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Research management issues in the Arab countries
Higher Education Policy 15 (2002) 225 – 247 www.elsevier.com/locate/highedpol
Research management issues in the Arab countries Nabiel A.M. Saleh National Research Centre, 12311 E1-Dokki, Cairo, Egypt
1. Introduction The North–South scienti)c gap is wide and growing at an alarming rate. Notwithstanding stories of success, developing countries (including the Arab countries) are falling further behind industrial countries in terms of their S&T capacities and achievements. Developed countries have nearly ten times as many R&D scientists and technicians as developing countries (3.8 versus 0.4 per 1000 population). A much higher share of their populations study science at the tertiary level. They spend some 2–3.8% of GDP on R&D, compared to 0.5% or less in most developing countries. Together, Western Europe, North America, Japan and newly industrialised East Asia countries account for about 85% of scienti)c articles published, and more than 97% of patents registered in Europe and the United States. Institution-wide research management has emerged as a substantial concern for universities, and possibly for non-university research organisations in developed countries. This re8ects a number of closely inter-related factors—changes in funding regimes; new social and economic demands on universities and university systems; changes in the practice of innovation; new research co-operation and links between universities, industry, commerce, government and the wider community. Globalisation and the pressures of international competition are dissolving boundaries between nations, institutions and disciplines, creating a distributed knowledge production system that is increasingly global. Whether universities can adapt and play a more participatory role in global knowledge production is a central issue (Gibbons, 2000). Unless universities become active in team collaboration—the basis for competition within the modern university—theirs will be a reduced role in national economic development. The challenge facing Arab countries compared to developed countries is even more di
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transformation of universities to reach a global competitive level is the present and future challenge. This study covers 21 Arab countries and for simplicity, shorter versions of the countries names have been used. The Comores which recently joined the League of Arab States is not included for lack of material in the reference works consulted. 2. Research and current trends in knowledge production 2.1. Role of the universities Universities have been part of the human heritage for centuries. Among the earliest European universities are Bologna, Paris and Oxford, which date from the high Middle Ages. In the Arab region, the oldest university, Al-Azhar, started as early as 975 AD in the form of seminars, and gradually grew into a regional centre for religious and linguistic scholarship. By the 14th and 15th century AD, a number of natural sciences were introduced, and in 1961 Al-Azhar University was registered with the remaining universities in Egypt. The Syrian Protestant College, established in the late 1860s, was later renamed the American University of Beirut. In all, there are 175 universities in the Arab States. Six have only one university, while the Sudan has the largest number (27). The majority include science and technology (S&T) and humanities and social sciences (H&SS) colleges. A few, however, have only one or the other. 7 universities only have S&T colleges, while 14 universities have H&SS colleges alone (Qasem, 1998a). Arab universities are, by international standards, young. Prior to the late 1950s and early 1960s, only three countries had established universities. Over a third of all Arab universities were created during the past 10 –12 years (Qasem 1998a). According to an ESCWA report, the number of universities in the Arab countries varies in a manner that does not re8ect diIerences in their populations. The Syrian Arab Republic, in particular, appears to have only four universities whereas Jordan has around 17, and Yemen around 15. However, the Syrian Arab Republic leads the Arab countries in terms of the number of technical institutes (129) (ESCWA, 1999=4). Universities in the Arab countries lean more towards the classical type of university. Recently, a few universities have started programmes to reach out to society. However, this relationship has not assumed any concrete expression with end users, spin-oI companies, technology incubators or technology parks. The role of universities is the subject of discussions, conferences, and workshops, in academia as well as in regional and international organisations such as ALECSO (The Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scienti)c Organisation), ESCWA (Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia), 1997 and UNESCO–Cairo O
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of Jordan, Lebanon and the territories under the Palestinian Authority. In all three countries, non-governmental higher education institutions outnumber governmental institutes. In general, S&T disciplines are represented by a smaller number of colleges (387) than disciplines in the humanities and the arts (418). The only three countries with prevailing S&T institutions are Bahrain, Oman and the Syrian Arab Republic. At Bachelor level, the average percentage for students majoring in S&T in Arab countries is 28.7% and 71.3% for humanities and the arts. The lowest levels of Bachelor degree students majoring in S&T subjects are in: Egypt (18.2%), Saudi Arabia (16.5%) and Yemen (11.3%). On the other hand those specialising in S&T increase with the level of quali)cation, from an average of 28.7% at the Bachelor level to 49.3% at the M.Sc. level and 65.1% at the Ph.D. level in all Arab countries (Qasem, 1998a). An ESCWA report noted the small number of students enrolled in diploma courses in general. This group of professionals provides an important link between holders of university degrees and graduates of technical institutes. The number of students in higher education per 1000 of the population is a further indicator. Figures for Yemen, the United Arab Emirates and Oman are extremely low (0.4 – 0.7%) and rather low for Bahrain, the Syrian Arab Republic and Egypt (1.4 –1.6%). Jordan, Lebanon and the territories under the Palestinian Authority show the highest level (2.5 –2.8%) (ESCWA, 1999=4). One important indicator of quality in higher education is the student=teacher ratio. In the ESCWA report, during the period of 1980 –1995 Arab countries showed a high student: teacher ratio indicating a poor quality of education. Female students enrolled in higher education in the Arab countries reached 33% which is comparable with that for developed countries (37%) (ESCWA, 1999=4). 2.2. Role of research organisations other than universities In many OECD countries, public laboratories play a leading role in research. The diIerent governments encourage collaboration between these public laboratories and universities. In his study into “Research and Development Systems in the Arab States”, Qasem pointed out that 322 R&D units existed in 1996, compared to 295 in 1992. He divided R&D organisations into four categories, based on their a
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Two of the largest non-university research organisations in the Arab countries are the Agricultural Research Centre (ARC) and the National Research Centre (NRC) of Egypt. The ARC is composed of comprehensive administrative units, special service laboratories and 16 R&D institutes. Each institute is a separate organisational unit representing an agricultural commodity. ARC is governed by the Ministry of Agriculture and enjoys a high margin of administrative autonomy. The Ministry of Scienti)c Research on the other hand governs the NRC. The NRC, established in 1956, as a multidisciplinary research organisation, is presently composed of 11 divisions (downsized from 13 in 1998) representing major industries, health, environmental, agricultural and basic sciences. The NRC also enjoys a high margin of administrative autonomy (Saleh, Fakhry and El-Tobgui, 1999). Institutes such as the ARC and NRC of Egypt enjoy a high degree of autonomy, while R&D divisions or departments in countries like Yemen, Syria and Jordan enjoy only a marginal degree of autonomy. Productivity and impact are the most controversial and least documented aspects of ministry-governed R&D organisations. Given the working conditions of R&D organisations in the Arab countries, this dimension warrants further work to re)ne a methodology for estimating R&D impact (Qasem, 1998b). Autonomous R&D organisations are also run by the public sector, and are governed by a board or council enjoying a high degree of independence and autonomy. Qasem (1998b) noted that these organisations are not burdened with day to day routine work, characteristic of ministry-governed organisations. In several cases, the R&D establishments operate under the umbrella of national R&D institutions, which provide funds to institutions outside its organisation. This is the pattern that operates at the King Abdel-Aziz City for Science and Technology in Saudi Arabia, the Bahrain Centre for Studies and Research, the Lebanese National Council for Scienti)c Research and the Higher Council for Science and Technology in Jordan. Iraq’s IBA Agricultural Research Centre is another innovative model which has a core R&D staI, but also draws on staI of other units working in universities and ministry-governed R&D establishments (Qasem, 1998b). In 1996 only 17 R&D units were identi)ed as operational in industries which are both owned and managed by the private sector or owned but not managed, by government. The actual number may be higher since several industries have R&D activities but are not considered as independent R&D units. Banks, non-governmental organisations in social and economic arenas, as well as large corporations may also have R&D activities. But these are di
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at least those elements of higher education that would not be supplied if left to the market, promotes equity, and supports those areas of basic research relevant to the country’s needs (World Bank, 2000). In considering research management, the importance of policies and strategies cannot be ignored. In an increasingly competitive environment, universities and R&D institutes are under pressure to develop policies and strategies, linked to and based on, national economic and social development plans. Such institutional planning is needed to optimise the use of the capabilities by short and long-term plans. It is also needed to co-ordinate the university’s research, teaching and service elements. S&T policies in the Arab countries: A multitude of indicators con)rms that the Arab countries need to pay much greater attention to resources, institutional arrangements and policy support. Indicators of both inputs and outputs of national S&T systems point to serious inadequacies, especially where access to new technologies and information resources is concerned (ESCWA, 1999=4). The picture is not encouraging when S&T publications in refereed journals are assessed. Numbers of patents awarded to )rms and individuals in the Arab countries, fall far below world averages and below several other developing countries. In general, expenditure on R&D in Arab countries amounts to around one tenth of that spent in industrialised countries (ESCWA, 1999=4). Reporting on S&T policies, ESCWA revealed evidence of a growing awareness and determination to build on, and complement, existing S&T structures and to improve their eIectiveness and e
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The ESCWA study (ESCWA, 1999=4) identi)ed the following features within S&T policies in ESCWA member countries: (1) Only a few member countries have initiated exercises in formulating national S&T policy. (2) Past attempts to formulate S&T policies and strategic plans have invariably been made by ministries and government-sponsored institutions, mainly higher education and central research institutions. Actual participation by public and private sector enterprises has been minimal. Thus, few ties, if any, appear to link production and services sectors to R&D institutions and universities. (3) Agriculture, agro-food industries, health services and improving the competitive stance are among the priorities listed in policy pronouncements in a number of ESCWA member countries. (4) Many countries in the region have not progressed beyond S&T policy documents and broad policy statements. With the exception of Jordan and Egypt, S&T policies have rarely progressed to detailed strategic planning. (5) R&D, particularly that undertaken by central R&D institutions, is considered the main source of technological innovation. A high level of commitment to R&D activities emerges from S&T policy documents drawn up by Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia and the Syrian Arab Republic. R&D professionals and university professors often produce these policy documents unaided by private or public sector concerns. (6) In supporting R&D activities and the requirements of small and medium-size enterprises (SMEs), the role of the private sector is also addressed in various documents. There is however, little evidence that in-depth consideration has been given to practical measures to enhance local technology inputs to SMEs. (7) Few policies directly link technology transfer to R&D. Only in the case of Egypt is explicit mention made of involving research centres in activities to foster the acquisition, adaptation and dissemination of technologies. Gulf countries such as Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia operate “oIset schemes” which return a percentage of the investments in mainly defence contracts to technology-based enterprises. (8) Few ongoing national initiatives address particular issues through focused R&D, technology transfer, and specialised technical training have been recently reported. (9) Few countries have made use of regional and international S&T programmes. Notable examples may be found in Egypt, Saudi Arabia, the Syrian Arab Republic and recently, Tunisia. (10) The need to co-ordinate and streamline S&T activities, to reduce duplication and to conserve resources is present in almost all policy documents. Co-ordination committees have been set up in a number of cases. (11) Several industrial concerns in the Gulf countries have concluded technology alliances, particularly in the petrochemical industry, and recently in the pharmaceutical industries. Egypt has sustained links with a number of pharmaceutical industries. Signi)cantly, these alliances do not always require that modi)ed or
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renovated manufacturing technologies be passed down as they become available to the original technology holder. 2.4. Research links with industry In its report, STEMARN (1997) singled out three mechanisms for managing applied scienti)c research and technological co-operation between universities and industry stood out. First, links developed through contractual arrangements between industrial enterprises and academic institutions or individual academics. Second, links built around contracts or grants supported through government programmes or other intermediary funding agencies. Third, are linking mechanisms that create new organisational forms that involve both sectors as co-operative partners, for instance, in joint ventures or co-operative centres. In the Arab countries, most research is carried out in governmental institutions or universities (30% universities and 69% institutions). Furthermore, academic research tends to concentrate within a small number of universities. Only 30 –35% of all universities in the region are research universities (Qasem, 1998a). The growth of SMEs is also a feature of most Arab economies, both in producing new products, and as a source of knowledge. Forging research links with smaller )rms requires a set of strategies and management diIerent from links with large enterprises. Research needs of small )rms are more diIuse and less clearly articulated; their capacity to make major investments in research is limited. It is often di
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studies. Yet, the idea of incubators and science parks in the Arab countries is still in its infancy. Patents registered by Arab countries within each country as well as those lodged with the European and US patent o
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nance refers to lines of authority within institutions; while external governance refers to relations between individual institutions and their supervisors. Governance and management overlap considerably, with management seen as the implementation and execution tool. In the majority of the Arab countries, higher authority, mostly in the form of a ministry, governs higher education institutions. In a study on higher education in the Arab lands (Qasem, 1998a), three models were reported for policy, planning and co-ordination. The )rst model involves the Ministry of Higher Education. Here, the ministry’s mandate is limited to policy matters and other regulatory functions of the teaching activities, but not research. Invariably, another higher body is in charge of national scienti)c research policies, planning and co-ordination, and in some cases, )nancial support at the national level. Arab countries adopting this model represent 38.1% of the total. The second model is the Ministry of Higher Education and Scienti)c Research. In this modality policy, planning and co-ordination of both teaching and research activities at the national level lies with one ministry. Arab countries adopting this model represent 33.3%. The third model is a mixture of cases in which universities enjoy a large margin of autonomy. It is operative in 28.6% of the Arab countries, which share one common feature: small number of higher education institutions, usually composed of one university. The major feature of this model is in the presence of a council or a board, usually responsible for the various policy issues. Although the formal mandate of these ministries is policy making, co-ordination and planning, their role has expanded to include the management of several functions which used to be under the mandate of universities own structures (e.g. boards of trustees and university councils). The scope and number of functions which ministries manage are increasing with time, a development viewed by many educational and societal leaders as negative (Qasem, 1998a). This is in keeping with the World Bank study (2000), which points out that state control of higher education has tended to undermine many major principles of good governance. “State Control” is better replaced by “State Supervision” which aims at balancing the state’s responsibility to protect and promote the public’s interest with individual institution’s need for academic freedom and autonomy (Neave & van Vught, 1994). 3.2. Role of research in teaching and degree structure Universities in many diIerent ways strive to reach new balances at the institutional level between research, teaching and service functions as too in the activities of academic staI individually. Yet, just as universities are being called on to improve their research performance, so they are under enormous pressure to diversify and strengthen their teaching capabilities. Still, the balance between research and teaching often remains delicate (OECD, 1998). Qasem’s study on higher education in the Arab countries (Qasem, 1998a), remarked that the Arab countries have moved towards a more uniform model in their degree structure. The dominant model contains four levels: Technical Institute Diploma,
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Bachelor of Science or Arts (B.Sc. or BA), Master of Science or Arts (M.Sc. or MA) and Doctorate of Philosophy (Ph.D.). Some universities oIer a one-year programme, leading to a higher diploma after the Bachelor degree in professional disciplines like Education, Medicine, Law and Business. Higher diploma programmes are either remedial programmes, which focus on special training related to professional performance, or provide advanced education in one of the major subjects of the Bachelor programmes. Bachelor degrees: All university colleges in the Arab countries oIer bachelor degrees (B.Sc. or BA). Master degrees: 623 colleges oIer programmes leading to a Master degree in all )elds compared to 434 in 1991. The share of basic science colleges oIering M.Sc. programmes was highest (25.5%) among the total S&T colleges, followed by engineering (22.3%), medicine (14.9%) and then agriculture (12.6%). In H&SS colleges oIering MA programmes the highest was in the area of Arts (27.4%), followed by Education (21.6%), Business and Administration (16.9%) and Islamic studies (11.5%) (Qasem, 1998a). Doctorate of philosophy: Programmes leading to a Ph.D. were oIered in 374 colleges in 1996 compared with 233 in 1991. Of the 374 colleges, 177 were in the S&T disciplines and 197 in H&SS disciplines. Universities oIering Masters programmes are located in 17 Arab countries while those oIering Ph.D. programmes are located in 11 countries only. All of those systems which, do not oIer Ph.D. programmes, are small with a population less than 3 million (with the exception of Somalia and Yemen). It is expected that several of these countries will initiate Ph.D. programmes within the next few years, especially Kuwait and Yemen. The share of basic science colleges oIering Ph.D. programmes was the highest (27.7%) among the total S&T colleges in 1996, followed by engineering (18.6%), agriculture (13.6%) and medicine (12.4%). Arts was the highest (26.6%) among the total H&SS colleges in 1996, followed by education (19.3%), Business and Administration (15.2%) and Islamic studies (14.7%). The number of Master and Ph.D. programmes oIered in universities varies widely in the Arab countries. Nearly, one-third of these colleges are located in Egypt. Colleges located in eight countries oIer 86% and 93% of Masters and Ph.D., respectively, while colleges in nine countries oIer 14% and 7% of the Masters and Ph.D. programmes, respectively (Qasem, 1998a). In summing up the relationship between teaching and research, Gibbons reckoned that in future, the key question facing each university had less to do with deciding whether to be a research or a teaching institution than deciding which modes of research (and teaching) it will adopt. Universities opting for research, will set themselves the di
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individuals make. However, in “modern universities” (Mode 2) additional criteria are introduced through the context of application, which now incorporates a diverse range of intellectual interests as well as other social, economic or political ones. Gibbons further holds that the development of quality assurance is an irreversible trend, which anticipates the development of new benchmarking methodologies and studies across the higher education sector. These studies will help to rank universities along various quality indicators by region, country and even globally. In an analysis of Higher education in developing countries (World Bank, 2000), The World Bank noted that international standards are especially relevant in a global economy. Some are needed for degree requirements in relation to student performance, faculty quali)cations and achievement. Mediocre institutions are not transformed into great universities merely by announcing world-class standards: a realistic approach, concentrating on achievable improvements, is needed and likewise a culture of accountability, allowing improvement (or back-sliding) to be continually monitored and rewarded. Similar arguments are being aired in some Arab countries. Laws and regulations governing promotions are under review. Thus in Egypt, the reform of higher education is under way. Among subjects debated in relation to quality assessment are: (a) local journal=international journals (particularly, if not peer reviewed); (b) internal=external promotion peer committees and (c) the use of global standards for evaluation of research. ESCWA has also carried out studies into standardisation in some Arab countries. This included a survey of national institutions of standards including: the Arab Standardisation and Metrology Organisation, the Arab Industrial Development and Mining Organisation, the Gulf Standards and Metrology Organisation, as well as a number of national organisations (ESCWA, 1999=1a). 3.4. Research management skills A coherent and rational approach towards managing the entire higher education sector is required. So the World Bank argued in its study on higher education in developing countries (World Bank, 2000). Traditional and informal arrangements are no longer adequate. Policy-makers must decide how far they will guide the development of their country’s higher education sector, and how far market forces will bring about the establishment and operation of a viable system. STEMARN held a workshop on organisation, management and evaluation of applied scienti)c and technological research systems in Arab universities. Research, it observed, whilst grouped within a wide variety of forms, is predominantly organised around staI research projects, research programs or research centres. Research centres provide a structural base to develop interdisciplinary activities. However, some universities, for example, the King Fahd, University of Petroleum and Minerals of Saudi Arabia are developing programs and divisions for research based on a matrix structure. In these arrangements, multi-disciplinary teams are brought together for speci)c projects (STEMARN, 1997). Similar models are being increasingly used in the R&D communities.
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At the National Research Centre (Egypt), research management systems were developed through setting up research and development management o
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4. Research funding 4.1. Major trends in public funding of research in universities A key trend in recent years has been for agencies involved in public funding of research to seek greater control. Public funding of university research has been classi)ed by the OECD study (OECD, 1998) into three types: Base funding, grant-based funds, and contract funding. Base funding has not generally been speci)c to the research function of universities, as it covers staI salaries and general running expenses. In a number of countries, there is a move towards linking base funding with speci)c outcomes, most commonly to enrolments. Although 50 –75% of R&D expenditure in developed countries is spent by industry, in OECD countries private sector funding of research in public universities stands at around 5%. Business-)nanced R&D has risen slightly in the higher education sector, although the trend varies across countries and is reversed in years of recession. Canada leads OECD countries, with some 11%, Germany with almost 8.7%, followed by the UK (6.1%), the US (5.7%) and Japan with only 2.3% (OECD, 1998). 4.2. Diversi7cation of research funding sources In 1993, the bulk of funding for university R&D—90%—came from public sources. (OECD, 1998) Salaries and overheads (56%) were the largest single item, followed by research council funds (18%), government departments (15%) with 1% from other public sources. Only 5% came from industry and 1% from abroad. Since research grants are short term, lasting only a few years, the creation and sustaining of a ‘critical mass’ amongst researchers give some cause for concern. In certain key areas of recognised strategic importance (e.g. bio-technology and microelectronics) governments are funding inter university research centres as a way of ensuring the stability of research teams. Increasingly, more universities are involved in commercialising their R&D. Over the past twenty years, patenting and licensing in US Universities have grown substantially. Typically, the licensees are small US pharmaceutical or medical businesses. From US$ 172 million in 1992, university revenues reached US$ 242 million the following year. Though seemingly modest when compared to overall R&D funding, this trend suggests a growing readiness of universities to seek applications from their research. Likewise, it suggests companies and business leaders are more willing to invest in the market potential of this type of research (OECD, 2000). In the Arab countries, the concept of diversifying university research funding is still in its infancy. Amongst countries considering this concept are Egypt, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. 4.3. Funding sources in developing countries Developing countries are heavily dominated by public universities that tend to charge low tuition fees, with costs falling predominantly on the state. Financial dependence
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on the state means that funding levels 8uctuate with the ups and downs of government resources. Yet, the )nancing of higher education does not have to be limited to public sources. Higher education can be provided and )nanced either entirely publicly, or entirely privately, or by some combination of the two. Hybrid systems deserve serious consideration because a purely public system is largely ill-positioned to satisfy the demands for excellence and access, whilst a purely private system does not adequately safeguard the public interest. The OECD study (OECD, 2000) believed that private )nancing is attractive. It reduces the pressure on government budgets and helps ensure that the costs of higher education are borne by those to whom the bene)ts accrue. Whilst in OECD member countries, private sector funding of research in public universities stands at around 5%, it is worthwhile noting the contrast furnished by several less developed and smaller countries. There, industries lack R&D structures and therefore need to make considerable use of higher education’s R&D capabilities (30% of business R&D goes to higher education in Turkey and 13% in Mexico) (OECD, 1998). Similar trends in some of the Arab countries are beginning to emerge. Inadequate resources (both material and human) for science education, the absence of key values and traditions which promote eIective scienti)c inquiry and training, are among the main causes of the deteriorating position of developing countries in the sciences. For policy makers in developing countries, the key question raised by the World Bank study (2000) is “where should promoting science and technology in higher education rank in the long list of priorities for resources?” The answer will vary from system to system. 4.4. Funding sources in the Arab countries Higher education expenditure: Total expenditure on higher education in the Arab countries amounted to almost $6.98 billion in 1996, an increase of 74% since 1992 and the equivalent to 1.25% of the total GDP for the same year (Qasem, 1998a). The average overall spending on higher education is around 1% of global GDP (OECD, 2000). The share of universities and university colleges amounted to 91% compared with 6% for technical institutes and 3% for national policy and co-ordination bodies. Governmental funding is the major source for higher education, but the share of non-governmental sources increased signi)cantly in 1996 (7%) compared to only 1% in 1992. Increased funding through non-governmental sources is expected to rise sharply within the next decade due to the continuous growth in the number of non-governmental institutes in over half the Arab countries (Qasem, 1998a). In his study of higher education in the Arab countries, Qasem (1998a) pinpointed a number of trends during the period of 1992 and 1996. These may be summarised as follows: • Arab countries have invested substantially more funds in higher education, but with variable ratios. In 1996 compared to 1992, the size of expenditure has doubled in Egypt, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia and Tunisia. This increase, along with Morocco, constitutes 91% of the total increase in the 1996 expenditure.
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• The increase in higher education expenditure was re8ected in an increase in the share of student total expenditure. In 1996, the average cost per university student per annum rose to $ 2.400—27% higher than in 1992. On the other hand, the increase in average cost per technical institute student per annum rose to $ 1.083—54% higher than in 1992. Another indicator is university student cost. University student cost in high-income countries varies widely, ranging in 1995 from $6.000 in France to $15.700 in Switzerland. The average cost for 1995 in the US was $14.600. Student cost in the Arab countries also varies widely. The variation in university student cost per annum ranged from less than $1.000 in low income countries (e.g. Sudan, Yemen and Mauritania) to more than $10.000 in several oil-exporting Gulf countries. Research and development expenditure: In 1996, R&D expenditure in the Arab countries amounted to $782.3 million—a )gure substantially higher than 1992 with an annual increase of 8.8% over the period 1992–1996. Although R&D expenditure increased in all countries, the larger portion of the overall increase was due to the substantial rise of R&D expenditure in seven countries in particular: Egypt, Jordan, Kuwait, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Syria and Tunisia. These seven States in 1996 accounted for 81.7% of the total R&D expenditure, with an annual increase of 10.5% compared with only 3% per annum for the remaining Arab countries. Despite this increase, R&D expenditure remains among the lowest in the world. The average ratio of R&D expenditure to GDP in Arab countries amounted to 0.15% in 1996 compared with 0.12% in 1992. R&D expenditure from government sources was 89.3% of the total R&D expenditure in the Arab countries in 1996. Almost 69% of government funding was allocated to autonomous and ministry-governed institutions, compared with 31% to universities. Private sector represented by major industries, contributed only 2.9% of total R&D expenditure. This is applicable in six countries only: Egypt, Jordan, Kuwait, Morocco, Saudi Arabia and Tunisia (Qasem, 1998b). The overall foreign support amounted to 7.9% in 1996. This is usually in the form of grants and research project support from donor countries. 5. Good practice in research management 5.1. Managing research and services Access to knowledge and expertise, recon)guring it in novel ways, and selling it, is becoming one of the specialised functions of business (Gibbons, 2000). New intermediary organisations are being set up to provide such services. The demand is for much more data or information: it is for knowledge to identify and solve problems. Firms such as these employ problem solvers and problem brokers. Their new material are the global scienti)c and technological communities, regardless of whether these communities operate in Mode 1 (classical universities) or Mode 2 (modern universities), or are among the growing number of sites of knowledge production. Their
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success, Gibbons suggested, depends on the full utilisation of state of the art information technology. Certainly, the role of R&D management systems in universities and research organisations is a powerful tool to manage R&D activities. In the Arab countries, only eight countries have established a management unit for funding R&D activities, amongst which Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia and Syria. Morocco and Tunisia are seriously considering the allocation of funding to be dispensed outside the R&D institution regular budgets (Qasem, 1998b). Managing R&D activities in the Arab countries at national level reveals a number of patterns. A few examples are given below: Egypt: One of the )rst national systems for planning and funding R&D activities was set up in 1972 with the establishment of the Egyptian Academy of Scienti)c Research and Technology (ASRT). ASRT serves as a national organisation responsible for the planning and funding of R&D activities in Egypt. Planning is carried out through 15 specialised research councils. Funding of selected projects is through open competition. The ASRT is also responsible for patents and intellectual priorities. The ASRT is presently under the umbrella of the Ministry of Scienti)c Research. In the absence of a national S&T policy, the specialised councils set priorities based on inputs from the research community and to a certain extent on inputs from ministries. This has given rise to a number of sectoral R&D priorities, which have little to moderate impact at the national level. Kuwait: Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement of Science (KFAS), established in 1976, for the advancement of the economic, social and cultural development plans of Kuwait, operates as a non-pro)t organisation to facilitate funding of educational and scienti)c projects. Funding is through Kuwaiti companies (presently 550 member companies) which contribute 2% of their net pro)ts, recently reduced from 5%. Four major local areas were targeted over the years to serve the Kuwaiti scienti)c community—health, environment, water resources and petrol and petrochemicals. Saudi Arabia: King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST) was )rst established in 1977. Eight directorates represent the administrative structure: Directorates of Research Grants Programmes; Information; Patents; Scienti)c Awareness and Publishing; Planning and Follow-up; Technology Transfer; International Co-operation; and Administrative Development. In addition, seven research institutes form the research arm of KACST. 5.2. Research co-operation The importance of local, regional and international co-operation was singled out in the World Bank study (2000). But, for scientists in the developing world, the scarcity of such contacts is often an impediment to their creativity and productivity. Co-operation is especially important at the regional level. It helps individual countries reach a critical mass in scienti)c subjects. At regional level and among the Arab countries, a number of organisations have been set up to manage—among others—regional R&D activities. In 1964, the League
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of Arab States decided to establish the Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scienti)c Organisation (ALECSO). Its creation was announced during the )rst General Conference in 1970. With its headquarters situated in Tunis-Tunisia, ALECSO’s major responsibility is to promote and co-ordinate educational, cultural and scienti)c activities at the regional and national levels in the Arab World. The Islamic Educational, Scienti)c and Cultural Organisation (ISESCO) located in Rabat, Morocco, is a similar organisation. The League of Arab States also founded the Arab Academy for Science and Technology and Maritime Transport in Alexandria, Egypt. Its major responsibilities include teaching, research, training, community service and projects (www.aast.edu). A new organisation has established at Sharjah, UAE in April 2000, namely the Arab Science and Technology Foundation (ASTF). Its mission is to encourage and support excellence and innovation in S&T and promote collaboration between Arab countries. Nearly all the Arab countries have bi-lateral agreements of co-operation in the )eld of higher education and=or science and technology. Several have similar agreements with developed and developing countries. The European Commission (EC) published in 1997 a report listing joint research projects with participants from the European Union and Mediterranean Partners. The share of Arab countries was as follows: Morocco 27%, Tunisia 26%, Egypt 19%, Algeria 13%, Jordan 6%, Palestine 4%, Syria 3% and Lebanon 2%. Major topics involved are water resources and management, environment, renewable energy, agriculture, health, information and communication technology and material sciences (Bizri, 1999). Zahlan (1999) underscored the importance of co-operation between scientists in the shape of networking and communication. Using two parameters to measure co-operation between researchers in the Arab countries—Joint publications and participation in conferences held with the Arab countries—he concluded that scienti)c workers in the Maghreb and Gulf regions individually have become deeply integrated into the international scienti)c community. However, the level of co-operation within the two regions is very limited. The second parameter used conferences held in the Arab countries. Zahlan chose 37 scienti)c meetings held in Arab countries between 1992 and 1996 and which brought out conference proceedings. The conclusion was similar, namely that collaboration between Arab countries was weak (Zahlan, 1999). Universities and research organisations in the Arab countries have also a number of bilateral agreements between organisations. The Association of Arab Universities (AARU), founded in 1964 with its headquarters in Amman, Jordan is to enhance co-operation amongst Arab universities and to co-ordinate their eIorts so as to raise the quality of higher education. It facilitates scienti)c research, exchange of knowledge, and holds conferences and symposia. UNESCO has established the UNITWIN=UNESCO chairs programme to strengthen international co-operation between higher education institutions and programmes via twinning and other networking arrangements and to foster academic solidarity in favour of developing countries. Several Arab research organisations and universities have taken part in this programme (www.unesco.org/education/educprog/unitwin/index.html). Some Arab countries have created networks in speci)c areas. One instance of regional co-operation in Agriculture is provided by the International Centre for Agricultural
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Research in Dry Areas (ICARDA). Similar examples of centres of excellence are to be found in the areas of Date Palm cultivation and Biotechnology. 5.3. Conclusions Very few organisations in Arab countries, and then only recently, have systematically considered the role of research management. Furthermore, research management is in8uenced by many factors. Some are direct, others indirect; some are internal, others external; some act at the national level, others at the international level. The pace of change has accelerated in developed countries, while it has hardly begun in many of the developing countries. There is a clear need for increasing resources, and more important, improving the e
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The development and application of some of these indicators will be di
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even restructuring—should be taken to underpin this transformation. This should be sited within a national development policy plan, particularly a national S&T policy and strategy. Autonomy entails responsibility, leadership, vision, planning, follow-up, availability of appropriate human resources, funding and hard core infrastructures. In short, a solid management system. The introduction of R&D management systems in universities and research institutions, public and private, is becoming a key factor in managing research and keeping up with the ever-changing global market environment. To reach this level and to keep up with the required changes, a degree of autonomy and 8exibility should be realised. This will only be attained by restructuring the existing tertiary education system to be able to keep up with the newly-emerging )elds of knowledge. EIective co-operation with industry and other end-users is an important goal. Two other factors should not be overlooked: (a) the establishment and strengthening of existing government-supported research centres (e.g. centres of excellence); (b) keeping up a high level of basic science infrastructure. Many universities and research organisations in the Arab countries ought to change from being classical establishments to becoming more pro-active, particularly from the management point of view. Some have made the transition. However, they are often the product of personal vision and initiative rather than being part of a comprehensive systematic overhaul. 5.3.5. Funding Developed countries spend 2.5 –3% of GDP on S&T. In the Arab countries, this does not exceed 0.6% of GDP, and in many instances, includes wages and running costs. Hence, the true amount spent on S&T is even lower. A second factor is that 50 – 80% of S&T expenditure in developed countries comes from industry. The presence of large national industries and multinational industries capable of establishing their own R&D capabilities, is lacking in the Arab countries. It is surprising indeed that R&D capabilities were not established by the large petroleum companies and industries in the Arab countries, with the exception of Saudi Arabia. 5.3.6. Co-operation Shinaishin (2000), argued that the Arab countries occupy a geographical centre in the populated world. They extend from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean. They have major resources of fossil fuel, hydroelectric potential, important minerals, as well as agricultural potential. They have huge unutilised solar energy sources. They straddle important seaways, from the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, to the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean, with huge resources. The Arab countries rely on technology imported from industrialised countries mainly for the local consumer products. Exports are mostly of primary materials such as unprocessed oil, minerals and agricultural products.
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Shinaishin argues that the Arab countries ought to recognise that they cannot carry out high quality work if each tackles all scienti)c problems alone. Co-operation is a necessity recognised by richer and more powerful countries. It can be accomplished in part by establishing a network of complementary centres of excellence in speci)c key )elds. Such centres should be distributed among these countries, and have guaranteed 8ow of information and )ndings as well as unlimited accessibility for scientists from the other countries (Shinaishin, 2000). If OECD countries are pooling their facilities to reduce and share costs in S&T, why can the Arab countries not do the same? With such vast and varied natural resources, Arab countries could share natural and human resources to compliment each other. A few examples already exist through bilateral agreements. However, they have not been optimised to the degree of becoming self-reliant on local resources. In conclusion, a comprehensive developmental approach is needed in the Arab countries. It requires visions, policies, strategies, planning, implementation and continual evaluation to be applied in higher education and S&T. This should be set within the context of a viable economic and social developmental plan of the nation at large. In short, what is needed is a good overall management system at every single level. References Al-Otaibi, A. (2000). Foresight of selected emerging technologies and their implications on R&D prospects in the GCC countries in the new millennium. Presented at Scienti)c Research Outlook in the Arab World and the New Millenium: Science and Technology, Sharjah, UAE, 24 –26 April. Al-Mazidi, S. (2000). Initiatives for S&T Parks in Kuwait. ESCWA Expert Group Meeting: Capacitybuilding Initiatives for the Twenty-)rst Century, Beirut, 1–3 November [E=ESCWA=TECH=2000=WG.1=4]. Al-Rasheed, A. A. (1999). The role of the King Abdulaziz City for S&T regarding the present status of and future projects for R&D in Saudi Arabia. Presented at the Expert Group Meeting on Project Planning and Management in Research and Development and Quality Assurance, ESCWA, Beirut, 21–23 September [E=ESCWA=TECH=1999=WG.2=2]. Asmar, M. (2000). Berytech, a Technology Park in Lebanon. ESCWA Expert Group Meeting: Capacitybuilding Initiatives for the Twenty-)rst Century, Beirut, 1–3 November [E=ESCWA=TECH=2000=WG.1=6]. Bizri, O. (1999). S&T policies and strategies in the ESCWA member countries. Proceedings of the expert group meeting on S&T policies and strategies in the ESCWA member countries, Beirut, ESCWA, 10 –12 March [E=ESCWA=TECH=1999=8]. El-Solh, W. (2000). Internet and technology incubation in the Arab World. ESCWA Expert Group Meeting: Capacity-building Initiatives for the Twenty-)rst Century, Beirut, 1–3 November [E=ESCWA=TECH=2000=WG.1=20]. ESCWA (Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia). (1997). Science and technology indicators: basic concepts, de7nitions and prospects for development [E=ESCWA=TECH=1997=6]. ESCWA (Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia). (1999=1a). Review of industry in ESCWA member countries—Bulletin no. 1 [E=ESCWA=ID=1999=1]. ESCWA (Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia). (1999=3). Review of science and technology in ESCWA member countries—issue no. 2. [E=ESCWA=TECH=1999=3]. ESCWA (Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia). (1999=4). Science and technology policies for the twenty-7rst century [E=ESCWA=TECH=1999=4]. ESCWA (Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia). (1999=5). Small and medium enterprises: Strategies, policies and support institutions. [E=ESCWA=ID=1999=5]. Gibbons, M. (2000). Higher education relevance in the 21st century. A study supported by the World Bank and presented at the UNESCO World Conference on Higher Education, Paris, France, 5 –9 October 1998.
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Ministry of Higher Education Egypt. (2000). Strategic plan for the development of higher education. Presented at the National Conference on Higher Education, 13–14 February, Cairo, Egypt. Moursy, M.Y.M. (2000). Initiatives undertaken to promote dissemination, implementation and development of S&T in Egypt. ESCWA Expert Group Meeting: Capacity-building Initiatives for the Twenty-)rst Century, Beirut, 1–3 November [E=ESCWA=TECH=2000=WG.1=9]. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development)=DSTI (Directorate for Science Technology and Industry) (1998). University Research in Transition, Paris, OECD. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). (2000). Research Management at the Institutional Level. Paris: OECD. Qasem, S. (1998a). Higher education systems in the Arab states: Development of science and technology indicators. A study carried out for ESCWA=UNESCO-Cairo O
Further reading Directory of S&T Organisations and Research Centres (2000). Cairo, Academy of Scienti)c Research and Technology, Cairo, May (in Arabic). Dje8at, A. (1999). Science and technology policies and their implementations in the Maghreb countries. A paper presented at the Expert Meeting on S&T Policies for the 21st Century, ESCWA, Beirut, 10 –12 March [E=ESCWA=TECH=1999=WG.1=3]. ESCWA (Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia). (1999=1b). Review of science and technology in ESCWA member countries—issue no. 1 [E=ESCWA=TECH=1999=1]. Hernes, G., & Martin, M. (2000). Trends in the management of university-industry linkages: what are the challenges ahead? IIEP=S.188= Background Paper, Paris. International Institute for Educational Planning, Paris, UNESCO. Johnston, D. J. (2000). The new economy: technology is not enough. OECD Observer. September 22 [www.oecdobserver.org]. National Science Board (NSB). (1996). Science and engineering indicators—1996. Washington, DC: National Science Foundation.
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OECD=DSTI. (1999). Benchmarking industry-science relationships and research based spin-oDs. DSTI=STP (99)25. Paris: OECD. Shamlan, A. A. (2000). A paper entitled: KFAS: A model for the role of the private sector in funding scienti7c research. Presented at Scienti)c Research Outlook in the Arab World and the New Millennium: Science and Technology, Sharjah, UAE, 24 –26 April. UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). (2000). Human development report. Oxford: Oxford University Press. World Bank, (1999). Knowledge for development. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Research management issues in the Arab countries Nabiel A.M. Saleh National Research Centre, 12311 E1-Dokki, Cairo, Egypt
1. Introduction The North–South scienti)c gap is wide and growing at an alarming rate. Notwithstanding stories of success, developing countries (including the Arab countries) are falling further behind industrial countries in terms of their S&T capacities and achievements. Developed countries have nearly ten times as many R&D scientists and technicians as developing countries (3.8 versus 0.4 per 1000 population). A much higher share of their populations study science at the tertiary level. They spend some 2–3.8% of GDP on R&D, compared to 0.5% or less in most developing countries. Together, Western Europe, North America, Japan and newly industrialised East Asia countries account for about 85% of scienti)c articles published, and more than 97% of patents registered in Europe and the United States. Institution-wide research management has emerged as a substantial concern for universities, and possibly for non-university research organisations in developed countries. This re8ects a number of closely inter-related factors—changes in funding regimes; new social and economic demands on universities and university systems; changes in the practice of innovation; new research co-operation and links between universities, industry, commerce, government and the wider community. Globalisation and the pressures of international competition are dissolving boundaries between nations, institutions and disciplines, creating a distributed knowledge production system that is increasingly global. Whether universities can adapt and play a more participatory role in global knowledge production is a central issue (Gibbons, 2000). Unless universities become active in team collaboration—the basis for competition within the modern university—theirs will be a reduced role in national economic development. The challenge facing Arab countries compared to developed countries is even more di
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transformation of universities to reach a global competitive level is the present and future challenge. This study covers 21 Arab countries and for simplicity, shorter versions of the countries names have been used. The Comores which recently joined the League of Arab States is not included for lack of material in the reference works consulted. 2. Research and current trends in knowledge production 2.1. Role of the universities Universities have been part of the human heritage for centuries. Among the earliest European universities are Bologna, Paris and Oxford, which date from the high Middle Ages. In the Arab region, the oldest university, Al-Azhar, started as early as 975 AD in the form of seminars, and gradually grew into a regional centre for religious and linguistic scholarship. By the 14th and 15th century AD, a number of natural sciences were introduced, and in 1961 Al-Azhar University was registered with the remaining universities in Egypt. The Syrian Protestant College, established in the late 1860s, was later renamed the American University of Beirut. In all, there are 175 universities in the Arab States. Six have only one university, while the Sudan has the largest number (27). The majority include science and technology (S&T) and humanities and social sciences (H&SS) colleges. A few, however, have only one or the other. 7 universities only have S&T colleges, while 14 universities have H&SS colleges alone (Qasem, 1998a). Arab universities are, by international standards, young. Prior to the late 1950s and early 1960s, only three countries had established universities. Over a third of all Arab universities were created during the past 10 –12 years (Qasem 1998a). According to an ESCWA report, the number of universities in the Arab countries varies in a manner that does not re8ect diIerences in their populations. The Syrian Arab Republic, in particular, appears to have only four universities whereas Jordan has around 17, and Yemen around 15. However, the Syrian Arab Republic leads the Arab countries in terms of the number of technical institutes (129) (ESCWA, 1999=4). Universities in the Arab countries lean more towards the classical type of university. Recently, a few universities have started programmes to reach out to society. However, this relationship has not assumed any concrete expression with end users, spin-oI companies, technology incubators or technology parks. The role of universities is the subject of discussions, conferences, and workshops, in academia as well as in regional and international organisations such as ALECSO (The Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scienti)c Organisation), ESCWA (Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia), 1997 and UNESCO–Cairo O
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of Jordan, Lebanon and the territories under the Palestinian Authority. In all three countries, non-governmental higher education institutions outnumber governmental institutes. In general, S&T disciplines are represented by a smaller number of colleges (387) than disciplines in the humanities and the arts (418). The only three countries with prevailing S&T institutions are Bahrain, Oman and the Syrian Arab Republic. At Bachelor level, the average percentage for students majoring in S&T in Arab countries is 28.7% and 71.3% for humanities and the arts. The lowest levels of Bachelor degree students majoring in S&T subjects are in: Egypt (18.2%), Saudi Arabia (16.5%) and Yemen (11.3%). On the other hand those specialising in S&T increase with the level of quali)cation, from an average of 28.7% at the Bachelor level to 49.3% at the M.Sc. level and 65.1% at the Ph.D. level in all Arab countries (Qasem, 1998a). An ESCWA report noted the small number of students enrolled in diploma courses in general. This group of professionals provides an important link between holders of university degrees and graduates of technical institutes. The number of students in higher education per 1000 of the population is a further indicator. Figures for Yemen, the United Arab Emirates and Oman are extremely low (0.4 – 0.7%) and rather low for Bahrain, the Syrian Arab Republic and Egypt (1.4 –1.6%). Jordan, Lebanon and the territories under the Palestinian Authority show the highest level (2.5 –2.8%) (ESCWA, 1999=4). One important indicator of quality in higher education is the student=teacher ratio. In the ESCWA report, during the period of 1980 –1995 Arab countries showed a high student: teacher ratio indicating a poor quality of education. Female students enrolled in higher education in the Arab countries reached 33% which is comparable with that for developed countries (37%) (ESCWA, 1999=4). 2.2. Role of research organisations other than universities In many OECD countries, public laboratories play a leading role in research. The diIerent governments encourage collaboration between these public laboratories and universities. In his study into “Research and Development Systems in the Arab States”, Qasem pointed out that 322 R&D units existed in 1996, compared to 295 in 1992. He divided R&D organisations into four categories, based on their a
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Two of the largest non-university research organisations in the Arab countries are the Agricultural Research Centre (ARC) and the National Research Centre (NRC) of Egypt. The ARC is composed of comprehensive administrative units, special service laboratories and 16 R&D institutes. Each institute is a separate organisational unit representing an agricultural commodity. ARC is governed by the Ministry of Agriculture and enjoys a high margin of administrative autonomy. The Ministry of Scienti)c Research on the other hand governs the NRC. The NRC, established in 1956, as a multidisciplinary research organisation, is presently composed of 11 divisions (downsized from 13 in 1998) representing major industries, health, environmental, agricultural and basic sciences. The NRC also enjoys a high margin of administrative autonomy (Saleh, Fakhry and El-Tobgui, 1999). Institutes such as the ARC and NRC of Egypt enjoy a high degree of autonomy, while R&D divisions or departments in countries like Yemen, Syria and Jordan enjoy only a marginal degree of autonomy. Productivity and impact are the most controversial and least documented aspects of ministry-governed R&D organisations. Given the working conditions of R&D organisations in the Arab countries, this dimension warrants further work to re)ne a methodology for estimating R&D impact (Qasem, 1998b). Autonomous R&D organisations are also run by the public sector, and are governed by a board or council enjoying a high degree of independence and autonomy. Qasem (1998b) noted that these organisations are not burdened with day to day routine work, characteristic of ministry-governed organisations. In several cases, the R&D establishments operate under the umbrella of national R&D institutions, which provide funds to institutions outside its organisation. This is the pattern that operates at the King Abdel-Aziz City for Science and Technology in Saudi Arabia, the Bahrain Centre for Studies and Research, the Lebanese National Council for Scienti)c Research and the Higher Council for Science and Technology in Jordan. Iraq’s IBA Agricultural Research Centre is another innovative model which has a core R&D staI, but also draws on staI of other units working in universities and ministry-governed R&D establishments (Qasem, 1998b). In 1996 only 17 R&D units were identi)ed as operational in industries which are both owned and managed by the private sector or owned but not managed, by government. The actual number may be higher since several industries have R&D activities but are not considered as independent R&D units. Banks, non-governmental organisations in social and economic arenas, as well as large corporations may also have R&D activities. But these are di
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at least those elements of higher education that would not be supplied if left to the market, promotes equity, and supports those areas of basic research relevant to the country’s needs (World Bank, 2000). In considering research management, the importance of policies and strategies cannot be ignored. In an increasingly competitive environment, universities and R&D institutes are under pressure to develop policies and strategies, linked to and based on, national economic and social development plans. Such institutional planning is needed to optimise the use of the capabilities by short and long-term plans. It is also needed to co-ordinate the university’s research, teaching and service elements. S&T policies in the Arab countries: A multitude of indicators con)rms that the Arab countries need to pay much greater attention to resources, institutional arrangements and policy support. Indicators of both inputs and outputs of national S&T systems point to serious inadequacies, especially where access to new technologies and information resources is concerned (ESCWA, 1999=4). The picture is not encouraging when S&T publications in refereed journals are assessed. Numbers of patents awarded to )rms and individuals in the Arab countries, fall far below world averages and below several other developing countries. In general, expenditure on R&D in Arab countries amounts to around one tenth of that spent in industrialised countries (ESCWA, 1999=4). Reporting on S&T policies, ESCWA revealed evidence of a growing awareness and determination to build on, and complement, existing S&T structures and to improve their eIectiveness and e
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The ESCWA study (ESCWA, 1999=4) identi)ed the following features within S&T policies in ESCWA member countries: (1) Only a few member countries have initiated exercises in formulating national S&T policy. (2) Past attempts to formulate S&T policies and strategic plans have invariably been made by ministries and government-sponsored institutions, mainly higher education and central research institutions. Actual participation by public and private sector enterprises has been minimal. Thus, few ties, if any, appear to link production and services sectors to R&D institutions and universities. (3) Agriculture, agro-food industries, health services and improving the competitive stance are among the priorities listed in policy pronouncements in a number of ESCWA member countries. (4) Many countries in the region have not progressed beyond S&T policy documents and broad policy statements. With the exception of Jordan and Egypt, S&T policies have rarely progressed to detailed strategic planning. (5) R&D, particularly that undertaken by central R&D institutions, is considered the main source of technological innovation. A high level of commitment to R&D activities emerges from S&T policy documents drawn up by Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia and the Syrian Arab Republic. R&D professionals and university professors often produce these policy documents unaided by private or public sector concerns. (6) In supporting R&D activities and the requirements of small and medium-size enterprises (SMEs), the role of the private sector is also addressed in various documents. There is however, little evidence that in-depth consideration has been given to practical measures to enhance local technology inputs to SMEs. (7) Few policies directly link technology transfer to R&D. Only in the case of Egypt is explicit mention made of involving research centres in activities to foster the acquisition, adaptation and dissemination of technologies. Gulf countries such as Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia operate “oIset schemes” which return a percentage of the investments in mainly defence contracts to technology-based enterprises. (8) Few ongoing national initiatives address particular issues through focused R&D, technology transfer, and specialised technical training have been recently reported. (9) Few countries have made use of regional and international S&T programmes. Notable examples may be found in Egypt, Saudi Arabia, the Syrian Arab Republic and recently, Tunisia. (10) The need to co-ordinate and streamline S&T activities, to reduce duplication and to conserve resources is present in almost all policy documents. Co-ordination committees have been set up in a number of cases. (11) Several industrial concerns in the Gulf countries have concluded technology alliances, particularly in the petrochemical industry, and recently in the pharmaceutical industries. Egypt has sustained links with a number of pharmaceutical industries. Signi)cantly, these alliances do not always require that modi)ed or
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renovated manufacturing technologies be passed down as they become available to the original technology holder. 2.4. Research links with industry In its report, STEMARN (1997) singled out three mechanisms for managing applied scienti)c research and technological co-operation between universities and industry stood out. First, links developed through contractual arrangements between industrial enterprises and academic institutions or individual academics. Second, links built around contracts or grants supported through government programmes or other intermediary funding agencies. Third, are linking mechanisms that create new organisational forms that involve both sectors as co-operative partners, for instance, in joint ventures or co-operative centres. In the Arab countries, most research is carried out in governmental institutions or universities (30% universities and 69% institutions). Furthermore, academic research tends to concentrate within a small number of universities. Only 30 –35% of all universities in the region are research universities (Qasem, 1998a). The growth of SMEs is also a feature of most Arab economies, both in producing new products, and as a source of knowledge. Forging research links with smaller )rms requires a set of strategies and management diIerent from links with large enterprises. Research needs of small )rms are more diIuse and less clearly articulated; their capacity to make major investments in research is limited. It is often di
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studies. Yet, the idea of incubators and science parks in the Arab countries is still in its infancy. Patents registered by Arab countries within each country as well as those lodged with the European and US patent o
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nance refers to lines of authority within institutions; while external governance refers to relations between individual institutions and their supervisors. Governance and management overlap considerably, with management seen as the implementation and execution tool. In the majority of the Arab countries, higher authority, mostly in the form of a ministry, governs higher education institutions. In a study on higher education in the Arab lands (Qasem, 1998a), three models were reported for policy, planning and co-ordination. The )rst model involves the Ministry of Higher Education. Here, the ministry’s mandate is limited to policy matters and other regulatory functions of the teaching activities, but not research. Invariably, another higher body is in charge of national scienti)c research policies, planning and co-ordination, and in some cases, )nancial support at the national level. Arab countries adopting this model represent 38.1% of the total. The second model is the Ministry of Higher Education and Scienti)c Research. In this modality policy, planning and co-ordination of both teaching and research activities at the national level lies with one ministry. Arab countries adopting this model represent 33.3%. The third model is a mixture of cases in which universities enjoy a large margin of autonomy. It is operative in 28.6% of the Arab countries, which share one common feature: small number of higher education institutions, usually composed of one university. The major feature of this model is in the presence of a council or a board, usually responsible for the various policy issues. Although the formal mandate of these ministries is policy making, co-ordination and planning, their role has expanded to include the management of several functions which used to be under the mandate of universities own structures (e.g. boards of trustees and university councils). The scope and number of functions which ministries manage are increasing with time, a development viewed by many educational and societal leaders as negative (Qasem, 1998a). This is in keeping with the World Bank study (2000), which points out that state control of higher education has tended to undermine many major principles of good governance. “State Control” is better replaced by “State Supervision” which aims at balancing the state’s responsibility to protect and promote the public’s interest with individual institution’s need for academic freedom and autonomy (Neave & van Vught, 1994). 3.2. Role of research in teaching and degree structure Universities in many diIerent ways strive to reach new balances at the institutional level between research, teaching and service functions as too in the activities of academic staI individually. Yet, just as universities are being called on to improve their research performance, so they are under enormous pressure to diversify and strengthen their teaching capabilities. Still, the balance between research and teaching often remains delicate (OECD, 1998). Qasem’s study on higher education in the Arab countries (Qasem, 1998a), remarked that the Arab countries have moved towards a more uniform model in their degree structure. The dominant model contains four levels: Technical Institute Diploma,
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Bachelor of Science or Arts (B.Sc. or BA), Master of Science or Arts (M.Sc. or MA) and Doctorate of Philosophy (Ph.D.). Some universities oIer a one-year programme, leading to a higher diploma after the Bachelor degree in professional disciplines like Education, Medicine, Law and Business. Higher diploma programmes are either remedial programmes, which focus on special training related to professional performance, or provide advanced education in one of the major subjects of the Bachelor programmes. Bachelor degrees: All university colleges in the Arab countries oIer bachelor degrees (B.Sc. or BA). Master degrees: 623 colleges oIer programmes leading to a Master degree in all )elds compared to 434 in 1991. The share of basic science colleges oIering M.Sc. programmes was highest (25.5%) among the total S&T colleges, followed by engineering (22.3%), medicine (14.9%) and then agriculture (12.6%). In H&SS colleges oIering MA programmes the highest was in the area of Arts (27.4%), followed by Education (21.6%), Business and Administration (16.9%) and Islamic studies (11.5%) (Qasem, 1998a). Doctorate of philosophy: Programmes leading to a Ph.D. were oIered in 374 colleges in 1996 compared with 233 in 1991. Of the 374 colleges, 177 were in the S&T disciplines and 197 in H&SS disciplines. Universities oIering Masters programmes are located in 17 Arab countries while those oIering Ph.D. programmes are located in 11 countries only. All of those systems which, do not oIer Ph.D. programmes, are small with a population less than 3 million (with the exception of Somalia and Yemen). It is expected that several of these countries will initiate Ph.D. programmes within the next few years, especially Kuwait and Yemen. The share of basic science colleges oIering Ph.D. programmes was the highest (27.7%) among the total S&T colleges in 1996, followed by engineering (18.6%), agriculture (13.6%) and medicine (12.4%). Arts was the highest (26.6%) among the total H&SS colleges in 1996, followed by education (19.3%), Business and Administration (15.2%) and Islamic studies (14.7%). The number of Master and Ph.D. programmes oIered in universities varies widely in the Arab countries. Nearly, one-third of these colleges are located in Egypt. Colleges located in eight countries oIer 86% and 93% of Masters and Ph.D., respectively, while colleges in nine countries oIer 14% and 7% of the Masters and Ph.D. programmes, respectively (Qasem, 1998a). In summing up the relationship between teaching and research, Gibbons reckoned that in future, the key question facing each university had less to do with deciding whether to be a research or a teaching institution than deciding which modes of research (and teaching) it will adopt. Universities opting for research, will set themselves the di
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individuals make. However, in “modern universities” (Mode 2) additional criteria are introduced through the context of application, which now incorporates a diverse range of intellectual interests as well as other social, economic or political ones. Gibbons further holds that the development of quality assurance is an irreversible trend, which anticipates the development of new benchmarking methodologies and studies across the higher education sector. These studies will help to rank universities along various quality indicators by region, country and even globally. In an analysis of Higher education in developing countries (World Bank, 2000), The World Bank noted that international standards are especially relevant in a global economy. Some are needed for degree requirements in relation to student performance, faculty quali)cations and achievement. Mediocre institutions are not transformed into great universities merely by announcing world-class standards: a realistic approach, concentrating on achievable improvements, is needed and likewise a culture of accountability, allowing improvement (or back-sliding) to be continually monitored and rewarded. Similar arguments are being aired in some Arab countries. Laws and regulations governing promotions are under review. Thus in Egypt, the reform of higher education is under way. Among subjects debated in relation to quality assessment are: (a) local journal=international journals (particularly, if not peer reviewed); (b) internal=external promotion peer committees and (c) the use of global standards for evaluation of research. ESCWA has also carried out studies into standardisation in some Arab countries. This included a survey of national institutions of standards including: the Arab Standardisation and Metrology Organisation, the Arab Industrial Development and Mining Organisation, the Gulf Standards and Metrology Organisation, as well as a number of national organisations (ESCWA, 1999=1a). 3.4. Research management skills A coherent and rational approach towards managing the entire higher education sector is required. So the World Bank argued in its study on higher education in developing countries (World Bank, 2000). Traditional and informal arrangements are no longer adequate. Policy-makers must decide how far they will guide the development of their country’s higher education sector, and how far market forces will bring about the establishment and operation of a viable system. STEMARN held a workshop on organisation, management and evaluation of applied scienti)c and technological research systems in Arab universities. Research, it observed, whilst grouped within a wide variety of forms, is predominantly organised around staI research projects, research programs or research centres. Research centres provide a structural base to develop interdisciplinary activities. However, some universities, for example, the King Fahd, University of Petroleum and Minerals of Saudi Arabia are developing programs and divisions for research based on a matrix structure. In these arrangements, multi-disciplinary teams are brought together for speci)c projects (STEMARN, 1997). Similar models are being increasingly used in the R&D communities.
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At the National Research Centre (Egypt), research management systems were developed through setting up research and development management o
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4. Research funding 4.1. Major trends in public funding of research in universities A key trend in recent years has been for agencies involved in public funding of research to seek greater control. Public funding of university research has been classi)ed by the OECD study (OECD, 1998) into three types: Base funding, grant-based funds, and contract funding. Base funding has not generally been speci)c to the research function of universities, as it covers staI salaries and general running expenses. In a number of countries, there is a move towards linking base funding with speci)c outcomes, most commonly to enrolments. Although 50 –75% of R&D expenditure in developed countries is spent by industry, in OECD countries private sector funding of research in public universities stands at around 5%. Business-)nanced R&D has risen slightly in the higher education sector, although the trend varies across countries and is reversed in years of recession. Canada leads OECD countries, with some 11%, Germany with almost 8.7%, followed by the UK (6.1%), the US (5.7%) and Japan with only 2.3% (OECD, 1998). 4.2. Diversi7cation of research funding sources In 1993, the bulk of funding for university R&D—90%—came from public sources. (OECD, 1998) Salaries and overheads (56%) were the largest single item, followed by research council funds (18%), government departments (15%) with 1% from other public sources. Only 5% came from industry and 1% from abroad. Since research grants are short term, lasting only a few years, the creation and sustaining of a ‘critical mass’ amongst researchers give some cause for concern. In certain key areas of recognised strategic importance (e.g. bio-technology and microelectronics) governments are funding inter university research centres as a way of ensuring the stability of research teams. Increasingly, more universities are involved in commercialising their R&D. Over the past twenty years, patenting and licensing in US Universities have grown substantially. Typically, the licensees are small US pharmaceutical or medical businesses. From US$ 172 million in 1992, university revenues reached US$ 242 million the following year. Though seemingly modest when compared to overall R&D funding, this trend suggests a growing readiness of universities to seek applications from their research. Likewise, it suggests companies and business leaders are more willing to invest in the market potential of this type of research (OECD, 2000). In the Arab countries, the concept of diversifying university research funding is still in its infancy. Amongst countries considering this concept are Egypt, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. 4.3. Funding sources in developing countries Developing countries are heavily dominated by public universities that tend to charge low tuition fees, with costs falling predominantly on the state. Financial dependence
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on the state means that funding levels 8uctuate with the ups and downs of government resources. Yet, the )nancing of higher education does not have to be limited to public sources. Higher education can be provided and )nanced either entirely publicly, or entirely privately, or by some combination of the two. Hybrid systems deserve serious consideration because a purely public system is largely ill-positioned to satisfy the demands for excellence and access, whilst a purely private system does not adequately safeguard the public interest. The OECD study (OECD, 2000) believed that private )nancing is attractive. It reduces the pressure on government budgets and helps ensure that the costs of higher education are borne by those to whom the bene)ts accrue. Whilst in OECD member countries, private sector funding of research in public universities stands at around 5%, it is worthwhile noting the contrast furnished by several less developed and smaller countries. There, industries lack R&D structures and therefore need to make considerable use of higher education’s R&D capabilities (30% of business R&D goes to higher education in Turkey and 13% in Mexico) (OECD, 1998). Similar trends in some of the Arab countries are beginning to emerge. Inadequate resources (both material and human) for science education, the absence of key values and traditions which promote eIective scienti)c inquiry and training, are among the main causes of the deteriorating position of developing countries in the sciences. For policy makers in developing countries, the key question raised by the World Bank study (2000) is “where should promoting science and technology in higher education rank in the long list of priorities for resources?” The answer will vary from system to system. 4.4. Funding sources in the Arab countries Higher education expenditure: Total expenditure on higher education in the Arab countries amounted to almost $6.98 billion in 1996, an increase of 74% since 1992 and the equivalent to 1.25% of the total GDP for the same year (Qasem, 1998a). The average overall spending on higher education is around 1% of global GDP (OECD, 2000). The share of universities and university colleges amounted to 91% compared with 6% for technical institutes and 3% for national policy and co-ordination bodies. Governmental funding is the major source for higher education, but the share of non-governmental sources increased signi)cantly in 1996 (7%) compared to only 1% in 1992. Increased funding through non-governmental sources is expected to rise sharply within the next decade due to the continuous growth in the number of non-governmental institutes in over half the Arab countries (Qasem, 1998a). In his study of higher education in the Arab countries, Qasem (1998a) pinpointed a number of trends during the period of 1992 and 1996. These may be summarised as follows: • Arab countries have invested substantially more funds in higher education, but with variable ratios. In 1996 compared to 1992, the size of expenditure has doubled in Egypt, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia and Tunisia. This increase, along with Morocco, constitutes 91% of the total increase in the 1996 expenditure.
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• The increase in higher education expenditure was re8ected in an increase in the share of student total expenditure. In 1996, the average cost per university student per annum rose to $ 2.400—27% higher than in 1992. On the other hand, the increase in average cost per technical institute student per annum rose to $ 1.083—54% higher than in 1992. Another indicator is university student cost. University student cost in high-income countries varies widely, ranging in 1995 from $6.000 in France to $15.700 in Switzerland. The average cost for 1995 in the US was $14.600. Student cost in the Arab countries also varies widely. The variation in university student cost per annum ranged from less than $1.000 in low income countries (e.g. Sudan, Yemen and Mauritania) to more than $10.000 in several oil-exporting Gulf countries. Research and development expenditure: In 1996, R&D expenditure in the Arab countries amounted to $782.3 million—a )gure substantially higher than 1992 with an annual increase of 8.8% over the period 1992–1996. Although R&D expenditure increased in all countries, the larger portion of the overall increase was due to the substantial rise of R&D expenditure in seven countries in particular: Egypt, Jordan, Kuwait, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Syria and Tunisia. These seven States in 1996 accounted for 81.7% of the total R&D expenditure, with an annual increase of 10.5% compared with only 3% per annum for the remaining Arab countries. Despite this increase, R&D expenditure remains among the lowest in the world. The average ratio of R&D expenditure to GDP in Arab countries amounted to 0.15% in 1996 compared with 0.12% in 1992. R&D expenditure from government sources was 89.3% of the total R&D expenditure in the Arab countries in 1996. Almost 69% of government funding was allocated to autonomous and ministry-governed institutions, compared with 31% to universities. Private sector represented by major industries, contributed only 2.9% of total R&D expenditure. This is applicable in six countries only: Egypt, Jordan, Kuwait, Morocco, Saudi Arabia and Tunisia (Qasem, 1998b). The overall foreign support amounted to 7.9% in 1996. This is usually in the form of grants and research project support from donor countries. 5. Good practice in research management 5.1. Managing research and services Access to knowledge and expertise, recon)guring it in novel ways, and selling it, is becoming one of the specialised functions of business (Gibbons, 2000). New intermediary organisations are being set up to provide such services. The demand is for much more data or information: it is for knowledge to identify and solve problems. Firms such as these employ problem solvers and problem brokers. Their new material are the global scienti)c and technological communities, regardless of whether these communities operate in Mode 1 (classical universities) or Mode 2 (modern universities), or are among the growing number of sites of knowledge production. Their
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success, Gibbons suggested, depends on the full utilisation of state of the art information technology. Certainly, the role of R&D management systems in universities and research organisations is a powerful tool to manage R&D activities. In the Arab countries, only eight countries have established a management unit for funding R&D activities, amongst which Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia and Syria. Morocco and Tunisia are seriously considering the allocation of funding to be dispensed outside the R&D institution regular budgets (Qasem, 1998b). Managing R&D activities in the Arab countries at national level reveals a number of patterns. A few examples are given below: Egypt: One of the )rst national systems for planning and funding R&D activities was set up in 1972 with the establishment of the Egyptian Academy of Scienti)c Research and Technology (ASRT). ASRT serves as a national organisation responsible for the planning and funding of R&D activities in Egypt. Planning is carried out through 15 specialised research councils. Funding of selected projects is through open competition. The ASRT is also responsible for patents and intellectual priorities. The ASRT is presently under the umbrella of the Ministry of Scienti)c Research. In the absence of a national S&T policy, the specialised councils set priorities based on inputs from the research community and to a certain extent on inputs from ministries. This has given rise to a number of sectoral R&D priorities, which have little to moderate impact at the national level. Kuwait: Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement of Science (KFAS), established in 1976, for the advancement of the economic, social and cultural development plans of Kuwait, operates as a non-pro)t organisation to facilitate funding of educational and scienti)c projects. Funding is through Kuwaiti companies (presently 550 member companies) which contribute 2% of their net pro)ts, recently reduced from 5%. Four major local areas were targeted over the years to serve the Kuwaiti scienti)c community—health, environment, water resources and petrol and petrochemicals. Saudi Arabia: King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST) was )rst established in 1977. Eight directorates represent the administrative structure: Directorates of Research Grants Programmes; Information; Patents; Scienti)c Awareness and Publishing; Planning and Follow-up; Technology Transfer; International Co-operation; and Administrative Development. In addition, seven research institutes form the research arm of KACST. 5.2. Research co-operation The importance of local, regional and international co-operation was singled out in the World Bank study (2000). But, for scientists in the developing world, the scarcity of such contacts is often an impediment to their creativity and productivity. Co-operation is especially important at the regional level. It helps individual countries reach a critical mass in scienti)c subjects. At regional level and among the Arab countries, a number of organisations have been set up to manage—among others—regional R&D activities. In 1964, the League
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of Arab States decided to establish the Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scienti)c Organisation (ALECSO). Its creation was announced during the )rst General Conference in 1970. With its headquarters situated in Tunis-Tunisia, ALECSO’s major responsibility is to promote and co-ordinate educational, cultural and scienti)c activities at the regional and national levels in the Arab World. The Islamic Educational, Scienti)c and Cultural Organisation (ISESCO) located in Rabat, Morocco, is a similar organisation. The League of Arab States also founded the Arab Academy for Science and Technology and Maritime Transport in Alexandria, Egypt. Its major responsibilities include teaching, research, training, community service and projects (www.aast.edu). A new organisation has established at Sharjah, UAE in April 2000, namely the Arab Science and Technology Foundation (ASTF). Its mission is to encourage and support excellence and innovation in S&T and promote collaboration between Arab countries. Nearly all the Arab countries have bi-lateral agreements of co-operation in the )eld of higher education and=or science and technology. Several have similar agreements with developed and developing countries. The European Commission (EC) published in 1997 a report listing joint research projects with participants from the European Union and Mediterranean Partners. The share of Arab countries was as follows: Morocco 27%, Tunisia 26%, Egypt 19%, Algeria 13%, Jordan 6%, Palestine 4%, Syria 3% and Lebanon 2%. Major topics involved are water resources and management, environment, renewable energy, agriculture, health, information and communication technology and material sciences (Bizri, 1999). Zahlan (1999) underscored the importance of co-operation between scientists in the shape of networking and communication. Using two parameters to measure co-operation between researchers in the Arab countries—Joint publications and participation in conferences held with the Arab countries—he concluded that scienti)c workers in the Maghreb and Gulf regions individually have become deeply integrated into the international scienti)c community. However, the level of co-operation within the two regions is very limited. The second parameter used conferences held in the Arab countries. Zahlan chose 37 scienti)c meetings held in Arab countries between 1992 and 1996 and which brought out conference proceedings. The conclusion was similar, namely that collaboration between Arab countries was weak (Zahlan, 1999). Universities and research organisations in the Arab countries have also a number of bilateral agreements between organisations. The Association of Arab Universities (AARU), founded in 1964 with its headquarters in Amman, Jordan is to enhance co-operation amongst Arab universities and to co-ordinate their eIorts so as to raise the quality of higher education. It facilitates scienti)c research, exchange of knowledge, and holds conferences and symposia. UNESCO has established the UNITWIN=UNESCO chairs programme to strengthen international co-operation between higher education institutions and programmes via twinning and other networking arrangements and to foster academic solidarity in favour of developing countries. Several Arab research organisations and universities have taken part in this programme (www.unesco.org/education/educprog/unitwin/index.html). Some Arab countries have created networks in speci)c areas. One instance of regional co-operation in Agriculture is provided by the International Centre for Agricultural
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Research in Dry Areas (ICARDA). Similar examples of centres of excellence are to be found in the areas of Date Palm cultivation and Biotechnology. 5.3. Conclusions Very few organisations in Arab countries, and then only recently, have systematically considered the role of research management. Furthermore, research management is in8uenced by many factors. Some are direct, others indirect; some are internal, others external; some act at the national level, others at the international level. The pace of change has accelerated in developed countries, while it has hardly begun in many of the developing countries. There is a clear need for increasing resources, and more important, improving the e
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The development and application of some of these indicators will be di
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even restructuring—should be taken to underpin this transformation. This should be sited within a national development policy plan, particularly a national S&T policy and strategy. Autonomy entails responsibility, leadership, vision, planning, follow-up, availability of appropriate human resources, funding and hard core infrastructures. In short, a solid management system. The introduction of R&D management systems in universities and research institutions, public and private, is becoming a key factor in managing research and keeping up with the ever-changing global market environment. To reach this level and to keep up with the required changes, a degree of autonomy and 8exibility should be realised. This will only be attained by restructuring the existing tertiary education system to be able to keep up with the newly-emerging )elds of knowledge. EIective co-operation with industry and other end-users is an important goal. Two other factors should not be overlooked: (a) the establishment and strengthening of existing government-supported research centres (e.g. centres of excellence); (b) keeping up a high level of basic science infrastructure. Many universities and research organisations in the Arab countries ought to change from being classical establishments to becoming more pro-active, particularly from the management point of view. Some have made the transition. However, they are often the product of personal vision and initiative rather than being part of a comprehensive systematic overhaul. 5.3.5. Funding Developed countries spend 2.5 –3% of GDP on S&T. In the Arab countries, this does not exceed 0.6% of GDP, and in many instances, includes wages and running costs. Hence, the true amount spent on S&T is even lower. A second factor is that 50 – 80% of S&T expenditure in developed countries comes from industry. The presence of large national industries and multinational industries capable of establishing their own R&D capabilities, is lacking in the Arab countries. It is surprising indeed that R&D capabilities were not established by the large petroleum companies and industries in the Arab countries, with the exception of Saudi Arabia. 5.3.6. Co-operation Shinaishin (2000), argued that the Arab countries occupy a geographical centre in the populated world. They extend from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean. They have major resources of fossil fuel, hydroelectric potential, important minerals, as well as agricultural potential. They have huge unutilised solar energy sources. They straddle important seaways, from the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, to the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean, with huge resources. The Arab countries rely on technology imported from industrialised countries mainly for the local consumer products. Exports are mostly of primary materials such as unprocessed oil, minerals and agricultural products.
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Shinaishin argues that the Arab countries ought to recognise that they cannot carry out high quality work if each tackles all scienti)c problems alone. Co-operation is a necessity recognised by richer and more powerful countries. It can be accomplished in part by establishing a network of complementary centres of excellence in speci)c key )elds. Such centres should be distributed among these countries, and have guaranteed 8ow of information and )ndings as well as unlimited accessibility for scientists from the other countries (Shinaishin, 2000). If OECD countries are pooling their facilities to reduce and share costs in S&T, why can the Arab countries not do the same? With such vast and varied natural resources, Arab countries could share natural and human resources to compliment each other. A few examples already exist through bilateral agreements. However, they have not been optimised to the degree of becoming self-reliant on local resources. In conclusion, a comprehensive developmental approach is needed in the Arab countries. It requires visions, policies, strategies, planning, implementation and continual evaluation to be applied in higher education and S&T. This should be set within the context of a viable economic and social developmental plan of the nation at large. In short, what is needed is a good overall management system at every single level. References Al-Otaibi, A. (2000). Foresight of selected emerging technologies and their implications on R&D prospects in the GCC countries in the new millennium. Presented at Scienti)c Research Outlook in the Arab World and the New Millenium: Science and Technology, Sharjah, UAE, 24 –26 April. Al-Mazidi, S. (2000). Initiatives for S&T Parks in Kuwait. ESCWA Expert Group Meeting: Capacitybuilding Initiatives for the Twenty-)rst Century, Beirut, 1–3 November [E=ESCWA=TECH=2000=WG.1=4]. Al-Rasheed, A. A. (1999). The role of the King Abdulaziz City for S&T regarding the present status of and future projects for R&D in Saudi Arabia. Presented at the Expert Group Meeting on Project Planning and Management in Research and Development and Quality Assurance, ESCWA, Beirut, 21–23 September [E=ESCWA=TECH=1999=WG.2=2]. Asmar, M. (2000). Berytech, a Technology Park in Lebanon. ESCWA Expert Group Meeting: Capacitybuilding Initiatives for the Twenty-)rst Century, Beirut, 1–3 November [E=ESCWA=TECH=2000=WG.1=6]. Bizri, O. (1999). S&T policies and strategies in the ESCWA member countries. Proceedings of the expert group meeting on S&T policies and strategies in the ESCWA member countries, Beirut, ESCWA, 10 –12 March [E=ESCWA=TECH=1999=8]. El-Solh, W. (2000). Internet and technology incubation in the Arab World. ESCWA Expert Group Meeting: Capacity-building Initiatives for the Twenty-)rst Century, Beirut, 1–3 November [E=ESCWA=TECH=2000=WG.1=20]. ESCWA (Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia). (1997). Science and technology indicators: basic concepts, de7nitions and prospects for development [E=ESCWA=TECH=1997=6]. ESCWA (Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia). (1999=1a). Review of industry in ESCWA member countries—Bulletin no. 1 [E=ESCWA=ID=1999=1]. ESCWA (Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia). (1999=3). Review of science and technology in ESCWA member countries—issue no. 2. [E=ESCWA=TECH=1999=3]. ESCWA (Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia). (1999=4). Science and technology policies for the twenty-7rst century [E=ESCWA=TECH=1999=4]. ESCWA (Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia). (1999=5). Small and medium enterprises: Strategies, policies and support institutions. [E=ESCWA=ID=1999=5]. Gibbons, M. (2000). Higher education relevance in the 21st century. A study supported by the World Bank and presented at the UNESCO World Conference on Higher Education, Paris, France, 5 –9 October 1998.
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Ministry of Higher Education Egypt. (2000). Strategic plan for the development of higher education. Presented at the National Conference on Higher Education, 13–14 February, Cairo, Egypt. Moursy, M.Y.M. (2000). Initiatives undertaken to promote dissemination, implementation and development of S&T in Egypt. ESCWA Expert Group Meeting: Capacity-building Initiatives for the Twenty-)rst Century, Beirut, 1–3 November [E=ESCWA=TECH=2000=WG.1=9]. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development)=DSTI (Directorate for Science Technology and Industry) (1998). University Research in Transition, Paris, OECD. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). (2000). Research Management at the Institutional Level. Paris: OECD. Qasem, S. (1998a). Higher education systems in the Arab states: Development of science and technology indicators. A study carried out for ESCWA=UNESCO-Cairo O
Further reading Directory of S&T Organisations and Research Centres (2000). Cairo, Academy of Scienti)c Research and Technology, Cairo, May (in Arabic). Dje8at, A. (1999). Science and technology policies and their implementations in the Maghreb countries. A paper presented at the Expert Meeting on S&T Policies for the 21st Century, ESCWA, Beirut, 10 –12 March [E=ESCWA=TECH=1999=WG.1=3]. ESCWA (Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia). (1999=1b). Review of science and technology in ESCWA member countries—issue no. 1 [E=ESCWA=TECH=1999=1]. Hernes, G., & Martin, M. (2000). Trends in the management of university-industry linkages: what are the challenges ahead? IIEP=S.188= Background Paper, Paris. International Institute for Educational Planning, Paris, UNESCO. Johnston, D. J. (2000). The new economy: technology is not enough. OECD Observer. September 22 [www.oecdobserver.org]. National Science Board (NSB). (1996). Science and engineering indicators—1996. Washington, DC: National Science Foundation.
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OECD=DSTI. (1999). Benchmarking industry-science relationships and research based spin-oDs. DSTI=STP (99)25. Paris: OECD. Shamlan, A. A. (2000). A paper entitled: KFAS: A model for the role of the private sector in funding scienti7c research. Presented at Scienti)c Research Outlook in the Arab World and the New Millennium: Science and Technology, Sharjah, UAE, 24 –26 April. UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). (2000). Human development report. Oxford: Oxford University Press. World Bank, (1999). Knowledge for development. Oxford: Oxford University Press.