- Email: [email protected]
Transnational water management in the Arab region
Environmental Development 7 (2013) 119–124
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Environmental Development journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envdev
Transnational water management in the Arab region Ahmed Abou Elseoud a, Mary M. Matthews b,n a
Secretary General, Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA), State Ministry of Environment, Egypt Chief Technical Advisor, UNDP GEF Project “Reducing Transboundary Degradation in the Kura Ara(k)s River Basin”, Tblisi, Georgia b
a r t i c l e in f o
Keywords: Arab region Water resource management challenges Water scarcity Integrated water resources management Governance Holistic approach
1. Introduction Most of the Arab countries1 are located in arid and semi-arid zones known for their low annual rainfall, very high rates of evaporation and consequently extremely insufficient renewable water resources. For years, finding enough water for people meant finding more water to use. Today, and into the future, we instead need to find ways to use water in a more sustainable manner across all sectors and in between countries to meet the growing demands. Therefore, the sustainable management of water resources is an imperative as water scarcity is becoming even more of a development constraint that is impeding the economic growth of many countries and across the region. This trend in the Arab region is likely to be repeated throughout arid regions of the world and regions becoming more arid as a result of climate change with increased transboundary impacts and need for transboundary management. In the absence of effective control measures and/or regulating mechanisms, over-exploitation of the limited water resources available in the region has continued in a rapid and irrational manner. With the
n
Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (M.M. Matthews). 1 For purposes of this article, “Arab Countries” is referring to: Mauritania, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Sudan, Egypt, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Iraq, Somalia, Djibouti, Yemen, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman and the United Arab Emirates. 2211-4645/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2013.05.015
120
A.A. Elseoud, M.M. Matthews / Environmental Development 7 (2013) 119–124
availability of vast areas of uncultivated arable land in the Region, especially in non-Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)2, it was natural that irrigation takes the biggest share of water and becomes the prime driving force for the increasing demand and, hence, un-sustainability of the resources. However, like many other parts of the world, the Arab region is witnessing a dramatic shift in priorities in recent years towards a more sustainable use of the available resources. Irrigation, which was seen as an essential step towards the achievement of national self-sufficiency in food production throughout the 1970s and 80s has been regarded in the late 1990s as a low-value use for water in comparison with municipal and industrial uses. Many countries in the Region are also beginning to include environmental protection in their national plans in order to give the ecosystem its fair share of the available water for maintaining itself and sustaining the fauna and flora as well as to allow effective recharge of the aquifer systems.
This is challenging to achieve in an arid region, where there is significant water scarcity, growing populations, and increasing demands on governments to support improvements in the environment, social conditions and economic development. Further coordination between riparian countries, and those sharing sub surface waters, also creates additional challenges for decision makers in the regional context. Unless otherwise noted, all data in presented is drawn from the ESCWA (2005) or from FAO (2003).
2. Available water resources in the Arab region The Arab region has a total area of about 14 millionkm2, out of which, more than 87% are deserts, marking the region as a highly arid environment, along with a poor vegetation cover as depicted from the land use distribution given in Fig. 1. The arid condition is caused by a high scarcity of rainfall, except for narrow coastal strips in the Maghreb, East Mediterranean, South Sudan and Northern Iraq. The average amount of rain received by the Arab region is estimated at 2148 km3/year, out of which about 50% takes place in Sudan. The average annual precipitation for the Arab nations varies considerably between 18 mm/year in Egypt, and 827 mm/year in Lebanon, with an average of 156 mm/year. More than half of the region's estimated 335 km3/year renewable water resources originate outside the region and are mainly conveyed through the Nile, Euphrates and Tigress. The demand, on the 2
Gulf Cooperation Council countries include Kuwait, Bahrain, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Oman and Yemen.
A.A. Elseoud, M.M. Matthews / Environmental Development 7 (2013) 119–124
121
Land Uses for the Arab Region 1%
2%
3%
7%
87%
Irrigated Crops
Rainfed Crops
Forests
Natural Pasture
Desert
Fig. 1. Distribution of major land uses for the Arab region. Source: Source: ESCWA data from ESCWA development Report-1, ESCWA, 2005; other data from "World Water Resources by Country", FAO, 2003.
other hand, exceeds 200 km3/year (about 60% of the renewable resources) and is escalating at an alarming rate. In 1950, the average annual share per inhabitant of Annual Renewable Water Resources (ARWR) was exceeding 4000 m3/cap/year for the Arab region (AWC&CEDARE, 2004). The total water demand for all sectors in the region is estimated at about 175 Billion Cubic Meters (BCM) in 2005, with the agriculture sector as the prime water consumer at an annual average of 83% of total water available. The remaining 17% is shared between the domestic and industrial sectors at about 10% and 7%, respectively. The importance of agriculture, especially in the non-GCC countries, is mainly because it absorbs a large proportion of the labor force, which, for example, has reached 50% in Yemen and 40% in Egypt. However, the contribution of agriculture to national GDP is relatively low, ranging from 0.4% in GCC states (Kuwait and Qatar) to about 24% in Syria and 17% in Egypt. Under existing conditions, it is unlikely that the expansion of irrigated agriculture can proceed without creating additional major water shortage problems and increased transboundary strains. Additional stresses over national level food security will emerge throughout the region if the current policies are maintained. Unfortunately, these problems are becoming more severe in some Arab member States, as the poorest citizens are farmers in rural areas with a high rate of population increase, further increasing the demand for food and water. Furthermore, current water tariffs in the Arab region are substantially lower than water productions costs, and they therefore do not encourage water conservation. The availability of good quality desalinated water at very low tariff rates in most GCC countries has resulted in increased per capita water consumption, especially for domestic uses as reflected in the per capita consumption (liter/capita/day) range from 499 in Kuwait to 567 in Bahrain and 600 in UAE are among the highest in the region.
3. Main water management challenges facing the region 3.1. Water shortage and drought Sustainable development of water resources in the region is impeded by a number of factors, most notably a chronic water scarcity and rapid population growth. Availability of water within the region varies from country to country not only in terms of volume but also in terms of the source of the water. The vulnerability of Arab nations to drought has intensified due to the region's demographic and economic growth, increasing water scarcity and water resource and land use patterns. Poor land use practices such as overgrazing, over-cultivation, and inefficient irrigation have degraded and changed land characteristics, which have, in turn, changed the general climate over the region. As a result, there has been a decrease in annual rainfall, leading to environmental degradation, desertification and an increase in drought vulnerability. In addition, over-exploitation and water pollution in the region is increasing the rate at which usable water resources are lost. As populations increase, these challenges will intensify if unabated, with increasing stresses locally, nationally and regionally.
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A.A. Elseoud, M.M. Matthews / Environmental Development 7 (2013) 119–124
3.2. Environmental/ecological deterioration Like other parts of the world, people's use of water in the Arab region is exerting pressure on the environment and water shortage coupled with increase in demand in the region has contributed to serious ecological problems that encompass loss of biodiversity, desertification and a serious degradation in water quality. In order to cope with the region's water scarcity, a variety of measures have been undertaken. These measures include the alteration of natural watershed systems by constructing storage and recharge dams, diversion of some tributaries, draining of wetlands, and overdrafting renewable ground-water resources. The over-exploitation of groundwater resources throughout the region has resulted in the deterioration in water quality, seawater intrusion, destruction and pollution of aquifers, an increase in cost of pumping and hence a decrease in the amount of available fresh water for various uses both nationally and regionally. Alternative approaches to increase water resources have also been intensifying in the region some with deleterious impacts. All Arab countries have been forced to resort to non-conventional water resources. Wastewater reuse in agriculture, forestation, reforestation and beautification is the most attractive option to meet this challenge, since it accounts for upto 70% of fresh water consumption. In a few cases, wastewater is used to recharge ground water through recharge pits and deep well injection, as well as for aquaculture. In some Arab countries, domestic wastewater is being used in agriculture without adequate treatment, leading to contaminated produce and vegetables (World Bank, 2005). GCC countries produce about half the world's desalinated water. Most countries of the region are either considering or have moved towards desalination as an option to fill the gap between demand and supply. The environmental impacts associated with desalination include impingement and entrainment of aquatic creatures in plants intakes, as well as the introduction of discharge of rejected hot brine, residual chlorine, trace metals, volatile liquid hydrocarbons, anti-foaming and anti-scaling agents to the near-shore marine environment (World Bank, 2005). These ecological problems become shared throughout the region including the negative effects of the salinity of the Arabian Gulf, contamination of ground waters, and loss of endemic bio-resources. 3.3. Weak economies and low investments in the water sector A lack of financial resources, increasing foreign debt and low investment profiles remain as major concerns in the region because it impedes the development and sustainable management of the water sector. This problem is particularly serious in the non-GCC countries, which suffer from a severe lack of financing for water projects, including sustainable irrigation, municipal water supply and sanitation, and industrial water management. The cost of producing water and providing adequate municipal services for water supply and sanitation is much higher than what official authorities normally charge. Even so, a significant percentage of the population, especially in least developed countries such as Yemen, is unable to pay the official charges. To compensate for this, water costs are heavily subsidized through governmental budgeting. These governments are thus faced with the difficulty of implementing these supply-oriented measures, which need a substantial amount of investment, in a financially strained environment. Although national level decision makers realize that there is an urgent need to shift emphasis from a traditional supply-driven management approach to a new and modern integrated supply and demand management, the region has been unable to induce this shift. (ESCWA, 2005). Dependence on donor driven initiatives at the national levels fails to adequately address the critical transboundary issues required for sustainable water resources managements. 3.4. Inadequate water supply and sanitation facilities Specific targets on water supply and sanitation have been developed through several international agreements and United Nations Resolutions. The challenges are great not only because of increase in levels of demand but also because many cities in the region experience great losses in water due to high leakage
A.A. Elseoud, M.M. Matthews / Environmental Development 7 (2013) 119–124
123
rates (30–50%) from old distribution systems and a lack of maintenance. In addition, the water is of poor quality and requires further treatment at an additional cost. Cost recovery represents another challenge to water utilities, as water is heavily subsidized in most urban centers and therefore, provides no option for generating the needed funds for maintaining the system. Government subsidies differ from country to country but water charges still remain far below the costs of water supply in many countries in the region. Therefore, poor operation, budgetary constraints and weak governance structure are the main challenges of the water supply and sanitation utilities. 3.5. Poor water governance Most of countries in the region are heavily centralized in their water distribution systems, and the end users have little control and hardly participate in managing water. However, the water policies and national plans developed in the Arab region are not often discussed with all relevant stakeholders and often lack a nation-wide consultation of the public and private sector at decentralized and local levels. This leads to the feeling that individuals and eventually the public at large are unaccountable for and have no responsibility towards water conservation practices. Almost all developed water policies remain largely based on a topdown approach in which the central ministries are the key-stakeholders. Another major challenge that exists in most of countries in the Arab region is the lack of horizontal coordination and cooperation between water institutions at the national and local levels. Water management responsibilities are usually dispersed among several actors, which make it more difficult to devise effective mechanisms, and to reach common ground for consultation and achieving action plans instead of conflicts and disputes (ESCWA, 2004). Tensions are emerging between countries as well as the shared water resources are becoming increasingly scarce, demand is increasing and current governance approaches are based on national priorities instead of regional development priorities. 3.6. Political instability The Arab region has been plagued with wars for the past decades, which have caused major environmental problems. Marine and fresh water resources were polluted with oil spills and solid wastes due to these wars. The environmental impacts of the war included physical damage to infrastructure (e.g. water and sanitation systems) and serious contamination due to releases of potentially hazardous substances from targeted military and industrial infrastructure. These wars and political conflicts have led to a serious degradation of water quality and the environment in many areas, which have now necessitated massive investments and efforts by the governments to restore and rehabilitate the area. The continued failure to resolve these long standing political tensions in the region is a major limiting factor in the region in the pursuit of effective water management and sustainable development. The political instability and wars have put a great pressure on already fragile and scarce water resources. In addition to the potential conflict over shared water resources, there is the problem of infrastructure destruction as in the case of Iraq and Palestine. 4. Facing the challenges in the Arab region The challenge that faces the Arab states requires non-conventional actions to address the problem of water scarcity. There is an urgent need to implement a holistic, basin management methodology using the ecosystem approach should be adopted as the best way forward for sustainable Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM). This entails the adoption and implementation of key operational principles and the allocation of funds for basin management. The following principles should be given top priority in all water management activities. Their implementation should be seen as a condition of success of water management activities.
Sustainability: Water policies must take hydrological and natural processes into account, in order to protect ecosystems that are both directly and indirectly related to water as well as to leave sufficient amounts of water for other ecosystem types.
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A.A. Elseoud, M.M. Matthews / Environmental Development 7 (2013) 119–124
Harmonization: Policy harmonization is a prerequisite in all development activities. Harmoniza
tion is also important at the regional and national levels and in between ministries and/or development agencies. Equity: All human beings deserve and should receive enough water of good quality to enable them to live decently. Within a framework of access to water information, water should be managed in a participatory way at its lowest level to ensure that the targeted user groups effectively benefit from water development programs. It is important to mention that water management requires consultation with all stakeholders and all community members, including both men and women, so that all can play an important role in water management to ensure equitable access to water resources. Equitable utilization: Water should be equitably shared between all users and stakeholders, including for energy production, agriculture, industry, municipal and domestic use, nature, and in particular for the directly or indirectly water-related ecosystems to ensure healthy hydrological processes. Efficiency: Increasing water productivity is central to produce food, to alleviate poverty, and to reduce competition for water. In other words, “we need better water quality rather than more water quantity”. This can be done through a series of improvements through new technologies for water use (drip irrigation system, waste-water recycling, improved sanitation services, etc.), as well as through the improvement or substitutions of crops, improved cultural practices, virtual water trade, etc. Correction of market failure and managing demand: All water users should pay the full price of water services provision. External costs for water services should be internalized. Environmental services should be valued in economic and financial terms. Unsustainable subsidies for agriculture should be replaced by cross-subsidies to enable the poor to get access to water. Practice the holistic approach: Unite all skills in managing water, considering nature as our first partner in the effort towards poverty eradication in the long run rather than trying to dominate nature in the short-term with long-term damage. Improved legislation: The current laws and regulations for water use and permits will be a one of the tools to provide water for all users in an equitable opportunity. Most countries are requiring EIA for new projects to ensure that new project will not pollute available water resources. Strengthened governance: The national water plans should be translated into more decentralized plans that will be more action-oriented. The development of those local actions plans and the implementation of the plans will require an active role of local stakeholders, including NGOs and individual citizens. Awareness campaigns on water saving measures need to be intensified within the framework of these plans at the local, national and regional levels. Transboundary management approach: The water resource management challenges of the Arab region will be significantly compounded if each nation attempts to address them alone. To optimize resource security, including food security, energy security, water security and environmental security will require an integrated approach at the national level and at the regional level through coordinated priority integrated water resource management, creative problem solving and creation of transboundary win-win solutions for sustainability. Throughout history, the Arab region has existed as a central hub of civilization and innovation. It is time once again to be open to new approaches to sustain our civilizations and to serve as a model to the world in this changing climate.
References AWC&CEDARE, 2004. State of the Water Report in the Arab Region. FAO, 2003. Water Reports 23: Review of World Water Resources by Country. FAO, Rome. ESCWA, 2004. Enhancing the Application of Integrated Water Resources Management in the ESCWA Region. Beirut, LB. ESCWA, 2005. ESCWA Water Development Report 1: Vulnerability of the Region to Socio-Economic Drought. United Nations, New York. World Bank, 2005. A Water Sector Assessment Report on the Countries of the Cooperation Council of the Arab States of the Gulf. Washington, DC.
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Environmental Development journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envdev
Transnational water management in the Arab region Ahmed Abou Elseoud a, Mary M. Matthews b,n a
Secretary General, Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA), State Ministry of Environment, Egypt Chief Technical Advisor, UNDP GEF Project “Reducing Transboundary Degradation in the Kura Ara(k)s River Basin”, Tblisi, Georgia b
a r t i c l e in f o
Keywords: Arab region Water resource management challenges Water scarcity Integrated water resources management Governance Holistic approach
1. Introduction Most of the Arab countries1 are located in arid and semi-arid zones known for their low annual rainfall, very high rates of evaporation and consequently extremely insufficient renewable water resources. For years, finding enough water for people meant finding more water to use. Today, and into the future, we instead need to find ways to use water in a more sustainable manner across all sectors and in between countries to meet the growing demands. Therefore, the sustainable management of water resources is an imperative as water scarcity is becoming even more of a development constraint that is impeding the economic growth of many countries and across the region. This trend in the Arab region is likely to be repeated throughout arid regions of the world and regions becoming more arid as a result of climate change with increased transboundary impacts and need for transboundary management. In the absence of effective control measures and/or regulating mechanisms, over-exploitation of the limited water resources available in the region has continued in a rapid and irrational manner. With the
n
Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (M.M. Matthews). 1 For purposes of this article, “Arab Countries” is referring to: Mauritania, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Sudan, Egypt, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Iraq, Somalia, Djibouti, Yemen, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman and the United Arab Emirates. 2211-4645/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2013.05.015
120
A.A. Elseoud, M.M. Matthews / Environmental Development 7 (2013) 119–124
availability of vast areas of uncultivated arable land in the Region, especially in non-Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)2, it was natural that irrigation takes the biggest share of water and becomes the prime driving force for the increasing demand and, hence, un-sustainability of the resources. However, like many other parts of the world, the Arab region is witnessing a dramatic shift in priorities in recent years towards a more sustainable use of the available resources. Irrigation, which was seen as an essential step towards the achievement of national self-sufficiency in food production throughout the 1970s and 80s has been regarded in the late 1990s as a low-value use for water in comparison with municipal and industrial uses. Many countries in the Region are also beginning to include environmental protection in their national plans in order to give the ecosystem its fair share of the available water for maintaining itself and sustaining the fauna and flora as well as to allow effective recharge of the aquifer systems.
This is challenging to achieve in an arid region, where there is significant water scarcity, growing populations, and increasing demands on governments to support improvements in the environment, social conditions and economic development. Further coordination between riparian countries, and those sharing sub surface waters, also creates additional challenges for decision makers in the regional context. Unless otherwise noted, all data in presented is drawn from the ESCWA (2005) or from FAO (2003).
2. Available water resources in the Arab region The Arab region has a total area of about 14 millionkm2, out of which, more than 87% are deserts, marking the region as a highly arid environment, along with a poor vegetation cover as depicted from the land use distribution given in Fig. 1. The arid condition is caused by a high scarcity of rainfall, except for narrow coastal strips in the Maghreb, East Mediterranean, South Sudan and Northern Iraq. The average amount of rain received by the Arab region is estimated at 2148 km3/year, out of which about 50% takes place in Sudan. The average annual precipitation for the Arab nations varies considerably between 18 mm/year in Egypt, and 827 mm/year in Lebanon, with an average of 156 mm/year. More than half of the region's estimated 335 km3/year renewable water resources originate outside the region and are mainly conveyed through the Nile, Euphrates and Tigress. The demand, on the 2
Gulf Cooperation Council countries include Kuwait, Bahrain, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Oman and Yemen.
A.A. Elseoud, M.M. Matthews / Environmental Development 7 (2013) 119–124
121
Land Uses for the Arab Region 1%
2%
3%
7%
87%
Irrigated Crops
Rainfed Crops
Forests
Natural Pasture
Desert
Fig. 1. Distribution of major land uses for the Arab region. Source: Source: ESCWA data from ESCWA development Report-1, ESCWA, 2005; other data from "World Water Resources by Country", FAO, 2003.
other hand, exceeds 200 km3/year (about 60% of the renewable resources) and is escalating at an alarming rate. In 1950, the average annual share per inhabitant of Annual Renewable Water Resources (ARWR) was exceeding 4000 m3/cap/year for the Arab region (AWC&CEDARE, 2004). The total water demand for all sectors in the region is estimated at about 175 Billion Cubic Meters (BCM) in 2005, with the agriculture sector as the prime water consumer at an annual average of 83% of total water available. The remaining 17% is shared between the domestic and industrial sectors at about 10% and 7%, respectively. The importance of agriculture, especially in the non-GCC countries, is mainly because it absorbs a large proportion of the labor force, which, for example, has reached 50% in Yemen and 40% in Egypt. However, the contribution of agriculture to national GDP is relatively low, ranging from 0.4% in GCC states (Kuwait and Qatar) to about 24% in Syria and 17% in Egypt. Under existing conditions, it is unlikely that the expansion of irrigated agriculture can proceed without creating additional major water shortage problems and increased transboundary strains. Additional stresses over national level food security will emerge throughout the region if the current policies are maintained. Unfortunately, these problems are becoming more severe in some Arab member States, as the poorest citizens are farmers in rural areas with a high rate of population increase, further increasing the demand for food and water. Furthermore, current water tariffs in the Arab region are substantially lower than water productions costs, and they therefore do not encourage water conservation. The availability of good quality desalinated water at very low tariff rates in most GCC countries has resulted in increased per capita water consumption, especially for domestic uses as reflected in the per capita consumption (liter/capita/day) range from 499 in Kuwait to 567 in Bahrain and 600 in UAE are among the highest in the region.
3. Main water management challenges facing the region 3.1. Water shortage and drought Sustainable development of water resources in the region is impeded by a number of factors, most notably a chronic water scarcity and rapid population growth. Availability of water within the region varies from country to country not only in terms of volume but also in terms of the source of the water. The vulnerability of Arab nations to drought has intensified due to the region's demographic and economic growth, increasing water scarcity and water resource and land use patterns. Poor land use practices such as overgrazing, over-cultivation, and inefficient irrigation have degraded and changed land characteristics, which have, in turn, changed the general climate over the region. As a result, there has been a decrease in annual rainfall, leading to environmental degradation, desertification and an increase in drought vulnerability. In addition, over-exploitation and water pollution in the region is increasing the rate at which usable water resources are lost. As populations increase, these challenges will intensify if unabated, with increasing stresses locally, nationally and regionally.
122
A.A. Elseoud, M.M. Matthews / Environmental Development 7 (2013) 119–124
3.2. Environmental/ecological deterioration Like other parts of the world, people's use of water in the Arab region is exerting pressure on the environment and water shortage coupled with increase in demand in the region has contributed to serious ecological problems that encompass loss of biodiversity, desertification and a serious degradation in water quality. In order to cope with the region's water scarcity, a variety of measures have been undertaken. These measures include the alteration of natural watershed systems by constructing storage and recharge dams, diversion of some tributaries, draining of wetlands, and overdrafting renewable ground-water resources. The over-exploitation of groundwater resources throughout the region has resulted in the deterioration in water quality, seawater intrusion, destruction and pollution of aquifers, an increase in cost of pumping and hence a decrease in the amount of available fresh water for various uses both nationally and regionally. Alternative approaches to increase water resources have also been intensifying in the region some with deleterious impacts. All Arab countries have been forced to resort to non-conventional water resources. Wastewater reuse in agriculture, forestation, reforestation and beautification is the most attractive option to meet this challenge, since it accounts for upto 70% of fresh water consumption. In a few cases, wastewater is used to recharge ground water through recharge pits and deep well injection, as well as for aquaculture. In some Arab countries, domestic wastewater is being used in agriculture without adequate treatment, leading to contaminated produce and vegetables (World Bank, 2005). GCC countries produce about half the world's desalinated water. Most countries of the region are either considering or have moved towards desalination as an option to fill the gap between demand and supply. The environmental impacts associated with desalination include impingement and entrainment of aquatic creatures in plants intakes, as well as the introduction of discharge of rejected hot brine, residual chlorine, trace metals, volatile liquid hydrocarbons, anti-foaming and anti-scaling agents to the near-shore marine environment (World Bank, 2005). These ecological problems become shared throughout the region including the negative effects of the salinity of the Arabian Gulf, contamination of ground waters, and loss of endemic bio-resources. 3.3. Weak economies and low investments in the water sector A lack of financial resources, increasing foreign debt and low investment profiles remain as major concerns in the region because it impedes the development and sustainable management of the water sector. This problem is particularly serious in the non-GCC countries, which suffer from a severe lack of financing for water projects, including sustainable irrigation, municipal water supply and sanitation, and industrial water management. The cost of producing water and providing adequate municipal services for water supply and sanitation is much higher than what official authorities normally charge. Even so, a significant percentage of the population, especially in least developed countries such as Yemen, is unable to pay the official charges. To compensate for this, water costs are heavily subsidized through governmental budgeting. These governments are thus faced with the difficulty of implementing these supply-oriented measures, which need a substantial amount of investment, in a financially strained environment. Although national level decision makers realize that there is an urgent need to shift emphasis from a traditional supply-driven management approach to a new and modern integrated supply and demand management, the region has been unable to induce this shift. (ESCWA, 2005). Dependence on donor driven initiatives at the national levels fails to adequately address the critical transboundary issues required for sustainable water resources managements. 3.4. Inadequate water supply and sanitation facilities Specific targets on water supply and sanitation have been developed through several international agreements and United Nations Resolutions. The challenges are great not only because of increase in levels of demand but also because many cities in the region experience great losses in water due to high leakage
A.A. Elseoud, M.M. Matthews / Environmental Development 7 (2013) 119–124
123
rates (30–50%) from old distribution systems and a lack of maintenance. In addition, the water is of poor quality and requires further treatment at an additional cost. Cost recovery represents another challenge to water utilities, as water is heavily subsidized in most urban centers and therefore, provides no option for generating the needed funds for maintaining the system. Government subsidies differ from country to country but water charges still remain far below the costs of water supply in many countries in the region. Therefore, poor operation, budgetary constraints and weak governance structure are the main challenges of the water supply and sanitation utilities. 3.5. Poor water governance Most of countries in the region are heavily centralized in their water distribution systems, and the end users have little control and hardly participate in managing water. However, the water policies and national plans developed in the Arab region are not often discussed with all relevant stakeholders and often lack a nation-wide consultation of the public and private sector at decentralized and local levels. This leads to the feeling that individuals and eventually the public at large are unaccountable for and have no responsibility towards water conservation practices. Almost all developed water policies remain largely based on a topdown approach in which the central ministries are the key-stakeholders. Another major challenge that exists in most of countries in the Arab region is the lack of horizontal coordination and cooperation between water institutions at the national and local levels. Water management responsibilities are usually dispersed among several actors, which make it more difficult to devise effective mechanisms, and to reach common ground for consultation and achieving action plans instead of conflicts and disputes (ESCWA, 2004). Tensions are emerging between countries as well as the shared water resources are becoming increasingly scarce, demand is increasing and current governance approaches are based on national priorities instead of regional development priorities. 3.6. Political instability The Arab region has been plagued with wars for the past decades, which have caused major environmental problems. Marine and fresh water resources were polluted with oil spills and solid wastes due to these wars. The environmental impacts of the war included physical damage to infrastructure (e.g. water and sanitation systems) and serious contamination due to releases of potentially hazardous substances from targeted military and industrial infrastructure. These wars and political conflicts have led to a serious degradation of water quality and the environment in many areas, which have now necessitated massive investments and efforts by the governments to restore and rehabilitate the area. The continued failure to resolve these long standing political tensions in the region is a major limiting factor in the region in the pursuit of effective water management and sustainable development. The political instability and wars have put a great pressure on already fragile and scarce water resources. In addition to the potential conflict over shared water resources, there is the problem of infrastructure destruction as in the case of Iraq and Palestine. 4. Facing the challenges in the Arab region The challenge that faces the Arab states requires non-conventional actions to address the problem of water scarcity. There is an urgent need to implement a holistic, basin management methodology using the ecosystem approach should be adopted as the best way forward for sustainable Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM). This entails the adoption and implementation of key operational principles and the allocation of funds for basin management. The following principles should be given top priority in all water management activities. Their implementation should be seen as a condition of success of water management activities.
Sustainability: Water policies must take hydrological and natural processes into account, in order to protect ecosystems that are both directly and indirectly related to water as well as to leave sufficient amounts of water for other ecosystem types.
124
A.A. Elseoud, M.M. Matthews / Environmental Development 7 (2013) 119–124
Harmonization: Policy harmonization is a prerequisite in all development activities. Harmoniza
tion is also important at the regional and national levels and in between ministries and/or development agencies. Equity: All human beings deserve and should receive enough water of good quality to enable them to live decently. Within a framework of access to water information, water should be managed in a participatory way at its lowest level to ensure that the targeted user groups effectively benefit from water development programs. It is important to mention that water management requires consultation with all stakeholders and all community members, including both men and women, so that all can play an important role in water management to ensure equitable access to water resources. Equitable utilization: Water should be equitably shared between all users and stakeholders, including for energy production, agriculture, industry, municipal and domestic use, nature, and in particular for the directly or indirectly water-related ecosystems to ensure healthy hydrological processes. Efficiency: Increasing water productivity is central to produce food, to alleviate poverty, and to reduce competition for water. In other words, “we need better water quality rather than more water quantity”. This can be done through a series of improvements through new technologies for water use (drip irrigation system, waste-water recycling, improved sanitation services, etc.), as well as through the improvement or substitutions of crops, improved cultural practices, virtual water trade, etc. Correction of market failure and managing demand: All water users should pay the full price of water services provision. External costs for water services should be internalized. Environmental services should be valued in economic and financial terms. Unsustainable subsidies for agriculture should be replaced by cross-subsidies to enable the poor to get access to water. Practice the holistic approach: Unite all skills in managing water, considering nature as our first partner in the effort towards poverty eradication in the long run rather than trying to dominate nature in the short-term with long-term damage. Improved legislation: The current laws and regulations for water use and permits will be a one of the tools to provide water for all users in an equitable opportunity. Most countries are requiring EIA for new projects to ensure that new project will not pollute available water resources. Strengthened governance: The national water plans should be translated into more decentralized plans that will be more action-oriented. The development of those local actions plans and the implementation of the plans will require an active role of local stakeholders, including NGOs and individual citizens. Awareness campaigns on water saving measures need to be intensified within the framework of these plans at the local, national and regional levels. Transboundary management approach: The water resource management challenges of the Arab region will be significantly compounded if each nation attempts to address them alone. To optimize resource security, including food security, energy security, water security and environmental security will require an integrated approach at the national level and at the regional level through coordinated priority integrated water resource management, creative problem solving and creation of transboundary win-win solutions for sustainability. Throughout history, the Arab region has existed as a central hub of civilization and innovation. It is time once again to be open to new approaches to sustain our civilizations and to serve as a model to the world in this changing climate.
References AWC&CEDARE, 2004. State of the Water Report in the Arab Region. FAO, 2003. Water Reports 23: Review of World Water Resources by Country. FAO, Rome. ESCWA, 2004. Enhancing the Application of Integrated Water Resources Management in the ESCWA Region. Beirut, LB. ESCWA, 2005. ESCWA Water Development Report 1: Vulnerability of the Region to Socio-Economic Drought. United Nations, New York. World Bank, 2005. A Water Sector Assessment Report on the Countries of the Cooperation Council of the Arab States of the Gulf. Washington, DC.