Sensation seeking and drug use among high risk Latino and Anglo adolescents

Person.

individ.

Difl: Vol. 17. No. 5, pp. 665472. 1994 Copyright 0 1994 Elsevier Science Ltd Printed in Great Britain. All rightsreserved

0191.8869/94 $7.00+ 0.00

SENSATION SEEKING AND DRUG USE AMONG HIGH RISK LATIN0 AND ANGLO ADOLESCENTS THOMAS R. SIMON,*

ALAN W. STACY, STEVE SUSSMAN

and

CLYDE W. DENT

Institute for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Research, University of Southern California, 1000 South Fremont Avenue, Alhambra, CA 91803-1358, U.S.A. (Received

27 July 1993)

Summary-This study examines the relationship between sensation seeking and drug use in a sample of white and Latin0 southern California adolescents enrolled in continuation high schools. The 11 item sensation seeking portion of the Zuckerman Kuhlman Personality Questionnaire (version three; ZKPQIII) was used to measure sensation seeking. Sensation seeking was examined as a correlate of self reports of tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, stimulants, and LSD use. The 11 item sensation seeking scale was found to have adequate reliability and to be positively associated with use of each of the drugs examined. The relationship between sensation seeking and drug use was found to vary across ethnic backgrounds. Among the white students sensation seeking was positively associated with drug use only among those with low to moderate scores on sensation seeking. Among the Latin0 students increased sensation seeking levels were consistently associated with increased drug use.

INTRODUCTION

seeking has been defined as a personality trait characterized by the willingness to take physical and social risks in order to obtain new and varied experiences (Zuckerman, 1979). Correlates of sensation seeking have been investigated in a large number of diverse research domains for the last 15 years. Sensation seeking has been found to be positively related to a variety of problem behaviors including smoking (Zuckerman, Ball & Black 1990), alcohol use (Stacy, Newcomb & Bentler 1993), illicit drug use, and sexual behavior (Newcomb & McGee 1991). In the present study, we focus on the concurrent prediction of drug use by sensation seeking in a sample of high risk adolescents. Sensation

Sensation seeking and high risk adolescents Past research has demonstrated a relationship between sensation seeking and participation in problem behaviors by adolescents. For example, Newcomb & McGee (1991) examined the relationship between sensation seeking and measures of deviance in adolescents and young adults. Cross-sectional data indicated that sensation seeking showed a significant positive correlation with licit drug use, illicit drug use, sexual activity, and deviant behavior (e.g. trouble with the law, trouble at school, stole something valuable). These authors discuss the possibility of creating prevention and intervention strategies designed to meet the sensation seeking needs of adolescents. The relationship between sensation seeking and drug use has not been examined specifically within a sample of continuation high school students. Students at continuation high schools represent a high risk population for problem behaviors. Students typically attend continuation high schools to attain additional credits toward graduation because of poor grades, truancy and tardiness. These students continue to demonstrate inconsistent attendance at continuation high schools. Prevalence of drug use in continuation high schools is much higher than the national average for tobacco, marijuana, cocaine, and other drugs [for a detailed review of the continuation high school environment see Sussman, Stacy, Dent, Simon, Galaif, Moss, Craig & Johnson (in press)]. The fact that these students are relatively problem-prone could be indicative of high sensation seeking levels. If so, there may be a restriction of range in sensation seeking scores, decreasing the predictive utility of the construct in such a high risk population. Alternatively, sensation seeking in this type of population may still be predictive of drug use. This alternative is likely if high risk adolescents’ sensation seeking tendencies are distributed *To whom all correspondence should be addressed. 665

666

THOMAS R.SIMONeta1

similarly to sensation seeking in other populations. If sensation seeking is sensitive enough to be predictive even among high risk students, this construct may be useful as a tool to target those adolescents at greatest need of prevention or cessation intervention efforts within a high risk population.

Reasons for selecting

the Imp SS subscale

In our study of sensation seeking and drug use, we needed to use short forms of constructs to minimize the length of the questionnaire. A minimal length survey was necessary because of the relative difficulty in conducting interviews with this potentially problematic population. Fortunately, recent factor analytic studies show that a short instrument for assessing sensation seeking exhibits good psychometric properties. That research focused on the development of a five-factor personality questionnaire entitled the Zuckerman-Kuhlman personality questionnaire (ZKPQ) (Zuckerman, Kuhlman & Camac 1988; Zuckerman, Kuhlman, Thornquist & Kiers 1991). The most recent version of this scale is the ZKPQ Form III. Five personality factors are assessed in the ZKPQ III. These personality factors are (1) Impulsive Sensation Seeking (ImpSS), (2) Neuroticism-Anxiety, (3) Aggression-Hostility, (4) Activity, and (5) Sociability. The sensation seeking items in the 1mpSS subscale were discussed as reflecting the Experience seeking subscale of Zuckerman’s Sensation Seeking scale form V (Zuckerman, Kuhlman, Teta, Joireman & Carroccia 1992). Zuckerman et al., (1992) examined the relationship between the ImpSS subscale and the total sensation seeking score as measured by the Sensation Seeking Scales [SSS form V (Zuckerman, 1979)l. The ImpSS subscale was found to be reliable (Cronbach’s r = 0.88) and highly correlated with each of the four subscales of the SSS. The correlation between the ImpSS and the total SSS score was 0.68 allowing the authors to discuss the two scales as nearly equivalent. We chose this 11 item subscale to represent the sensation seeking construct. This brief scale is particularly useful for measuring sensation seeking in high risk adolescent populations for at least three reasons. First, the scale is short and therefore less likely to meet resistance from populations that may not be willing to complete lengthy questionnaires. Second, unlike past versions of the SSS, this subscale does not make reference to specific behaviors. Thus, this scale would be more generalizable across contexts than would a scale which is linked to specific behaviors. Some behaviors that are often examined as correlates or outcomes of sensation seeking were included in the SSS scale form V. For example, in the SSS form V Ss were asked to choose between “a. I would not like to try any drug which might produce strange and dangerous effects on me” and “b. I would like to try some of the new drugs that produce hallucinations.” The third reason why the 11 item sensation seeking subscale is suitable for use with adolescents is that the items appear to have been revised to eliminate terms that are out of date. For example, in form V of the SSS references were made to “swingers” and the “Jet set”; today’s adolescents are unlikely to be familiar with these terms. The 1 1 item scale uses terminology that adolescents will understand thereby reducing the potential for error variance in the scores.

Sensation

seeking

cross-culturally

In addition to our study of the general predictive utility of a short sensation seeking scale in high risk adolescents, we examined possible cross cultural differences in sensation seeking and prediction of drug use. We focused on comparisons between white and Latin0 adolescents. These two groups may differ in the degree to which sensation seeking is intrinsic to the culture or in how much they inhibit the expression of sensation seeking. Past research suggests that the relationship between sensation seeking and drug use may vary across ethnic groups. A study conducted by Kaestner, Rosen & Appel (1977) found that, among adult male narcotics abusers, the association between sensation seeking and the number of drugs used varied across ethnicity. Among the white Ss sensation seeking was positively associated with the number of drugs used. Among the Latin0 and African American Ss sensation seeking was unrelated to the number of drugs used. Variation in the expression of sensation seeking may occur if cultural norms proscribe sensation seeking activities in one culture more than in another. Thus, acknowledging cultural learning variation, these groups may differ in the level or expression of sensation seeking. Although we attempt only an exploratory look at possible

SS and substance use

cultural differences in sensation seeking and drug use, it is important when the samples permit such investigations.

667

to examine

these differences

The current study This study examines the association between sensation seeking as measured by the 11 item sensation seeking portion of the ZKPQ form III and self reports of use of the six most commonly used drugs among a sample of southern California continuation high school students. The six drugs examined were: tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, stimulants, and LSD. METHOD

Subjects Interviews were conducted with 120 students at 20 southern California continuation high school sites. Data were obtained from 61 female and 59 male students. Approximately 44% of the Ss were Latino, 41% were white, 9% were African American, and 6% were Asian or other ethnicities. The majority of the Ss identified themselves as either Latin0 or white. Because of the limited sample size in the African American and Asian ethnicities, only Latin0 and white Ss were included in the analyses. The final sample was composed of 54 females and 47 males; 49 identified themselves as white and 52 reported Latin0 as their ethnicity. Procedure Private interviews were conducted with individual students as part of a larger drug abuse etiology and prevention study. Approximately six students were sampled from each school. An attempt was made to interview one male and one female from each of three age groups which comprised 90% of the students at these schools (16, 17 and 18 years of age). Within each age/gender group students were randomly selected to be interviewed. The students were assured that the interviews were voluntary and that all of the information would be kept anonymous. The interviews were completed during one 40 minutes class period. Students were requested not to participate if they felt uncomfortable about the interview or if they felt unable to be completely honest. Only two students refused to be interviewed. Included in the interview were questions which assessed demographic and behavioral information as well as the personality trait of Sensation Seeking. The student was then given a self-administered one page personal drug use history questionnaire to complete. Each student was instructed on how to complete the survey and was told to seal the survey in an envelope with the interview form when finished. Measures Sensation seeking. The 11 sensation seeking items from the impulsivity sensation seeking subscale of the Zuckerman-Kuhlman personality questionnaire were used for this study. Examples from this scale include “I tend to change interests frequently.” “ I sometimes like to do things that are a little frightening” and “I’ll try anything once.” Subjects were instructed to respond true or false as to whether or not the statement applies to them. A complete list of the items is provided in Appendix A. Drug use prevalence. A personal drug use history questionnaire was included in the interview to examine use of tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, stimulants, and LSD. Students were asked how often they use each of the six drugs. The five response choices ranged from 1 = never tried to 5 = daily use. Higher scores indicate greater levels of drug use. A new variable was created to examine the number of drugs ever used. Scores for this variable ranged from 0 to 6. Analytic

procedure

First, descriptive statistics were generated for the sensation seeking scale and each of the six drug use items. A log transformation was calculated for each of the drug use items to normalize the response distribution. Next, t-tests were used to compare the mean scores of sensation seeking and drug use across ethnicity and across gender; the correlations between scores on sensation seeking and self reports of drug use were then examined. Three sets of correlation matrices were constructed. First,

668

THOMASR.SIMON etal. Table

1.r-Test

bv ethnicitv

White

Latin0

Variable

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

1

Sensation seeking Tobacco Alcohol Marijuana Cocaine Stimulant LSD Number drugs

5.98 3.37 2.75 2.57 0.82 I.61 0.96 4.10

(2.36) (2.03) (1.10) (I .66) (1.18) (I .62) (1.32) (1.52)

5.85 2.22 2.73 2.14 0.69 0.70 0.37 2.88

(2.71) (2.21) (1.47) (1.81) (1.29) (1.16) (0.77) (1.84)

0.26 2.74** 0.80 1.44 0.89 3.20** 2.60** 3.62**

Now. **t’s

0.01; high scores indicate greater sensation

seeking and drug use.

the correlations were examined for the entire sample. The correlations were then examined by ethnicity and by gender. The correlation coefficients were then transformed to z scores, using Fisher’s r-z transformation, and compared across ethnicity and gender. The ethnic differences were then examined in greater detail by separating the sensation seeking scores into quintiles with an approximately equal number of Ss in each grouping. The mean use levels for each drug were graphed at each of the five sensation seeking groupings by ethnicity. It was determined that the relationship between sensation seeking and drug use is nonmonotonic among the white Ss as reported below in the results section. Therefore the correlation analysis was recalculated to examine the relationship between moderate levels of sensation seeking and drug use.

RESULTS

The most commonly used drugs were tobacco (mean = 2.79, SD = 2.19), alcohol (mean = 2.74, SD = 1.29), and marijuana (mean = 2.36, SD = 1.74). Use of stimulants (mean = 1.15, SD = 1.47), cocaine (mean = 0.75, SD = 1.23) and LSD (mean = 0.66, SD = 1.11) was less frequent. The sensation seeking scale was found to have adequate reliability (Cronbach’s a = 0.69). The mean sensation seeking level was 0.54. Descriptive statistics for each of the variables examined by ethnicity are provided in Table 1. White students reported significantly higher use levels for tobacco, stimulants and LSD. White students also reported trial of significantly more drugs than the Latin0 students. The mean scores for sensation seeking were nearly identical across ethnicity. Next, the levels of drug use and sensation seeking were examined by gender. Males reported higher levels of alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine use. As shown in Table 2, the mean scores on the sensation seeking questionnaire were not found to differ by gender. The correlations between sensation seeking and the seven drug use items were then examined. The first correlational analysis, conducted with the entire sample, indicated that a significant positive relationship exists between sensation seeking and each of the seven drug use items examined. As shown in Table 3, the relationships between sensation seeking and tobacco, alcohol, cocaine, LSD

Table 2. f-Test by gender Male

Female

Variable

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

I

Sensation seeking Tobacco Alcohol Marijuana Cocaine Stimulant LSD Number drugs

6.09 2.67 3.05 2.89 0.96 I .09 0.87 3.61

(2.67) (2.17) (1.31) (I .75) (I .46) (I .50) (1.27) (I .79)

5.16 2.89 2.48 I .90 0.57 I.21 0.48 3.37

(2.67) (2.21) (I .23) (I .60) (0.98) (I .46) (0.93) (I .79)

0.65 0.38 I .SOt 2.57** I.21 0.57 I .66t 0.5 I

Nore. iP C 0. I, *+P G 0.01; high scores indicate greater sensation drug use.

seeking and

SS and substance

use

669

Table 3. Pearson correlation coefficients and I-test scores

Entire sample Sensation seeking By gender Male Sensation seeking Female Sensation seeking z Scores By ethnicity White Sensation seeking Latin0 Sensation seeking z Scores

Tobacco

Alcohol

Marijuana

Cocaine

Stimulant

LSD

Number drugs

0.26**

0.47***

0.20.t

0.27**

0.20’

0.26**

0.34***

0.16

0.52***

0.24t

0.24t

0.06

0.19

0.35**

0.44** - 0.52

0.13 - 0.56

0.30* 0.29

0.31* 1.26

0.32* 0.64

0.33’ 0.11

0.07

0.2 1

- 0.07

0.08

0.18

0.20

0.16

0.40** 1.71t

0.63*** 2.49*

o/w*** 1.87t

0.24t 0.25

0.36** 0.84

0.50f 1.87t

0.34** 0.95

Note. tP S 0.1, *P S 0.05, **PC 0.01,

0.39** 2.32*

***P S 0.001;

high scores indicate greater sensation

seeking and drug

use.

use and the number of drugs used were highly significant P< 0.01. Marijuana (P= 0.055) use and stimulant (P= 0.053) use were found to be marginally significant at the P 0.10). Although the pattern of the relationships differed slightly across gender, comparisons of the z scores yielded no significant differences in the correlation coefficients. Next, the relationship between sensation seeking and drug use was found to vary dramatically by ethnicity. As shown in Table 3, the Latin0 students’ sensation seeking levels were found to be significantly related to use of all six of the drugs examined as well as the number of drugs used. Among the white students none of the drug use items were found to be related to sensation seeking scores. The correlation coefficients were found to be significantly higher, among the Latin0 students, for use of alcohol and marijuana and to approach significance for tobacco, cocaine and number of drugs tried. These ethnic differences were then examined in greater detail. Sensation seeking scores were grouped into quintiles with an approximately equal number of Ss in each grouping. The mean use level for each drug was then graphed by ethnicity at the mean sensation seeking score for each of the quintiles. Examples of these graphs, for the three most commonly used drugs, are shown in Figs 1-3. The relationship between sensation seeking and drug use appears to be nonmonotonic among the white students in this sample. These graphs indicate that a positive relationship exists between sensation seeking and drug use, among the white Ss, at lower levels of sensation seeking. The correlation analysis was then recalculated to examine the relationship between sensation seeking levels, among the three lowest quintiles, and drug use (retained n = 67). These results are provided in Table 4. Among the white Ss who reported low-moderate sensation seeking levels, a positive relationship was found between sensation seeking and use of tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, stimulants, and number of drugs used (Ps 0.10).

DISCUSSION A large body of research exists regarding the association between sensation seeking and drug use. This study replicates previous research in a sample of high risk adolescents while using the most recent version of a sensation seeking questionnaire. The results from this study support the use of the

THOMAS R. SIMON et al.

670

III

0.0 2.0

2.5

III 3.0

3.5

4.0

II 4.5

5.0

Sensation Fig.

0

White

+

Latin0

11

5.5

6.0

seeking

6.5

7.0

1

(

7.5

8.0

11 8.5

9.0

quintiles

1. Graph of log tobacco scores by sensation

seeking

quintiles.

sensation seeking portion of the ZKPQ III as a reliable concurrent predictor of drug use among high risk adolescents. Mean sensation seeking scores did not vary across ethnicity or gender. Certain differences were found in the pattern of drug use across ethnicity and gender. The white Ss reported significantly higher use levels of tobacco, stimulants, and LSD than did the Latin0 Ss. Latin0 students reported trial of fewer drugs than white students. The ranking of the drugs by use level also differed across ethnicity. Among the white Ss tobacco was the most commonly used drug and cocaine was the least used drug. Among the Latin0 Ss alcohol was the most commonly used drug and LSD showed the lowest use levels. These findings suggest that different norms may be operating across ethnic groups. Future research is needed to determine what factors apparently are limiting the use of certain substances among the Latin0 students. The prevalence of use of the various drugs also differed by gender. Males reported higher levels of alcohol, marijuana, and LSD use suggesting that norms may vary by gender as well. Gender did not show a significant influence on the association between sensation seeking and drug use. However, the association between sensation seeking and drug use was found to vary by ethnicity. Unlike the study conducted by Kaestner er al. (1977), the present study found that, among the Latin0

1.6 1.4 1.2

2

0.8

H -JZ 0.6

0

White

+

Latin0

0.4 0.2 1

0.01 ’ 2.0

2.5

’

3.0

’

3.5

’

4.0

I

4.5

’

5.0

Sensation

Fig. 2. Graph

of log alcohol

1

5.5

’

6.0

seeking

’

6.5

I

7.0

’

7.5

1

8.0

quintiles

scores by sensation

seeking

I

8.5

quintiles

I

9.0

SS and substance use

671

1.6 r

0.01 2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

Sensation

5.5

6.0

seeking

6.5

q

White

+

Latin0

7.0

7.5

8.0

8.5

9.0

quintiles

Fig. 3. Graph of log marijuana scores by sensation seeking quintiles.

Ss, drug use levels increased at each of the sensation seeking levels. Sensation seeking was positively related to drug use among the white Ss with low-moderate sensation seeking levels only. Perhaps, among the white students, drug use does not provide the high sensation seeker with sufficient stimulation to warrant further drug use. As discussed above the white students reported higher drug use levels. These findings suggest that the influence of sensation seeking on drug use may be limited at high levels of drug use among adolescents. The discrepancy between the findings of this study and those of the Kaestner et al. (1977) study might be due to the differences in the populations examined. The present study examined white and Latin0 (primarily of Mexican descent) adolescents. The study conducted by Kaestner et al. (1977) examined a sample of white, African-American, and Hispanic (primarily of Puerto Rican descent) adult, male narcotics abusers in residential treatment. Additional research is necessary to determine the exact source of the difference between the results of the two studies. The highly significant correlation between alcohol use and sensation seeking only among Latin0 students underscores the continued need for research investigating cross-cultural differences in drug use and its causes. The effects of alcohol on mood and feeling states may be among the most ambiguous of all potent psychoactive drugs (Marlatt & Rohsenow, 1980). If so, then culturally based definitions of drug effects may have a ‘free reign’ over the labelling or interpretation of drug effects (Stacy, Leigh & Weingardt, in press). Some cultures may label these effects as stimulating, whereas others may label them as dampening or relaxing. Our future research will examine whether Latin0 students report significantly more stimulating experiences from alcohol use than other students, consistent with sensation seeking motives for this behavior. Overall, this study suggests that the new 11 item sensation seeking subscale may be useful as a tool in prediction. In addition to tests of etiological models suggested by the discussion above, this scale

Table 4. Correlations among the low-moderate sensation seekers by ethnicity

White Sensation Seeking Latin0 Sensation seeking

Tobacco

Alcohol

Matiiuana

Cocaine

Stimulant

LSD

Number dues

0.32t

0.37t

0.35t

0.07

0.43*

0.20

0.35t

0.40*

0.56**

0.23

0.13

0.02

0.34t 0.43*

Note. tP C 0. I, *P =Z0.05, **P s 0.01; high scores indicate greater sensation seeking and drug use.

THOMAS R. SIMON etal.

672

could also be used for diagnostic benefit from programs designed Acknowledgement-This

research

purposes. Adolescents who are high in sensation to direct those needs in healthy directions.

was supported

by a grant from the National

Institute

seeking needs may

on Drug Abuse

(No. DA 07601).

REFERENCES Kaestner, E., Rosen, L. & Appel, P. (1977). Patterns of drug abuse: Relationships with ethnicity, Sensation Seeking, and anxiety. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 45(3), 462468. Marlatt, G. A. & Rohsenow, D. J. (1980). Cognitive processes in alcohol use: Expectancy and the balanced placebo design. In Mello, N. K. (Ed.), Advances in substance abuse (Vol.1). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Newcomb, M. D. & McGee, L. (1991). Influence of Sensation Seeking on genera1 deviance and specific problem behaviors from adolescence to young adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(4), 614-628. Stacy, A. W., Leigh, B. C. & Weingardt, K. (in press). Memory accessibility and association of alcohol use and its positive outcomes. Experimenral and Clinical Psychopharmacology. Stacy, A. W., Newcomb, M. D. & Bentler, P. M. (1993). Cognitive motivations and Sensation Seeking as long-term predictors of drinking problems. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 12, l-24. Sussman, S., Stacy, A. W., Dent, C. W., Simon, T. R., Galaif, E., Moss, M., Craig, S. &Johnson, C. A. (in press) Continuation high schools: Youth at risk for drug use. Journal of Drug Education. Zuckerman, M. (1979). Sensation Seeking: Beyond the optimal level of arousal. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Zuckerman, M., Ball, S. & Black, J. (1990). Influences of sensation, gender, risk appraisal, and situational motivation on smoking. Addictive Behaviors, 1.5, 209-220. Zuckerman, M., Kuhlman, D. M. & Camac, C. (1988). What lies beyond E and N? Factor analyses of scales believed to measure basic dimensions of personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 96-107. Zuckerman, M., Kuhlman, D. M., Thomquist, M. & Kiers, H. (1991). Five (or three) robust questionnaire scale factors of personality without culture. Personalify and Individual Differences, 12(9), 929-941. Zuckerman, M., Kuhlman, D. M., Teta, P., Joireman, J. & Carroccia, G. (1992). The development of scales for a five basic personality factor questionnaire. Meeting of rhe Eastern Psychological Associarion, Boston, MA, 3-S April.

APPENDIX Eleven sensation seeking Questionnaire Form III.

items from the impulsive

(1) I like to have new and exciting

experiences

sensation

A

seeking

subscale

of the Zuckerman-Kuhlman

Personality

and sensations even if they are a little frightening. or definite routes or timetable.

(2) I would like to take off on a trip with no preplanned (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)

I like doing things just for the thrill of it. I tend to change interests frequently. I sometimes like to do things that are a little frightening. I’ll try anything once. I would like the kind of life where one is on the move and travelling a lot, with lots of change I sometimes do ‘crazy’ things just for fun. I like to explore a strange city or section of town by myself, even if it means getting lost. I prefer friends who are excitingly unpredictable. I like ‘wild’ uninhibited parties.

and excitement.