Stable isotopes and discriminating tastes: Faunal management practices at the Late Bronze Age settlement of Mycenae, Greece

Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 14 (2017) 116–126

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Stable isotopes and discriminating tastes: Faunal management practices at the Late Bronze Age settlement of Mycenae, Greece

MARK

Gypsy C. Pricea,⁎, John Krigbauma, Kim Sheltonb a b

Department of Anthropology, Turlington Hall, Room 1350A, University of Florida, PO Box 117305, Gainesville, FL 32611, United States Nemea Center for Classical Archaeology, Department of Classics, 7233 Dwinelle Hall #2520, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-2520, United States

A R T I C L E I N F O

A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Carbon isotopes Nitrogen isotopes Oxygen isotopes Late Bronze Age Mycenaean Greece Faunal management strategies

This research uses stable isotope analyses to identify disparities in management strategies amongst faunal resources consumed in disparate socio-economic sectors of the Late Bronze Age palatial settlement of Mycenae, Greece. δ13C, δ15N, and δ18O data from four species (99 individuals) known to have been purposefully managed during this time period are presented. Data demonstrate species-specific management disparities between consumptive contexts: the exploited Sus population shows the most variation, largely predicated on diet, whereas caprines exhibit no inter-context variation, but similar intra-context variation, suggesting ubiquitous access to caprine resources, at least between these two contexts. This study aims to broaden the application of isotope analyses in this region where faunal isotopic data have been largely relegated to constructing baselines for interpreting human isotope data and environmental reconstructions.

1. Introduction Early Mycenaean states represent the earliest known complex societies on mainland Greece. They have long been a model for studying development in early complex societies. Current models of Mycenaean economies recognize that Mycenaean palaces did not act as the omnipresent hub of economic activity as previously thought (e.g., Bendall, 2007; Finley, 1957, 1999; Killen, 1985, 2008; Snodgrass, 1986), but rather primarily participated in wealth finance to fund prestige building endeavors and perpetuate political power, while remaining largely dependent on non-palatial, staple-based economies to supply subsistence resources to the settlement (e.g., Halstead, 1988, 1992; Galaty and Parkinson, 2007; Nakassis, 2010). These complementary staple and finance systems would have mobilized resources upwards towards palatial settlements in response to political and social strategies institutionalized and perpetuated by the palatial elite (e.g., Aprile, 2013; Earle, 2002; Hruby, 2013; Nakassis et al., 2011; Parkinson et al., 2013; Voutsaki and Killen, 2001). As discussed by Earle (2002) and illustrated by others (e.g., Dietler, 2001; Halstead and Barrett, 2004; Nakassis, 2010), however, resources are not static – staple goods can be mobilized to serve as wealth finances, creating systems of debt and obligation through non-transferable exchanges such as feasting (e.g., Dietler, 2001; Nakassis, 2010) or fostering ideological institutions through sacrifices to religious or cult deities (e.g., Bendall, 2007). In turn, wealth goods can be exploited as

⁎

Corresponding author. E-mail address: gypsycprice@ufl.edu (G.C. Price).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2017.05.034 Received 22 September 2016; Received in revised form 9 May 2017; Accepted 21 May 2017 2352-409X/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

standards of monetary or commercial exchange (e.g., Nakassis, 2010). While staple resources, such as mundane foodstuffs, may generally be considered interchangeable, when involved in acts of commensality, i.e. feasting, the life histories of resources render them non-interchangeable as they have been upwardly converted through a particular set of social interactions (e.g., Appadurai, 1986; Ingold, 2011; Knappett, 2011; Kopytoff, 1986; Renfrew et al., 1974; Renfrew, 2004; Voutsaki, 1997). Thus, when contextualizing resources in a larger political economy, interchangeability based on life histories, as well as application (staple vs. wealth finance), should be considered. Fauna constitute a unique category of economic resource in that they are ubiquitous in the archaeological record, ranging from domestic assemblages utilized for subsistence to ritualized deposits of burned or otherwise distinguished elements. Domesticated livestock are particularly embedded into the social, economic, and political fabric of early complex societies (e.g., Allentuck, 2013; Greenfield, 2010; Marciniak, 2011; Sherratt, 1983), thus associated management practices are often highly purposeful and enacted with consumption in mind. Most of what we know about the Mycenaean faunal economy is based on evidence from Linear B tablets, clay slabs upon which administrative matters were recorded in syllabic script (Linear B). Specific livestock demographic information of palatial flocks (including age, sex, and species), discrete quantity measurements (herd size and relative composition), and contextual information (including purpose of use, manner of acquisition, and production targets) are recorded on

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elevated δ15N values may be identifiable in faunal populations exposed to cultivated crops and/or leguminous fodder (DeNiro and Epstein, 1981). Elevated δ15N values may also be indicative of marine resource consumption. Marine ecosystems typically exhibit higher δ15N values than do terrestrial fauna due to increased trophic steps in their foodwebs and consumer δ15N values are enriched by approximately 3‰ in relation to the foods they consume (Schoeninger and DeNiro, 1984). Importantly, δ15N values vary in relation to aridity and temperature fluctuations (e.g., Hartman and Danin, 2010). Thus, δ15N values may inform anthropogenic management (such as foddering) and ecological contexts in which fauna were raised (e.g., Bocherens et al., 1994; Triantaphyllou et al., 2008; Ingvarsson-Sundstrom et al., 2009; Frémondeau et al., 2012). δ18O values are largely driven by evapotranspiration, the movement of water between terrestrial sources and the atmosphere. Myriad variables influence evapotranspiration and δ18O values including changes in temperature, latitude, elevation, humidity, amount of precipitation, and distance from geographic origin of water sources (e.g., Sponheimer and Lee-Thorp, 1999). In general, warmer weather conditions result in less negative (‘higher’) δ18O values and cooler weather conditions result in more negative (‘lower’) δ18O values. In a temperate environment such as modern day Greece, we can expect relatively high δ18O values in the summer and relatively low δ18O values in the winter (Bryant et al., 1996; Dansgaard, 1964). Non-human mammalian body water δ18O values are typically determined by their drinking water, which is composed of unmodified (distilled, boiled, etc.) local meteoric water. Therefore, δ18O values of mammalian bone are representative of imbibed local meteoric waters and ingested foods, and are thus reflective of the local physical environment and associated climate (e.g., Bryant et al., 1994; Longinelli, 1984; Luz et al., 1984). As δ18O values also tend to decrease with altitude and distance from bodies of water (e.g., Sharp, 2006), δ18O values from individuals that live at higher altitudes and further from a body of water may exhibit lower δ18O values than individuals that do not. Studies of δ18O in precipitation in Greece corroborate this inference, indicating differences as great as 5‰ between those living in the mountainous interior and those living nearer to the coast (Argiriou and Lykoudis, 2006; Dotsika et al., 2010).

tablets (Halstead, 2003; Killen, 1994; Ventris and Chadwick, 1956). Deadstock records (those referring to fauna to be slaughtered) describe fauna as fattened or destined for slaughter for ritual sacrifice or feasting events (Halstead, 2003; Killen, 1994). However, information from Linear B tablets is geographically and temporally restricted, as they have only been recovered from a limited number of administrative centers (predominately Thebes, Knossos, and Pylos) and only record transactions related to regionally limited palatial interests that occurred within months of their deposition (e.g., Finley, 1957; Halstead, 1992). These palatial interests in faunal resources appear to have been highly selective, focusing mainly on domesticated caprines and they relate to the production of secondary products such as wool and labor (e.g., Halstead, 1990, 1992). As stable isotopes reflect the diet and mobility of fauna during life, characteristics that are a direct result of human intervention in domesticated livestock, they can be used to identify species-specific management strategies in consumed fauna throughout all social, political, and economic strata of a society. This research uses stable isotope analyses to characterize the nature of the upward conversion of faunal resources recovered from disparate socio-economic sectors of early complex societies by identifying disparities in management strategies amongst faunal resources consumed at the palatial site of Mycenae, Greece, during the Late Bronze Age (LBA). 2. Background 2.1. Principles of isotopic analysis The use of stable isotopes is now routine in studies addressing diet and mobility of fauna (e.g., Balasse et al., 1999; Balasse et al., 2001; Balasse et al., 2002; Finucane et al., 2006; Hobson, 1999; Katzenberg, 1989; Stevens and Hedges, 2004; Thompson et al., 2005; Thornton et al., 2011). Here, carbon (δ13C), nitrogen (δ15N), and oxygen (δ18O) isotopes recovered from bone collagen and bone apatite are presented to assess differences in dietary regimes and mobility in exploited fauna at LBA Mycenae. δ13C variation is largely predicated on the different photosynthetic pathway characteristic of resident primary producers, differentiating between C3, C4, and CAM plants (DeNiro and Epstein, 1978; Farquhar et al., 1989; Kohn, 2010; O'Leary, 1988; Tieszen, 1991; Tieszen and Boutton, 1989). δ13C values also help to discern between marine and terrestrial systems (Smith, 1972; Chisholm et al., 1982; Schoeninger and DeNiro, 1984), as well as vary in relation to fluctuations in aridity, temperature, and elevation (Körner et al., 1991; Hartman and Danin, 2010; Kohn, 2010). In temperate climates such as Greece, C3 plants dominate modern terrestrial flora, while C4 vegetation is mostly limited to coastal environments. In the context of LBA southern Greece, elevated δ13C signatures present in exploited fauna are most likely due to the presence of natural vegetation such as Hyparrhenia hirta, a native perennial C4 grass. Though the C4 cultivar millet is present in northern Greece during the LBA, there is no conclusive evidence to suggest millet cultivation occurred as far south as the Argolid at this time (Halstead, 1995; Petroutsa and Manolis, 2010). Significant access to perennial C4 grasses, such as Hyparrhenia, may indicate less regulated diets and broader foraging regimes for fauna exhibiting elevated δ13C signatures. δ15N values reflect the isotopic composition of the consumers and their diet from primary (plant) producers to consumers along a food chain. δ15N values may distinguish between leguminous vs. nonleguminous and terrestrial vs. marine diets (DeNiro and Epstein, 1981; Schoeninger et al., 1983; Ingvarsson-Sundstrom et al., 2009), as well as trophic level within a known ecosystem (Schoeninger and DeNiro, 1984; Lee-Thorp et al., 1989; Bocherens et al., 1994). It has been suggested that during the LBA in Greece, legumes were utilized as fodder for domesticated fauna and perhaps planted alongside other crops to increase N2 levels in soils (Flint-Hamilton, 1999). Thus,

2.2. Archaeological context The ancient site of Mycenae is located about 90 km southwest of Athens in the northeast Peloponnese (Fig. 1). It spreads across three hills located approximately half a kilometer northeast of the modern village of Mykines. As it stands today, the site largely reflects the height of occupation during the LBA, though the site is known to have been occupied as far back as the early Neolithic (e.g., Wace, 1957). It is composed of a fortified hilltop citadel in which the elite rulers, priests, and priestesses likely resided with their retainers (Fig. 2). Intermittent structural foundations and a network of transportation infrastructure including roads, dams, and bridges, indicate that sprawling residential and industrial districts extend north, northwest, and southwest from the citadel (French et al., 2003; Mylonas, 1966a, 1966b). Samples for this project were chosen from two contexts interpreted to have operated in disparate socio-economic spheres of exchange in the palatial settlement of Mycenae: Petsas House, an industrial and domestic building located downslope from the citadel; and the Cult Center, an ideological complex located within the fortification walls of the citadel. Petsas House is a predominately LH IIIA 1–2 (1400–1300 BCE) habitation structure with extensive ceramic storage and production elements located downslope from the main citadel at Mycenae (Fig. 3). Petsas House is characterized as “extra-palatial” and “extra-citadel”, serving industrial, residential, and storage functions (e.g., Iakovidis, 2001; Papadimitriou and Petsas, 1950; Papadimitriou and Petsas, 1951; Shelton, 2010). While the exact relationship between this structure and the Mycenaean palace is uncertain, it has been suggested that it served 117

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Fig. 1. Map of Mycenae and select surrounding LBA sites.

The Cult Center complex is a collection of buildings located on the southwest slope, located between the Great Ramp which leads upwards to the north and the circuit wall to the southwest that envelops the citadel (Fig. 2). Cult activity likely started before integration into the

as privately owned, and more importantly independently provisioned, production, storage, and distribution building with domestic portions either for those who worked in or owned the structure, or of course both (e.g., Price, 2015; Shelton, 2010).

Fig. 2. Plan view of the citadel at Mycenae, with the Cult Center indicated (adapted from French, 2002: 55, Fig. 19).

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Fig. 3. Plan view of Petsas house; shaded circle indicates well from which fauna were sampled.

citadel walls in the mid LH III B, and ended with the destruction of the complex in LH IIIB 2 (1230–1190 BCE) (Mylonas, 1966a, 1966b; Rehak, 1992; Tsountas and Manatt, 1897; Wace, 1951). This complex shows evidence of ritual activity in multiple forms including terracotta figurines, burned faunal offerings, and wall paintings (e.g., French, 1981; Mylonas, 1966a, 1966b; Taylour, 1990). As such, this complex is thought to have been provisioned by the state using upwardly converted resources gathered from throughout an expanded region loyal to the palace during the LH IIIB 2 period.

isotopic analyses was carried out in the Bone Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Anthropology, University of Florida. Analytical runs of the materials were conducted in the Stable Isotope Laboratory in the Department of Geological Sciences, University of Florida. Bone samples were first manually cleaned and sonicated in doubledeionized distilled water (2x DI-H2O) and allowed to air dry, then reduced either by hand using mortar and pestle, or mechanically using a liquid nitrogen (LN2) SPEX mill. Reduced samples were separated into two fractions: 500 μm for bone collagen and 250 μm for bone apatite.

3. Materials and methods

3.2.1. Bone collagen Prior to extraction of bone collagen, lipids were removed from collagen samples to avoid contamination of carbon from other organic materials. Lipids were extracted from reduced samples using 2:1 methylene chloride/methanol in a Dionex Accelerated Solvent Extractor (ASE). Bone collagen fractions were extracted and purified following an adapted Longin (1971) method using modifications by Jørkov et al. (2007). Ground samples were weighed (~ 0.5 g) and placed in 15 mL graduated tubes and demineralized in 12 mL of 0.2 M hydrochloric acid (HCl) at room temperature for a period of up to 7 days. The samples were then rinsed to neutral pH in 2x DI-H2O and soaked in 12 mL of 0.25 M sodium hydroxide (NaOH) for a period of 16 to 20 h at room temperature to remove humic acids and extraneous organic material. Samples were then rinsed to neutral pH in 2x DI-H2O, and placed in 12 mL of 10− 3 M HCl at 95 °C for 4 to 5 h to minimize absorption of atmospheric CO2. 100 μL of 1 M HCl was then added to facilitate final dissolution and samples were returned to the oven at 95 °C for another 4 to 5 h. After the collagen fully dissolved, the samples were centrifuged and the solute was decanted into 20 mL scintillation vials to avoid any insoluble contaminants that remained. They were then reduced to a volume ~ 2 mL at 65 °C, placed in a conventional freezer until solid, then lyophilized for at least 72 h.

3.1. Field methods Bone samples from four purposefully managed faunal species (Bos taurus, Capra hircus, Ovis aries, and Sus scrofa) were collected at the Archaeological Museum of Mycenae in Mykines, Greece, over the course of five summer study seasons between the years of 2010 and 2014. Sampling preference for bone material was given to wellpreserved long bone shafts with good cortical integrity, identifiable to species, and with good archaeological provenience. Petsas House samples were chosen from throughout a well deposit composed of material dating to the destruction of the house in LH IIIA 2 (c. 1320 BCE); Cult Center samples were chosen from deposits containing evidence of ritual activity and dating to LH IIIB (1300–1190 BCE). Taxa identification of Cult Center materials was previously conducted by Umberto Albarella of the University of Sheffield. Taxa identification of the Petsas House materials was conducted by Jackie Meier of the University of Connecticut. 3.2. Lab methods All sample processing, cleaning, and chemical pretreatment for 119

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In terms of available analytical instrumentation, bone collagen δ13C and δ15N values were analyzed using one of two options: (1) a Thermo Electron Delta V Advantage IRMS coupled with a ConFlo II interface linked to a Carlo Erba NA 1500 CNS Elemental Analyzer or (2) Thermo Finnigan DeltaPlus XL IRMS with a ConFlo III interface linked to a Costech ECS 4010 Elemental Combustion System. δ13C values are expressed in standard delta notation (‰) relative to Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite (VPDB); δ15N values are expressed in standard delta notation (‰) relative to AIR. Precision of bone collagen isotopic results are based on USGS 40 standard for δ13CVPDB = 0.1‰ and δ15NAIR = 0.04‰.

(C-14-0002, C-14-0008, and C-14-0009). Individuals with relatively high δ15N value may have had access to either coastal grasses or agricultural residue composed of leguminous pulses or manured crops; the lack of marine signatures in the δ13C values reported above gives credence to the latter explanation. δ18O values from Petsas House Bos taurus bone apatite range from − 2.94‰ to −2.20‰ with an average of − 2.52‰ ± 0.38 (1σ). δ18O values from Cult Center Bos taurus bone apatite range from −3.25‰ to − 1.01‰ with an average of − 2.07‰ ± 0.69 (1σ). The limited variation exhibited by δ18O values from both sties indicate that sampled cattle likely had a homogeneous water source (either collected rainwater or spring water) and experienced similar climatic conditions. The relatively less negative δ18O values of both Petsas House and Cult Center Bos suggest residency in lower altitude, water adjacent, warmer conditions such as those that would have been experienced in the Argolid or the Corinthia.

3.2.2. Bone apatite Bone apatite samples were weighed (~ 0.5 g) and placed in 15 mL graduated tubes and pretreated with 2.5% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) solution for 16 h to remove extraneous organic material. They were then rinsed to neutral pH in 2x DI-H2O and soaked in 0.2 M acetic acid (CH3COOH) for 16 h to remove any remaining soluble carbonates. Samples were then rinsed to neutral pH in 2x DI-H2O, frozen in a conventional freezer until solid, and lyophilized for at least 48 h. Bone apatite δ13C and δ18O values were measured by first reacting pretreated samples in 100% orthophosphoric acid at 70 °C using a Kiel III carbonate preparation device. Evolved CO2 gas was then measured online with a Finnigan-MAT 252 mass spectrometer. All isotope results are reported in standard delta notation (‰) relative to VPDB. Precision of bioapatite isotopic results are based on NBS 19 standard for δ13CVPDB = 0.05‰ and δ18OVPDB = 0.09‰.

4.2. Caprines δ13Cco values from Petsas House (n = 43) and Cult Center (n = 27) caprines show little variation, ranging from − 21.77‰ to − 19.55‰, with an average value of − 20.75‰ ± 0.52 (1σ), and from − 21.25‰ to −18.93‰, with an average δ13Cco value of −20.40‰ ± 0.61 (1σ), respectively. As with the Bos ratios, these values are consistent with what we would expect from browsers and grazers feeding mainly on terrestrial C3 plants. δ13Cap values exhibit slightly more variation, ranging from − 15.05‰ to − 11.49‰, with an average value of − 13.11‰ ± 0.87 (1σ), and from −14.75‰ to − 10.62‰, with an average value of − 12.42‰ ± 0.92 (1σ), respectively. Petsas House combined caprine Δ13Cap-co values range from 6.39‰ to 9.44‰, with an average value of 7.64‰ ± 0.82 (1σ), while Cult Center combined caprine Δ13Cap-co values range from6.46‰ to 10.35‰, with an average value of 7.98‰ ± 0.77 (1σ). These spacing values align with herbivorous dietary activity with perhaps a slight C4 input in some individuals. When compared to Petsas House caprines, Cult Center caprine δ13C values from both bone collagen and bone apatite are significantly less negative (p = 0.013 and 0.002, respectively), suggesting less restricted access to either leguminous pulses or coastal grasses. However, Δ13Cap-co spacing values are not significantly different (p = 0.084), suggesting no difference in the proportional contribution of proteinaceous food stuffs in the diets of Petsas House and Cult Center caprines δ15N values from Petsas House caprine bone collagen range from 2.90‰ to 10.71‰ with an average of 5.03‰ ± 1.36 (1σ). While this range seems large, it should be noted that the majority of individuals exhibit δ15N values of 6.12‰ or lower, with only three exhibiting higher ratios. Using the outlier-labeling rule, two of these three individuals can be considered outliers (C-12-2457 and C-14-0095). As both of these outliers have Δ13Cap-co values well within the range expected for herbivorous animals, it is unlikely that these caprines were feeding off of human refuse, thereby accidentally ingesting animal protein. Instead, these three caprines may have had access to agricultural residue from manure-treated crops and pulses, or supplemented their diets with seaweed or salt marsh grasses. δ15N values from Cult Center caprine bone collagen range from 3.59‰ to 8.30‰ with an average of 5.93‰ ± 1.36 (1σ). As discussed above, individuals exhibiting elevated δ15N values may have had access to agricultural residue from leguminous pulses known to have been cultivated during the LBA. When compared to Petsas House caprines, Cult Center caprines exhibit significantly higher δ15N values (p = 0.009), indicating relatively greater access to leguminous pulses or coastal grasses. δ18O values from Petsas House caprine bone apatite range from − 3.68‰ to 1.06‰ with an average of − 1.75‰ ± 1.46 (1σ). δ18O values from Cult Center caprine bone apatite range from − 3.29‰ to 1.09‰ with an average of − 1.07‰ ± 1.43 (1σ). Visual inspection of δ18O values for combined caprines from both contexts indicates a

4. Results Results from a total of 99 faunal individuals (55 from Petsas House and 44 from the Cult Center) are presented in Tables 1 and 2, respectively, and Figs. 4 and 5. Sample population means were compared using independent samples t-test (p ≤ 0.05). 4.1. Bos taurus δ13Cco values from Petsas House (n = 3) and Cult Center (n = 11) Bos taurus show very little variation, ranging from −20.58‰ to − 20.28‰, with an average value of − 20.43‰ ± 0.15 (1σ), and − 21.02‰ to −18.82‰, with an average value of − 20.23‰ ± 0.67 (1σ), respectively. These values are consistent for grazers feeding mainly on terrestrial C3 plants, including known LBA agricultural products such as wheat and barley. δ13Cap values from Petsas House Bos taurus range from − 12.82‰ to −11.44‰, with an average value of − 12.26‰ ± 0.73 (1σ), while carbon apatite-collagen spacing values (Δ13Cap-co) range from 7.76‰ to 8.84‰, with an average value of 8.17‰ ± 0.59 (1σ). δ13Cap values from Cult Center Bos taurus range from −13.20‰ to − 10.63‰, with an average value of − 11.57‰ ± 0.70 (1σ), with Δ13Cap-co values ranging from 6.82‰ to 9.87‰, with an average value of 8.66‰ ± 0.98 (1σ). These spacing values are in accord with herbivorous dietary activity, and in conjunction with δ13Cap values, suggest minor C4 input (Jim et al. 2004). Although the variation in Cult Center Bos is slightly higher than those in Petsas House Bos (Fig. 4), the limited variation in bone collagen and apatite δ13C values suggest that each of these cows was subject to similar dietary conditions. δ15N values from Petsas House Bos taurus bone collagen range from 3.41‰ to 6.51‰ with an average of 4.75‰ ± 1.59 (1σ). While two of the cattle exhibit δ15N values in keeping with expected terrestrial herbivorous signatures, the third exhibits an elevated δ15N value (6.51‰). δ15N values from Cult Center Bos taurus bone collagen range from 3.70‰ to 8.98‰ with an average of 6.02‰ ± 1.77 (1σ). These δ15N values are slightly higher than those obtained from Petsas House Bos, with three individuals exhibiting exceptionally high δ15N values 120

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Table 1 Light isotopic results recovered from Petsas House fauna. Species

Bos taurus Bos taurus Bos taurus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Sus scrofa Sus scrofa Sus scrofa Sus scrofa Sus scrofa Sus scrofa Sus scrofa Sus scrofa Sus scrofa

δ15N (‰)

Bone collagen #

δ13Cco (‰)

C-12-2438 C-12-2439 C-14-0060 C-12-2457 C-14-0068 C-14-0069 C-14-0070 C-14-0071 C-14-0072 C-14-0073 C-14-0074 C-14-0075 C-14-0076 C-14-0077 C-14-0078 C-14-0079 C-14-0080 C-14-0081 C-14-0104 C-12-2452 C-12-2453 C-12-2454 C-12-2455 C-12-2456 C-14-0085 C-14-0086 C-14-0087 C-14-0090 C-14-0091 C-14-0092 C-14-0093 C-14-0094 C-14-0095 C-14-0096 C-14-0097 C-14-0098 C-14-0099 C-14-0100 C-12-2458 C-12-2459 C-12-2460 C-12-2461 C-14-0102 C-14-0103 C-14-0105 C-14-0106 C-12-2445 C-12-2446 C-12-2447 C-12-2448 C-12-2449 C-12-2450 C-12-2451 C-14-0107 C-14-0109

− 20.44 − 20.58 − 20.28 − 20.55 − 20.76 − 19.84 − 20.54 − 20.69 − 21.60 − 20.58 − 20.74 − 20.88 − 20.47 − 20.96 − 21.04 − 19.78 − 21.77 − 19.55 − 21.33 − 20.87 − 20.55 − 19.98 − 21.03 − 21.01 − 21.06 − 20.20 − 19.69 − 20.75 − 20.62 − 21.39 − 21.26 − 21.35 − 20.66 − 20.89 − 20.03 − 20.45 − 20.51 − 21.56 − 21.37 − 20.59 − 21.45 − 20.53 − 20.58 − 21.10 − 20.87 − 20.95 − 20.40 − 20.82 − 20.61 − 19.83 − 18.15 − 20.16 − 19.83 − 21.10 − 21.20

6.51 4.33 3.41 10.71 4.14 6.06 4.80 3.93 4.28 4.39 3.29 5.48 4.95 4.06 5.63 3.18 4.68 4.33 5.36 5.82 6.12 6.01 4.60 4.65 4.03 5.38 5.73 5.26 3.76 4.88 4.06 4.37 8.29 5.37 4.79 6.03 4.98 4.68 5.59 4.91 4.42 4.34 4.40 4.35 2.90 7.49 6.88 3.94 6.15 6.19 9.73 10.37 8.12 5.19 5.12

C:N

3.18 3.19 3.27 3.21 3.28 3.23 3.23 3.24 3.32 3.23 3.25 3.24 3.23 3.23 3.22 3.22 3.22 3.20 3.28 3.22 3.22 3.21 3.20 3.19 3.23 3.23 3.21 3.20 3.25 3.23 3.24 3.20 3.23 3.21 3.22 3.19 3.18 3.21 3.24 3.26 3.21 3.20 3.22 3.28 3.31 3.25 3.22 3.19 3.19 3.20 3.18 3.20 3.20 3.30 3.27

Bone apatite Apatite #

δ13Cap (‰)

A-12-1340 A-12-1341 A-14-0060 A-12-1359 A-14-0068 A-14-0069 A-14-0070 A-14-0071 A-14-0072 A-14-0073 A-14-0074 A-14-0075 A-14-0076 A-14-0077 A-14-0078 A-14-0079 A-14-0080 A-14-0081 A-14-0104 A-12-1354 A-12-1355 A-12-1356 A-12-1357 A-12-1358 A-14-0085 A-14-0086 A-14-0087 A-14-0090 A-14-0091 A-14-0092 A-14-0093 A-14-0094 A-14-0095 A-14-0096 A-14-0097 A-14-0098 A-14-0099 A-14-0100 A-12-1360 A-12-1361 A-12-1362 A-12-1363 A-14-0102 A-14-0103 A-14-0105 A-14-0106 A-12-1347 A-12-1348 A-12-1349 A-12-1350 A-12-1351 A-12-1352 A-12-1353 A-14-0107 A-14-0109

− 12.52 − 12.82 − 11.44 − 13.62 − 12.35 − 12.22 − 12.17 − 12.53 − 12.16 − 13.73 − 13.83 − 14.11 − 13.68 − 12.93 − 12.96 − 13.20 − 15.07 − 12.56 − 12.70 − 14.19 − 12.92 − 12.29 − 13.99 − 13.63 − 13.83 − 12.48 − 12.10 − 14.36 − 12.60 − 12.82 − 12.48 − 14.51 − 13.15 − 11.65 − 11.49 − 13.22 − 13.44 − 15.05 − 12.60 − 12.55 − 13.32 − 13.35 − 13.12 − 12.24 − 12.35 − 14.38 − 11.55 − 13.33 − 15.01 − 14.03 − 12.45 − 13.15 − 13.64 − 12.57 − 12.91

δ18O (‰)

Δ (δ13Cap-co)

− 2.43 − 2.20 − 2.94 − 0.11 − 3.23 − 2.43 − 3.09 − 2.63 − 3.55 0.52 − 0.06 − 0.08 1.06 − 3.09 − 3.25 0.41 − 2.50 0.27 − 2.86 − 0.43 − 2.93 − 0.95 − 0.84 − 0.15 − 1.64 − 2.96 0.87 − 1.18 − 2.48 − 3.14 − 2.65 − 1.03 − 3.68 − 3.20 − 2.53 − 1.20 − 0.09 − 2.06 − 3.61 − 3.27 − 2.99 − 0.84 − 1.06 − 3.34 − 3.29 − 0.10 − 3.41 − 0.10 − 2.64 − 4.45 − 4.00 − 0.59 − 4.98 − 2.96 − 3.84

7.92 7.76 8.84 6.93 8.41 7.62 8.37 8.16 9.44 6.85 6.91 6.77 6.79 8.03 8.08 6.58 6.70 6.99 8.63 6.68 7.63 7.69 7.04 7.38 7.23 7.72 7.59 6.39 8.02 8.57 8.78 6.84 7.51 9.24 8.54 7.23 7.07 6.51 8.77 8.04 8.13 7.18 7.46 8.86 8.52 6.57 8.85 7.49 5.60 5.80 5.70 7.01 6.19 8.53 8.29

4.3. Sus scrofa

bimodal distribution (Fig. 4). Greater clarification is given by comparing apatite δ13C and δ18O values (Fig. 5). Bone apatite data demonstrate that the sampled caprine population can be separated into two distinct groups: one with higher δ18O values and generally lower δ13Cap values, and another with lower δ18O and generally higher δ13Cap values. As δ18O values become more negative as water is depleted in 18O and enriched in 16O, more negative δ18O values indicate instances of increased elevation, increased rainfall, or relatively low temperatures, and vice versa. Considering the region, what is most likely driving this variation is a disparity in watering practices either regarding spring vs. precipitation watering, or watering with precipitation collected in the highlands vs. the lowlands.

δ13Cco values from Petsas House Sus scrofa (n = 9) range from − 21.20‰ to − 18.15‰ with an average value of − 20.23‰ ± 0.93 (1σ). δ13Cco values from Cult Center Sus scrofa (n = 6) range from − 20.86‰ to − 19.49‰ with an average δ13Cco value of − 20.18‰ ± 0.48 (1σ). For both populations, these values are consistent with expected values for omnivorous fauna feeding in a mainly terrestrial C3 environment. Compared to Petsas House Sus, δ13Cco values from Cult Center Sus exhibit slightly less variation, suggesting a more regulated diet. δ13Cap values from Petsas House Sus range from − 15.01‰ to − 11.55‰ with an average value of − 13.18‰ ± 1.00 (1σ), with Δ13Cap-co values ranging from 5.60‰ to 8.85‰, with an 121

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Table 2 Light isotopic results from Cult Center fauna. Species

Bos taurus Bos taurus Bos taurus Bos taurus Bos taurus Bos taurus Bos taurus Bos taurus Bos taurus Bos taurus Bos taurus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Capra hircus Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis aries Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Ovis/Capra Sus scrofa Sus scrofa Sus scrofa Sus scrofa Sus scrofa Sus scrofa

δ15N (‰)

Bone collagen #

δ13Cco (‰)

C-14-0008 C-14-0009 C-14-0003 C-14-0004 C-14-0007 C-14-0010 C-14-0011 C-14-0001 C-14-0005 C-14-0006 C-14-0002 C-14-0020 C-14-0017 C-14-0019 C-14-0021 C-14-0016 C-14-0018 C-14-0032 C-14-0031 C-14-0033 C-14-0034 C-14-0036 C-14-0037 C-14-0038 C-14-0027 C-14-0028 C-14-0029 C-14-0035 C-14-0030 C-14-0051 C-14-0047 C-14-0042 C-14-0043 C-14-0041 C-14-0046 C-14-0049 C-14-0050 C-14-0040 C-14-0055 C-14-0057 C-14-0053 C-14-0054 C-14-0052 C-14-0056

− 18.82 − 20.05 − 21.02 − 19.91 − 20.21 − 19.99 − 20.99 − 20.99 − 20.02 − 20.77 − 19.76 − 21.21 − 20.35 − 20.9 − 20.99 − 21.25 − 18.93 − 20.56 − 21.05 − 20.73 − 20.13 − 20.58 − 20.03 − 20.18 − 20.73 − 20.82 − 20.31 − 20.89 − 19.27 − 19.73 − 19.21 − 20.49 − 20.45 − 20.69 − 19.53 − 20.29 − 20.75 − 20.81 − 20.17 − 20.38 − 19.49 − 20.37 − 19.81 − 20.86

8.98 6.71 4.11 5.95 4.74 7.31 3.70 4.25 5.80 6.13 8.56 5.95 4.95 4.29 5.84 3.59 7.31 5.00 3.87 4.80 6.08 6.50 6.18 7.08 4.81 4.42 7.42 4.42 5.35 4.73 5.59 7.76 8.30 6.91 7.64 6.95 6.37 8.09 5.00 4.83 6.86 5.24 6.01 4.34

C:N

3.20 3.20 3.18 3.17 3.19 3.19 3.20 3.17 3.17 3.16 3.14 3.22 3.21 3.20 3.25 3.31 3.20 3.27 3.25 3.22 3.25 3.24 3.24 3.28 3.23 3.21 3.23 3.38 3.22 3.27 3.24 3.22 3.26 3.23 3.26 3.30 3.28 3.28 3.31 3.24 3.26 3.27 3.28 3.26

average value of 7.05‰ ± 1.29 (1σ). Cult Center Sus δ13Cap values range from − 14.12‰ to −11.73‰ with an average δ13Cap value of − 12.66‰ ± 0.89 (1σ), while Δ13Cap-co spacing values range from 6.25‰ to 9.05‰, with an average value of 7.52‰ ± 1.13 (1σ). There is no statistical significance between Petsas House and Cult Center δ13Cap or Δ13Cap-co values. δ15N values from Petsas House Sus scrofa bone collagen range from 3.94‰ to 10.37‰ with an average of 6.85‰ ± 2.16. These δ15N values are consistent with omnivorous activity, but are higher than those of other ungulates at Petsas House. Elevated δ15N values may be due to the inclusion of sub-adults in the sampled population, though not all individuals exhibiting elevated δ15N values could be considered juveniles according to epiphyseal closure observations. When juveniles are excluded from the sample, the δ15N values from the remaining Petsas House Sus scrofa bone collagen range from 3.94‰ to 10.37‰ with an average of 6.76‰ ± 2.28. The persistent elevated δ15N values indicate that some factor other than age is responsible for this observed pattern. Additionally, variation in the Petsas House Sus population is much greater than in other Petsas House ungulates. Again, while this variation may be due to the inclusion of juveniles, the increased variation persists once juveniles are excluded indicating an alternative explanation such as differential access to 15N enriched foodstuffs. δ15N

Bone apatite Apatite #

δ13Cap (‰)

A-14-0008 A-14-0009 A-14-0003 A-14-0004 A-14-0007 A-14-0010 A-14-0011 A-14-0001 A-14-0005 A-14-0006 A-14-0002 A-14-0020 A-14-0017 A-14-0019 A-14-0021 A-14-0016 A-14-0018 A-14-0032 A-14-0031 A-14-0033 A-14-0034 A-14-0036 A-14-0037 A-14-0038 A-14-0027 A-14-0028 A-14-0029 A-14-0035 A-14-0030 A-14-0051 A-14-0047 A-14-0042 A-14-0043 A-14-0041 A-14-0046 A-14-0049 A-14-0050 A-14-0040 A-14-0055 A-14-0057 A-14-0053 A-14-0054 A-14-0052 A-14-0056

− 11.44 − 11.59 − 11.69 − 10.69 − 10.63 − 11.29 − 11.65 − 11.12 − 13.20 − 11.90 − 12.04 − 14.75 − 12.22 − 12.21 − 13.20 − 10.88 − 11.57 − 11.69 − 12.51 − 13.15 − 11.69 − 11.92 − 12.07 − 11.81 − 12.95 − 13.02 − 12.86 − 13.89 − 10.62 − 11.54 − 11.52 − 12.13 − 13.66 − 12.57 − 12.12 − 12.93 − 12.65 − 13.30 − 12.48 − 11.73 − 12.68 − 14.12 − 13.12 − 11.81

δ18O (‰)

Δ (δ13Cap-co)

− 2.05 − 1.01 − 2.14 − 1.21 − 3.25 − 1.33 − 2.93 − 2.55 − 2.21 − 1.93 − 2.18 − 2.87 − 0.33 − 0.02 0.63 − 2.88 − 0.55 − 1.67 − 0.81 0.41 − 3.11 − 0.70 − 3.29 − 1.53 0.59 0.46 − 0.81 − 2.47 − 0.30 0.30 1.09 0.15 − 2.29 0.70 − 2.81 − 1.23 − 3.22 − 2.29 − 2.23 − 2.85 − 0.88 − 2.26 − 3.09 − 2.95

7.38 8.46 9.33 9.22 9.58 8.70 9.34 9.87 6.82 8.87 7.72 6.46 8.13 8.69 7.79 10.37 7.36 8.87 8.54 7.58 8.44 8.66 7.96 8.37 7.78 7.80 7.45 7.00 8.65 8.19 7.69 8.36 6.79 8.12 7.41 7.36 8.10 7.51 7.69 8.65 6.81 6.25 6.69 9.05

values from Cult Center Sus scrofa bone collagen range from 4.34‰ to 6.86‰ with an average of 5.38‰ ± 0.91. Unlike Petsas House Sus, bone collagen δ15N values from Cult Center Sus are not significantly different from other Cult Center ungulates, and appear to have consumed a largely similar diet in terms of animal protein intake. δ18O values from Petsas House Sus scrofa bone apatite range from − 4.98‰ to −0.10‰ with an average of − 3.00‰ ± 1.67 (1σ). δ18O values from Cult Center Sus scrofa bone apatite range from −3.09‰ to − 0.88‰ with an average of − 2.38‰ ± 0.82 (1σ). At each site, Sus δ18O values are significantly more negative than other ungulates (p = 0.03 and 0.01, respectively). This suggests that both Petsas House and Cult Center pigs imbibed water that was isotopically depleted in lighter 16O when compared to other ungulates. The more negative δ18O values may be indicative of watering with spring water originating in the highlands, standing water sources (such as basins) subjected to evaporation, or boiled water. The disparities between Petsas House and Cult Center Sus populations indicate a distinct difference in management strategies enacted at each context. 5. Discussion These data indicate the presence of distinct species-specific differ122

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Fig. 4. Species-specific distribution of δ13C, δ15N, and δ18O values recovered from Cult Center (solid figures) and Petsas House (open figures) fauna. A) Bone collagen δ13C values. B) Bone collagen δ15N values. C) Bone apatite δ13C values. D) Bone apatite δ18O values.

occurrence of Petsas House supplementing caprine rations received from the palatial elite as compensation for ceramic services with caprine resources obtained through other modes of exchange such as a market, and the provisioning of the Cult Center with caprine resources obtained from both palatial flocks and a market economy or through obligatory tribute. This would suggest that the same criteria for upward conversion of caprine resources for consumption at the Cult Center applied for resources redistributed by the palatial elite in exchange for services from independent artisans. Alternatively, caprine resources may have been so abundant that palatial elite turned to more superficial characteristics, such as coloration, temperament, or even lineage, to designate fauna appropriate for upward conversion. Another possibility is that caprines may have served a more practical role in feasting events than either Bos or Sus resources, serving as filler meat in ideological consumptive contexts, thus negating the necessity for upward conversion. Of the data presented here, isotopic values from Sus scrofa constitute the best evidence for upward conversion of consumed faunal resources at LBA Mycenae. Both populations of consumed Sus exhibit δ18O values are consistent with access to standing water, suggesting anthropogenic intervention in management. Elevated δ15N values for Petsas House Sus suggest that they were provisioned with human refuse; Cult Center Sus lack elevated δ15N values, and instead exhibit isotopic signatures consistent with grain-based fodder. While it is tempting to interpret this dietary discrepancy to be indicative of wild vs. domesticated Sus, there is no definitive evidence to suggest that wild boar were consumed during feasting events taking place at Mycenae (e.g., Morris, 1990; Wright, 2004). Perhaps what is more likely is that upward conversion of

ences between fauna consumed in disparate socio-economic sectors of the palatial settlement of Mycenae, suggesting some degree of upward conversion of faunal resources based on management strategies. While it should be noted that observed variation may be attributed to chronological disparity between the two contexts, calibrated AMS dates obtained from sampled faunal bone material and the presence of cult activity at the Cult Center prior to the integration into the citadel walls in the mid LH III B suggest overlap in usage (Price, 2015). In the case of Bos taurus, those consumed at the Cult Center appear to have had less restricted diets and perhaps a broader foraging range than those consumed at Petsas House, as evidenced by their greater variation in isotopic signatures. Access to a broader isotopic catchment range is in keeping with Linear B evidence that either oxen managed by the palatial elite were loaned out to aid in agricultural endeavors (e.g., Halstead, 1999, 2003; Killen, 1993) or were required from surrounding non-palatial settlements as contributions in the form of taxation for feasting events or other state-sponsored endeavors (e.g., Chadwick, 1976; Halstead, 2003; Palaima, 2004). The greater dietary restriction suggested by isotopic data recovered from Petsas House Bos support the interpretation that Bos consumed in more mundane contexts were independently managed. If these interpretations are correct, the upward conversion of Bos taurus individuals for consumption in ritual contexts was based on labor, utility, and origin rather than specific dietary management. The absence of inter-context variation and similarity of intracontext variation between consumed caprines suggests ubiquitous access to caprine resources across socio-economic strata at Mycenae. This distribution of caprine resources may have resulted from the co-

123

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Fig. 5. Species-specific bone collagen and apatite values recovered from Cult Center (solid figures) and Petsas House (open figures) fauna.

have been comprised of both a spatial and dietary component. The greatest differences were found in exploited Sus populations, while caprine resources exhibited the least inter-context variation. Studies such as this broaden the application of isotope analyses in faunal studies beyond providing baselines for interpreting human isotopic data and reconstructing environments to address questions of purposeful management and political intervention in subsistence endeavors.

Sus scrofa resources for consumption at the Cult Center was marked by supplementing the diet of individuals marked for consumption with grain-based fodder from agricultural surplus. This management strategy would have been effective in demonstrating the agricultural prowess of the state while at the same time ensuring a corpulent and satisfying sacrifice for conspicuous consumption.

6. Conclusion Acknowledgements This paper demonstrates the ability of stable isotope analyses to identify differences in faunal management practices enacted at ancient sites, factors that should be taken into account when modeling ancient economies. These data show that there were species-specific disparities in management practices of fauna consumed in disparate socioeconomic sectors of the palatial settlement of Mycenae during the LBA. These differences suggest that there was a degree of institutionalized conversion taking place which distinguished faunal resources destined for different consumptive purposes. This conversion appears to

We would like to thank the Division of Research Implementation of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism General Directorship of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage of Greece for the permission to sample and transport materials to the United States for analyses. All stable isotope analyses were carried out at the Bone Chemistry Laboratory at the University of Florida and Jason Curtis (Department of Geological Sciences, University of Florida) conducted the mass spectrometry. Funding was provided by the Archaeological Institute of America, the 124

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