human values can be compared. The herbivore (sheep) bone collagen d13C values range from 21.14& to 20.10& and d15N values range from 3.24& to 4.10&, as expected for animals in terrestrial C3 ecosystems. On the other hand, although the cattle’s d15N value of 4.60& agrees with other herbivore values, the d13C value is 18.90& indicating partial C4 plant protein consumption. The two dogs and the cat from Aghia Triada present d13C values that range from 20.00& to 19.60&, following the range of values of the herbivore terrestrial C3 consumers, while the 15N
E.I. Petroutsa, S.K. Manolis / Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2010) 614–620 Table 3 Human d13C and d15N values from Aghia Triada (SAE), Zeli (ZL), Kalapodi (KL) and Almyri (AL). Sample no.
SAE01 SAE02 SAE03 SAE04 SAE05 SAE06 SAE07 SAE08 SAE09 SAE10 SAE11 SAE12 SAE13 SAE14 SAE15 SAE16 SAE17 SAE19 SAE20 SAE21 SAE22 SAE23 SAE24 SAE26 SAE27 SAE28 SAE29 SAE31 SAE33 SAE34 SAE35 SAE36 SAE37 SAE38 SAE39 SAE40 SAE41 SAE43 SAE44 SAE45 SAE46 SAE47 SAE48 SAE49 SAE50 SAE51 SAE53 SAE54 SAE56 SAE57 SAE58 SAE59 SAE60 SAE61 SAE62 SAE63 SAE64 SAE65 SAE68 SAE69 SAE70 SAE72 SAE73 SAE74 SAE75 SAE76 SAE77 SAE78 SAE79 SAE80 ZL01 ZL02
13
15
d C&
d N&
C/N
%C
V PDB
V AIR
atom
Average/range
19.8 19.3 21.5 19.6 19.7 20.0 19.3 20.4 19.5 18.1 19.7 18.6 19.5 20.2 20.1 19.5 21.7 19.4 19.3 19.4 19.8 20.5 20.5 21.7 20.9 20.8 19.9 20.7 20.4 22.5 20.5 19.7 19.9 19.8 20.0 20.0 20.8 19.7 19.7 19.7 19.6 19.5 19.5 19.7 19.8 21.4 19.9 21.9 20.1 19.7 19.8 19.4 19.4 20.0 19.5 19.8 19.5 20.0 19.6 19.8 19.8 19.9 17.8 19.8 19.5 19.8 19.8 19.4 19.9 19.8 19.6 19.8
7.3 6.1 6.8 7.1 7.3 6.8 7.8 7.4 7.0 8.1 7.3 6.1 6.6 7.9 7.3 7.5 7.4 7.6 8.0 7.8 7.1 7.0 7.1 6.5 7.0 6.2 6.5 6.7 7.2 6.4 7.5 7.5 7.9 6.9 6.9 6.4 7.1 6.6 7.1 7.1 7.0 7.9 6.4 6.5 7.8 6.8 6.7 7.7 7.7 7.7 7.0 7.3 7.5 7.5 7.9 7.6 7.0 7.1 7.4 7.6 8.6 8.0 8.1 7.3 7.2 7.2 6.3 7.3 7.4 7.7 8.1 7.3
3.1 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.1 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.4 3.2 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.4 3.1 3.3 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.1 3.6 3.1 3.6 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.0 3.4 3.2 3.1 3.3 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.1 3.4 3.3 3.1 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3
45.7 45.6 46.0 46.6 45.7 45.8 45.6 45.5 46.1 45.0 44.5 36.5 46.1 43.5 45.1 31.8 46.3 46.5 42.3 43.1 38.8 43.9 31.3 42.4 48.1 36.0 22.2 45.5 44.5 45.1 44.2 44.2 42.9 40.0 41.4 26.0 25.3 36.2 31.0 43.4 42.8 44.4 42.8 43.5 44.3 33.0 44.9 42.8 45.1 42.5 38.6 39.7 43.9 43.8 38.1 44.8 43.8 38.7 41.4 41.1 39.9 41.7 32.9 38.9 44.4 31.6 36.6 44.1 39.9 40.5 24.6 39.6
%N
17.9 17.3 17.4 17.6 16.9 16.3 17.3 17.4 17.5 16.6 15.8 13.0 17.5 16.4 17.2 10.9 17.0 17.6 15.7 16.0 14.3 16.4 10.1 16.1 16.6 13.4 7.8 17.4 16.9 16.7 16.4 16.4 15.9 14.1 15.6 8.5 9.4 11.8 11.0 15.9 15.4 17.1 14.8 15.9 16.9 11.9 17.2 16.2 16.6 15.4 13.9 15.3 16.9 16.8 14.6 17.3 16.7 13.7 14.9 14.7 15.1 14.2 11.5 14.7 15.8 11.2 12.7 16.2 16.5 14.2 8.7 14.1
Table 3 (continued ) Sample no.
% Collagen
4.0 4.4 8.9 6.7 1.4 0.9 5.7 5.2 6.8 3.3 12.0 3.0 8.1 7.3 7.7 1.8 2.8 13.9 8.3 1.2 2.5 4.9 4.1 3.6 12.6 3.3 2.0 7.2 4.8 1.9 5.0 1.4 1.4 2.8 10.3 1.8 4.4 3.0 2.2 12.2 9.4 13.6 14.2 13.7 6.5 1.7 4.7 8.7 3.5 5.9 6.0 11.3 5.6 7.4 1.8 12.5 7.5 5.6 7.6 11.2 3.8 1.7 3.5 3.5 3.9 4.2 4.2 12.6 3.6 2.4 0.4 3.3
617
ZL03 ZL04 ZL05 ZL06 ZL07 ZL08 ZL09 ZL10 ZL11 ZL12 ZL13 ZL14 ZL15 ZL16 ZL17 ZL18 ZL19 ZL20 KL01 KL02 KL03 KL04 KL05 KL06 KL07 KL08 KL09 KL10 KL11 KL12 KL13 KL14 AL01 AL02 AL03 AL04 AL05 AL06 AL07 AL08 AL09 AL10 AL11 AL12 AL13 AL14 AL15 AL16 AL17 AL18 AL19 AL20 AL21 AL22 AL23 AL24 AL25 AL26 AL27 AL28 AL29 AL30 AL31 AL32 AL33 AL34
d13C&
d15N&
C/N
%C
V PDB
V AIR
atom
Average/range
19.7 19.4 19.7 20.0 20.1 19.7 19.3 19.8 19.7 19.5 19.4 20.0 19.5 19.7 20.1 19.6 19.5 20.2 19.9 19.6 19.0 19.2 19.7 20.0 20.0 19.8 20.3 19.9 19.9 19.1 19.7 19.2 19.1 19.4 19.3 19.3 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.6 19.2 18.8 19.5 19.4 19.3 19.5 19.3 19.7 18.8 19.0 19.1 19.4 18.8 19.0 19.1 19.3 19.4 19.1 18.9 19.0 19.1 19.2 18.8 19.2 19.0 18.6
8.1 8.5 8.5 9.7 8.2 9.1 8.6 9.6 8.7 8.8 8.2 7.7 7.7 8.5 8.6 7.9 9.0 8.1 9.3 8.3 7.1 7.2 8.7 9.4 8.0 8.2 7.3 9.4 7.6 10.4 9.9 8.6 9.3 8.7 9.0 9.3 9.2 9.5 8.6 9.2 9.6 9.5 9.2 9.4 9.2 9.6 9.2 8.5 9.3 9.1 9.6 9.3 9.9 9.6 9.2 8.7 9.3 9.3 9.8 9.4 9.6 9.6 9.5 9.4 9.6 9.5
3.4 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.3 3.3 3.5 3.4 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.3 3.5 3.4 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.7 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.3
38.7 42.5 37.8 40.5 42.6 41.3 39.2 33.4 38.6 41.4 44.5 36.6 37.6 45.5 42.4 37.4 42.7 14.4 17.9 35.9 37.8 36.0 40.8 17.5 32.5 23.9 17.6 32.1 43.0 36.0 42.0 41.9 44.4 44.2 44.9 45.4 45.6 44.3 44.8 44.4 44.3 44.4 43.8 42.2 44.9 43.9 44.4 44.5 42.3 31.5 45.4 45.0 44.0 44.7 44.1 44.5 43.7 43.4 44.0 46.9 43.1 44.2 42.3 41.4 44.7 43.5
%N
13.4 14.8 13.3 14.1 14.4 14.6 13.7 11.3 13.5 14.5 15.7 12.7 13.3 16.2 15.0 12.9 15.0 4.8 6.2 12.5 13.5 12.8 14.2 5.9 11.7 6.2 6.0 10.2 15.2 13.1 15.0 15.1 15.9 15.8 16.2 16.5 16.6 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.2 15.8 14.8 16.2 15.5 16.3 16.5 14.8 10.9 16.3 16.2 15.8 16.1 15.9 16.1 15.6 15.8 16.0 16.7 15.5 15.8 15.2 15.0 15.8 15.4
% Collagen
2.6 3.0 1.8 2.7 2.4 3.1 2.2 1.8 3.5 3.8 3.6 3.5 2.6 4.3 0.3 2.2 3.4 0.3 2.9 0.0 2.3 0.1 2.4 2.6 3.4 0.3 2.1 0.5 2.4 0.8 1.5 3.4 7.3 7.0 6.2 5.7 9.0 4.1 5.9 6.3 7.4 4.0 3.5 1.2 5.3 4.0 5.1 6.1 1.3 1.0 6.2 5.5 4.0 5.1 5.7 8.0 4.4 6.5 7.9 2.5 3.3 7.7 4.0 6.3 4.1 3.6
values that range from 5.90& to 7.00&, are higher than herbivore values, indicating animal protein use. Taking into consideration published data from stable nitrogen isotope analysis in animal bone collagen (Bocherens et al., 1997; Boherens and Drucker, 2003; Das et al., 2003; Feranec, 2004; Iacumin et al., 1997; Iacumin et al., 2004; Richards and Hedges,
618
E.I. Petroutsa, S.K. Manolis / Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2010) 614–620
Aghia Triada & Voudeni- Animal samples / AIR
6,0
15
8,0
N co l l ag e n
9,0
Cattle Aghia Triada Cat Aghia Triada
7,0
Sheep Aghia Triada Dog Aghia Triada
5,0 4,0
Sheep Voudeni Turtle Voudeni
2,0 -24,0
-22,0 13
-20,0
-18,0
-16,0
C collagen /PDB
Fig. 2. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope animal values (d13C, d15N) from Aghia Triada and Voudeni.
2003), we can conclude that both dogs and cats consumed animal protein (meat and/or milk) with cats consuming more plants (lower d15N) and dogs obtaining most of their protein from animal sources (high d15N values). Finally, the turtle from Aghia Triada has d13C (23, 2&) and d15N (6.00&) values indicative of the consumption of fresh water plants, as shown in the turtle isotopic values from Voudeni. 5.2. Human bone samples Late Bronze Age Aghia Triada d13C values range from 22.50& to 17.78 &, with and the d15N values range from 6.10& to 8.60&, while Almyri’s d13C and d15N values range from 19.80& to 18.60 and 8.50& to 9.90&, respectively (Table 3, Fig. 3). The two neighboring sites have similar d13C values with the range of 20.20& to 19.30& for Zeli and 20.30& to 19.00& for Kalapodi (Table 3, Fig. 3). The minimum d15N values (7.30& Zeli to 7.10&, Kalapodi) but the maximum values present more animal protein use in Kalapodi (10.40&) than in Zeli (9.70&). The extreme of d13C values are presented by the individuals from Aghia Triada, however, they belong only to a few individuals and the majority of the population had uniform diet. Additionally, even if Kalapodi presents the most positive d15N value of 10.40&, the average d15N values from Almyri (9.32&) present a population that relied more heavily in animal protein than the rest of the Late Bronze Age sites. Furthermore, Aghia Triada’s d15N values are the lowest, showing that the diet was primarily based on plant protein and less on animal protein. Table 4 presents the summary statistics of the four studied samples. It is worth mentioning that there are no statistically significant differences in the mean carbon isotopic values (d13C),
LATE BRONZE AGE SITES 12 N co l l a g e n ‰/ AIR
6. Discussion
Turtle Aghia Triada
3,0
15
while in the case of nitrogen there are some differences. Aghia Triada has the lower mean value (7.22 0.54&) and Almyri the highest (9.31 0.32&) while the other two sites (Zeli and Kalapodi) have almost identical mean values (8.45 0.61& and 8.53 1.04&, respectively).
10 AGHIA TRIADA
8
ZELI
6
KALAPODI
4
ALMYRI
2 0 -23
-21 13
-19
-17
C collagen‰/PDB
Fig. 3. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope values (d13C, d15N) from Aghia Triada, Zeli, Kalapodi and Almyri.
All four sites mainly present an input of C3 plant protein and the
d15N values indicate sufficient animal protein use. The animal isotopic results from Aghia Triada, Voudeni and published records indicate that the animal protein consumed by humans was coming mainly from sheep, goats and cattle by using either their meat or their milk. Kalapodi and Almyri sites show more preference to animal protein than Zeli, while the population from Aghia Triada presents the lesser d15N values of all. Furthermore, d13C values from Kalapoli and Zeli reflect a diet based mainly in C3 plant protein unlike individuals from Aghia Triada and Almyri that present partial C4 plant protein input, such as millet (Larsen, 1999; Richards and Hedges, 2003; Keenleyside et al., 2006). With reference to d15N values it is evident that there is significant consumption of terrestrial animal protein from 50% to 70%, either direct (e.g. meat consumption) or indirect (e.g. dairy products) (Richards and Mellars, 1998; Iacumin et al., 1998; Lillie and Richards, 2000; Coltrain et al., 2004; Jay and Richards, 2006). On the other hand presentation of d15N values in relation to d13C values do not imply any protein consumption coming from marine animal species (Chisholm et al., 1982; Schoeninger et al., 1983; Chisholm et al., 1983; Ambrose et al., 1997; Tomczak, 2003). In order to produce a more efficient study of Bronze Age diet we plotted our results against the published data from Late Bronze Age Rhymnio, Spathes and Korinos (Triantaphyllou, 2001), as well as Late Bronze Age Voudeni, Achaia (Petroutsa et al., 2004, 2009) (Table 5, Fig. 4). We also integrate the isotopic results from the Grave Circle A and B Mycenae (Hedges and Richards, 1999a, b). All sites with published stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic data present a regular staple consisting of C3 plant protein and animal protein. The results show the use of C4 plant protein which probably derives from millet also in Southern Greece. It is initially apparent in Early Bronze Age Perachora, further in Peiniada, Thessaly (Petroutsa, 2008, PhD) and continues in Peloponnesus in the Late Bronze Age sites of Almyri, Corinth and Aghia Triada, Elis. However, the significant question raised is, when did the use of C4 plant protein start? The use of millet is firstly observed in Northern Greece, with emphasis in Late Bronze Age period. The only references for the earlier use of millet are coming from the Neolithic Sesklo, Thessaly and in Early Bronze Age Makrygialos. Although C4 plants were revealed in archaeobotanical studies only in North Greece (Halstead, 1995; Jones, 1987, 2002; Valamoti, 2004) and it was stated by the isotopic results from Rhynio and Korinos, in our study there are d13C values from Aghia Triada and Almyri that show at least a few individuals consuming C4 plant protein. These data call for several suggestions about C4 plants and their domestication in the Greek peninsula. Firstly, we believe that there is no spatial limit in their presence and use, since they exist in North, Central and South Greece. Secondly, this does not appear to be the result of commerce because the individuals consuming them are settled in sites away from ports or with no recorded exchange activities like Aghia Triada. Thus, we assume that C4 plants existed in the Greek continent for a long time in the form of wild species that could be used as animal food either in sites close to C4 plant natural environment or in times with C3 plant shortage and human values come as a result of indirect protein input.
E.I. Petroutsa, S.K. Manolis / Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (2010) 614–620
619
Table 4 Descriptive statistics of carbon and nitrogen isotope results per site. Sites
Variables
Mean
Median
SD
Range
Minimum
Maximum
Count
CI (95%)
Aghia Triada
d13C& d15N&
19.94 7.22 3.19 41.23 15.20 5.81
19.80 7.25 3.20 43.25 15.95 4.75
0.77 0.54 0.13 5.47 2.35 3.74
4.70 2.50 0.60 25.90 10.10 13.30
22.50 6.10 3.00 22.20 7.80 0.90
17.80 8.60 3.60 48.10 17.90 14.20
70 70 70 70 70 70
0.18 0.13 0.03 1.30 0.56 0.89
19.18 9.31 3.25 43.80 15.76 5.15
19.20 9.30 3.20 44.30 15.95 5.40
0.25 0.32 0.06 2.42 0.98 1.99
1.10 1.40 0.20 15.40 5.80 8.00
19.70 8.50 3.20 31.50 10.90 1.00
18.60 9.90 3.40 46.90 16.70 9.00
34 34 34 34 34 34
0.09 0.11 0.02 0.84 0.34 0.69
19.72 8.45 3.36 38.07 13.30 2.54
19.70 8.50 3.30 39.40 13.90 2.65
0.26 0.61 0.08 7.16 2.57 1.16
0.90 2.40 0.20 31.10 11.40 4.00
20.20 7.30 3.30 14.40 4.80 0.30
19.30 9.70 3.50 45.50 16.20 4.30
20 20 20 20 20 20
0.12 0.29 0.04 3.35 1.21 0.54
19.66 8.53 3.36 32.49 11.26 1.76
19.75 8.45 3.30 35.95 12.65 2.20
0.39 1.04 0.13 9.43 3.66 1.21
1.30 3.30 0.50 25.50 9.30 3.40
20.30 7.10 3.20 17.50 5.90 0.00
19.00 10.40 3.70 43.00 15.20 3.40
14 14 14 14 14 14
0.23 0.60 0.07 5.45 2.11 0.70
C/N %C %N % Collagen Almyri
d13C& d15N& C/N %C %N %Collagen
Zeli
d13C& d15N& C/N %C %N %Collagen
Kalapodi
d13C& d15N& C/N %C %N %Collagen
Additionally, the stable isotope nitrogen results support the archaeological data presenting the consumption of stock-farming pig, sheep, goat and cattle, as well as animal species such as deer or of dairy products (Halstead and Isaakidou, 2004). Most of the sites present a medium input of animal protein, except humans from Kalapodi and Almyri that show greater preference to animal protein than plant in their dietary habits. Besides the question about the consumption of different plant species, another issue arising is the consumption or not of marine food and other aquatic fauna and flora, the isotopic signatures of which did not appear in the human sample collagen in any analyzed Bronze Age site (Petroutsa, 2008, PhD) or in the vast majority of the published sites although the consumption of animal food is evident (especially birds). Marine food consumption is evident only in the case of the skeletal remains of the A0 and B0 Circle of Mycenae (Hedges & Richards, 1999a, b). The absence of consumption of marine and other aquatic faunal and floral species may be justified by the fact that fishery, although prevalent from the Mesolithic era as is obvious from the excavated artifacts, and fish bones in various archaeological sites, was not one of the main activities of the Bronze Age people, who showed a clear preference to agriculture and pastoralism. Thus, consumption of marine foods may have occurred but the amount and the frequency was probably very restricted, and overridden by the consumption of terrestrial
plants. Accordingly it is not evident in the isotopic values of carbon and nitrogen in the bone collagen. The present study of these four Late Bronze Age sites and the relevant studies that have been published (Triantaphyllou, 2001; Petroutsa et al., 2004, 2009) on the issue of marine food consumption suggest that there is not any significant contribution of seafoods in everyday dietary habits of LBA inhabitants of Greece. 7. Conclusions We found minor evidence for dietary variation in Late Bronze Age diets in mainland Greece using stable isotope analysis. The main plant staple consumed by all populations analyzed was C3 plants, while the likely sources of animal protein were sheep, goats and cattle. There is no evidence for marine foods in the diet of these individuals, with the only exception coming from high status Mycenaean individuals (Hedges and Richards, 1999a, b). Additionally, although written records indicate that C4 plants existed and they were consumed by some populations, either by human or by
LATE BRONZE AGE IN MAINLAND GREECE Aghia Triada
12,0
Aghia Triada Almyri Zeli Kalapodi Voudeni Rhymnio Spathes Korinos
Mean d13C& 19.94 19.18 19.72 19.66 20.10 17.64 18.61 19.20
Mean d15N& 7.22 9.31 8.45 8.53 8.30 8.61 7.39 8.74
/ A IR
Sites
9,0
Zeli
10,0
Kalapodi
8,0
Rhymnio
7,0
15
Table 5 Human d13C and d15N mean values from Aghia Triada, Zeli, Kalapodi, Almyri, Voudeni, Rhynio, Spathes & Korinos.
N co l l ag e n
Voudeni
11,0
Spathes
6,0 5,0 -20,5
Korinos
-20,0
-19,5
-19,0
-18,5
13C collagen
/PDB
-18,0
-17,5
Almyri
Fig. 4. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope mean values (d13C, d15N) from Aghia Triada, Zeli, Kalapodi, Almyri, Voudeni, Rhynio, Spathes & Korinos.
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animal, there is no evidence of their consistent use. In sum, Late Bronze Age people in mainland Greece present a rather homogeneous diet and the isotopic data are in agreement with written records. It should be also noticed that there is a lack of isotopic information available from archaeological plant and animal remains and further exploration of such issues would enhance the importance of human dietary reconstructions in Greece. Acknowledgements We would like to thank Professor Mike P. Richards for his guidance and help during the training period in the Isotopic Laboratory, Department of Archaeological Science, University of Bradford. This project was funded through a Marie Curie training fellowship awarded to E. Petroutsa. We also would like to thank the anonymous reviewer for his/her constructive comments on the earlier version of this article. References Ambrose, S.H., Butler, B.M., Hanson, D.B., Hunter-Anderson, R.L., Krueger, H.W., 1997. Stable isotopic analysis of human diet in the Marianas Archipelago, Western Pacific. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 104, 343–361. Bocherens, H., Billiou, D., Patou-Mathis, M., Bonjean, D., Otte, M., Mariotti, A., 1997. Paleobiological implications of the isotopic signatures (13C, 15N) of fossil mammal collagen in Scladina Cave (Sclayn, Belgium). Quaternary Research 408, 370–380. Boherens, H., Drucker, D., 2003. Trophic level isotopic enrichment of carbon and nitrogen in bone collagen: case studies from recent and ancient terrestrial ecosystems. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 13, 46–53. Chadwick, J., 1976. The Mycenaean World. Cambridge University Press, pp. 126-133. Chisholm, B.S., Nelson, D.E., Schwarcz, H.P., 1982. Stable-carbon isotope ratios as a measure of marine versus terrestrial protein in ancient diets. Science 216, 1131–1132. Chisholm, B.S., Nelson, E.D., Schwarcz, H.P., 1983. Marine and terrestrial protein in prehistoric diets on the British Columbia coast. Current Anthropology 24, 396–398. Coltrain, J.B., Harris, J.M., Cerling, T.E., Ehleringer, J.R., Deraing, M.-D., Ward, J., Allen, J., 2004. Rancho La Brea stable isotope biogeochemistry and its implications for the palaeoecology of the Late Pleistocene, coastal southern California. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 205, 199–219. Das, K., Beans, C., Holsbeek, L., Mauger, G., Berrow, S.D., Rogan, E., Bouquegneau, J.M., 2003. Marine mammals from northeast Atlantic: relationship between their trophic status as determined by d13C and d15N measurements and their trace metal concentrations. Marine Environmental Research 56, 349–365. Day, P.M., Wilson, D.E., 2004. Ceramic change and the practice of eating and drinking in Early Bronze Age Crete. In: Halstead, P., Barrett, J.C. (Eds.), Food, Cuisine and Society in Prehistoric Greece. Oxbow Books, pp. 45–62. DeNiro, M.J., Schoeninger, M.J., Hastorf, C.A., 1985. Effect of heating on the stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios of bone collagen. Journal of Archaeological Science 12, 1–7. Dickinson, O.T.P.K., 1977. The Origins of Mycenean Civilization (in Greek), second ed. Kardamitsas Publ. Co., Athens. Farrand, W.R., 2003. Depositional environments and site formation during Mesolithic occupations of Franchthi Cave, Peloponnesos, Greece. In: Galanidou, N., Perles, C. (Eds.), The Greek Mesolithic: Problems and Perspectives. British School at Athens, Studies 10, Chp, 4, pp. 69–78. Feranec, S.R., 2004. Geographic variation in the diet of Hypsodont herbivores from the Rancholabrean of Florida. Journal of Archaeological Science 207, 359–369. Halstead, P., 1995. Late Bronze Age grain crops and Linear B ideograms. The Annual of the British School at Athens 90, 229–234. Halstead, P., Isaakidou, V., 2004. Faunal evidence for feasting: burnt offering from the Palace of Nestor at Pylos. In: Halstead, P., Barrett, J.C. (Eds.), Food, Cuisine and Society in Prehistoric Greece. Oxbow Books, pp. 136–154. Hedges, R.E.M., Richards, M.P., 1999a. Grave Circle B Mycenae. In: Tzedakis, Y., Martlew, H. (Eds.), Minoans and Mycenaeans: Flavours of their Time. Greek Ministry of Culture, National Archaeological Museum, Kapon Publisher, Athens, Greece, pp. 223–224. Hedges, R.E.M., Richards, M.P., 1999b. Grave Circle A Mycenae. In: Tzedakis, Y., Martlew, H. (Eds.), Minoans and Mycenaeans: Flavours of their Times. Greek Ministry of Culture, National Archaeological Museum, Kapon Publisher, Athens, Greece, pp. 227–228. Iacumin, P., Bocherens, H., Huertas, A.D., Mariotti, A., Longinelli, A., 1997. A stable isotope study of fossil mammal remains from the Paglicci cave, Southern Italy. N
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