Sensation seeking, drug use and reported paranormal beliefs and experiences

0191~8869/93$6.00+ 0.00 Copyright 0 1993Pergamon Press Ltd

Person. indiuid. Difl Vol. 14, No. 5, pp. 685-691, 1993

Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved

SENSATION SEEKING, DRUG USE AND REPORTED PARANORMAL BELIEFS AND EXPERIENCES V. K. KUMAR,‘* RONALD J. PEKALA~ and JAMES CUMMINCS~ ’ Department U.S.A.; Thomas

of Psychology, West Chester University of Pennsylvania, West Chester, Pennsylvania 19383, ‘Coatesville VA Medical Center, and Department of Psychiatry, Jefferson Medical College, Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19107, and )West Chester University of Pennsylvania, West Chester, Pennsylvania 19383, U.S.A. (Received 29 May 1992)

Summary--Subjects (N = 574) filled out Zuckerman’s Sensation Seeking Scale and a questionnaire measuring beliefs and experiences in paranormal phenomena that included a question on drug use. Results (a = 0.01) from multi- and univariate analyses of variance showed that high, relative to low, sensation seekers (General SS Scale, Thrill and Adventure Seeking, and Experience Seeking), reported stronger paranormal beliefs and more frequent paranormal experiences; high sensation seekers also scored higher on the Introspection subscale. Results were similar when drug users were compared to nonusers. Drug use and gender did not moderate the relationship between sensation seeking and paranormal beliefs and experiences as the two- and three-way interactions were not significant in any of the analyses.

INTRODUCTION

Zuckerman, Eysenck and Eysenck’s (1978) Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) with its General (General SS) Scale and four subscales: Boredom Susceptibility (BS), Disinhibition (DIS), Thrill and Adventure Seeking (TAS) and Experience Seeking (ES), has been used in a large number of studies. Excellent reviews of these studies can be found in Zuckerman (1979) and Zuckerman (1983). The general and four subscale scores have been found to predict the extent of drug use hashish, amphetamines and psychedelic drugs). Although alcohol use is (e.g. marijuana, significantly related to other scales, it is most strongly related to the DIS subscale. Studies suggest that high, relative to low, sensation seekers tend to volunteer for a number of unusual activities (e.g. encounter groups, alpha groups, sensitivity training, transcendental meditation training) and experiments (e.g. those related to hypnosis, gambling, sensory deprivation and drug effects). High sensation seekers also tend to prefer complex classical or jazz music to popular music, and seek to enjoy sexual experiences with a variety of partners. Franken and Rowland (1990) asked high and low SS Ss what they would do if they won a million dollars. They found that high, relative to low, SS Ss of both sexes reported more flamboyant, sensual and varied fantasies. High SS Ss were also more inclined to report interest in buying exotic cars, using drugs and looking for short-term heterosexual experiences. These results are consistent with the view that sensation seeking is a “need for varied, novel, and complex sensations and experiences and the willingness to take physical and social risks for the sake of such experiences” (Zuckerman, 1979, p. 10). According to Zuckerman (1979), “the sensation seeker is attracted to ideas that go beyond the bounds of current scientific verification. It is more exciting to believe in the existence of mysterious forces than to accept the more parsimonious limitations of present-day knowledge” (p. 240). Such beliefs may motivate the sensation seeker to engage in thrill seeking activities such as visiting haunted houses, experimenting with witchcraft and associating with people who engage in unusual rituals to gain knowledge or influence others. Thus, Tobacyk and Milford (1983) hypothesized that “greater sensation seeking would be associated with greater reported belief in paranormal phenomenon because belief in many of these phenomena may reflect a more exciting view than that based on more normative beliefs” (pp. 1034-1035). Tobacyk and Milford correlated the Sensation Seeking Scale with their seven paranormal subscales: Traditional Religious Belief, Psi Belief, Witchcraft, Superstition, Extraordinary Life Forms and Precognition. However, they

*To whom

correspondence

should

be addressed. 685

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found no significant correlations between their scales and the General SS score; they attributed this result to the small sample size (N = 51) used in their study for this particular analysis. Only the Psi Beliefs and Spiritualism scales showed marginally significant correlations (r = 0.23, P < 0.10 and r = 0.24, P < 0.08, respectively). Davis, Peterson and Farley (1974) found that General SS scores correlated significantly with their 7-item Belief in Psychic Phenomenon Scale for both males (r = 0.47, P < 0.01) and females (r = 0.21, P = 0.05). Brown, Ruder, Ruder and Young (1974) found a significant correlation between the Change Seeker Index (a construct similar to sensation seeking) and belief in Astrology (r = 0.22, P < 0.005) and Psychic Powers (r = 0.15, P < 0.05). Although there is evidence that sensation seeking is related to paranormal beliefs and experiences, it is not clear from the above cited studies whether such beliefs and experiences are related to the General SS trait or related more narrowly to one or more of its four traits as measured by Zuckerman et al’s Sensation Seeking Scale (1978). In the studies of Davis et al. (1974), and Tobacyk and Milford (1983) correlations were computed only between the General SS score and a variety of paranormal beliefs and experiences. The present study was designed to examine the relationship of reported paranormal beliefs and experiences with the General SS Scale and its four subscales, thus making it possible to examine if such beliefs are related to the General SS trait or more narrowly to one or more of its four traits. Since males and females seem not only to differ with respect to their sensation seeking behavior (Kohn, Hunt & Hoffman, 1982) but also in their extent of paranormal beliefs and experiences (Tobacyk & Milford, 1983; Pekala, Kumar & Cummings, 1992) another purpose of the present study was to see if gender moderated the relationship between sensation seeking and reported paranormal beliefs and experiences. Furthermore, as sensation seeking is related to experimenting with drugs or other mind altering substances it was decided to include “drug use” as a factor in the analyses of the data. Thus, it was possible to (a) relate “drug use” to the Sensation Seeking Scale to replicate earlier work, and (b) examine if gender, drug use and sensation seeking interacted in their relationship with paranormal beliefs and experiences; to the authors’ knowledge, no prior study has examined interactions among these factors in relation to paranormal beliefs and experiences. METHOD Subjects The Ss were 229 male and 345 female Introductory Psychology students who participated to fulfill a departmental requirement of participation in a research study. Participation was voluntary inasmuch as Ss could participate in any study being conducted in the department and terminate their participation at any time. Instruments Kumar and Pekala (1988a, b) designed two instruments, the Altered State Experiences Questionnaire and the Cognition Preference Questionnaire to assess belief in parapsychological phenomena, experiences on a variety of psi-related and paranormal events, tendencies to daydream, belief in the power of the mind and introspection. The above true/false questionnaires are now combined into one entitled the Mental Experience Inventory. Pekala et al. (1992) used a cluster analysis on the Mental Experience Inventory and found it to comprise seven subscales: Belief in Psi-Related and Unusual Events (e.g. believing in life after death, witchcraft/sorcery), Paranormal and Unusual Experiences (e.g. trying channeling, using Ouija board, having an out of body experience, communicating with the dead), Sense of Being High (feeling intense emotions, getting high off of one’s own thoughts), Daydreaming (enjoying fantasizing, having unusual thoughts), Sense of Mental Potency (believing in mind as a source of tremendous power), Introspection (enjoying analyzing self, understanding mind) and Altered Consciousness (getting lost in one’s own thoughts, awareness taking on a dream-like quality). The subscale scores, ranging between 0 and 1.00, were the mean number of items endorsed (derived by dividing the number of endorsed items by the number of items in a given scale). The internal consistency (KR-20) reliabilities ranged between 0.63 and 0.87 for these subscales.

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Drug use was measured by one item included on the inventory “I have tried mind altering substances.” Zuckerman et al.‘s (1978) Form V of the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) was used to measure sensation seeking. The SSS yields a General SS score, and the following four subscale scores: 1. Boredom Susceptibility (BS). The need to avoid repetitive experience, routine work, predictable people and finding such experiences aversive. 2. Disinhibition (DIS). The need to engage in uninhibited social activities with or without the aid of alcohol. 3. Thrill and Adventure Seeking (TAS). The need to engage in novel, dangerous, high speed and gravity defying physical activities. 4. Experience Seeking (ES). The desire to engage in a generally nonconforming lifestyle and seek novel experiences through drugs, travel, music and art. Zuckerman (1983) noted that with the exception of the BS Scale, other scales showed good factor, internal and retest reliabilities. The subscales showed moderate intercorrelations suggesting that they are related aspects of a broad factor. Procedures The Ss completed the inventories in five groups. They were requested to answer the questionnaires candidly and were assured of the confidentiality of their responses. They were also told that there were no right or wrong answers, to work quickly and not to dwell on any single item. RESULTS Preliminary analyses Frequency distributions of the General SS Scale and its four subscales were examined to identify a group of low and a group of high sensation seekers on each of the (sub)scales. The cutoff scores were selected to achieve a balance between maximal separation of the low from the high groups and having an adequate number of subjects (about 9-10) in each cell to perform a multivariate three-way (2 x 2 x 2) analysis of variance. The two levels for each of the following factors were: Sensation Seeking (high, low), Gender (male, female) and Use of a Mind Altering Substance or Drug Use (yes, no). The analyses are presented separately for the General SS Scale and the four SS subscales. General Sensation Seeking Scale The General SS score was derived from all 40 items of the scale. The cutoff scores to identify the low and high SS Ss were 17 and 27-corresponding to the 30th and 87th percentiles for the 574 Ss. These cutoff scores yielded from 9 to 103 Ss in the 8 cells of the 2 x 2 x 2 analysis of variance design mentioned earlier. The numbers of low and high (General) SS Ss included were 184 and 86; male and female Ss included were 101 and 169, respectively. The “SS by Drug Use” frequency breakdown showed that among males, a significantly higher percentage of high (71%), relative to low (17%), sensation seeking (General) Ss reported having tried drugs (2 = 5.46, P < 0.01). The results were similar for female Ss; 21% of the low and 66% of the high General SS Ss reported having tried drugs (2 = 5.19, P < 0.01). A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was then conducted using the three factors of Sensation Seeking (General SS), Gender and Drug Use as independent variables, and the seven subscale scores of the Mental Experience Inventory as the dependent variables. As several analyses were performed, c( = 0.01 was chosen to establish significance for both multivariate and univariate analyses. MANOVA revealed none of the two- and three-way interactions to be significant. Regarding main effects, Gender was not significant, but Drug Use and Sensation Seeking were significant [F(7256) = 6.15 and 6.88, P = O.OOO]. Further univariate analyses for the Drug Use main effect yielded significant F ratios for Psi-Related Beliefs, Paranormal Experiences, Introspection and Altered Consciousness. On each subscale, drug users endorsed a higher number of items than nonusers (see Table 1).

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V. K. KUMAR et al. Table I, Results of Univariate Analysis

Analyses

Mean

Mean

NO

of Variance

General ss Drug Use main effect Psi-related beliefs Paranormal experiences Introspection Altered consciousness General SS main effect Psi-related beliefs Paranormal experiences Daydreaming Introspection Altered consciousness

0.40 0.17 0.62 0.39 Low 0.40 0.18 0.76 0.62 0.40

Yes 0.61 0.34 0.79 0.57 High 0.64 0.35 0.91 0.79 0.56

F( 1,262) 16.45 34.08 II.62 IO.21

P 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.002

18.10 26.40 19.01 17.17 7.19

0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.008

Boredom Susceptibility Gender main effect Sense of mental potency Drug Use main effect Psi-related beliefs Paranormal experiences Daydreaming Introspection Altered consciousness

Male 0.66 NO 0.45 0.19 0.77 0.63 0.41

Female 0.52 Yes 0.61 0.32 0.86 0.76 0.55

F( 1,289) 9.36

P 0.002

27.09 43.09 IO.55 19.1 I 14.21

0.000 0.000 0.001 0.000 0.000

Disinhibition Drug Use main effect Psi-related beliefs Paranormal experiences Introspection

NO 0.44 0.18 0.64

Yes 0.61 0.32 0.77

F(l.284) 24.99 39.75 22.73

P 0.000 0.000 0.000

Thrill/Aduenture Seeking Gender main effect Daydreaming Sense of mental potency Drug main effect Psi-related beliefs Paranormal experiences Daydreaming Introspection Altered consciousness Thrill/Adventure main effect Psi-related beliefs Paranormal experiences Sense of being high Daydreaming Sense of mental potency Introspection

Male 0.77 0.64 NO 0.44 0.19 0.78 0.63 0.42 Low 0.38 0.19 0.35 0.78 0.49 0.63

Female 0.84 0.53 Yes 0.58 0.33 0.87 0.71 0.52 High 0.60 0.30 0.49 0.85 0.65 0.74

F(1,335) 9.73 6.66

P 0.002 0.010

14.70 50.78 12.53 23.24 9.12

0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.003

43.85 16.59 10.64 7.65 8.64 16.55

0.000 0.000 0.001 0.006 0.004 0.000

Experience Seeking Drug Use main effect Psi-related beliefs Paranormal experiences Sense of being high Introspection Experience Seeking main effect Psi-related beliefs Paranormal experiences Sense of being high Daydreaming Sense of mental potency Introspection Altered consciousness

NO 0.42 0.18 0.35 0.59 LOW 0.40 0.18 0.33 0.72 0.52 0.56 0.36

Yes 0.63 0.57 0.53 0.80 High 0.64 0.35 0.54 0.89 0.68 0.82 0.57

F( 1,276) 14.41 38.48 7.06 16.70

P 0.000 0.000 0.008 0.000

23.85 28.14 18.98 25.54 9.31 52.50 17.71

0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Univariate analyses for the main effect of General SS revealed significant F ratios for Psi-Related Beliefs, Paranormal Experiences, Daydreaming and Introspection. On each subscale, high sensation seekers endorsed a significantly higher number of items than low sensation seekers (see Table 1). Sensation

Seeking

Subscale

Analyses

1. Boredom Susceptibility (BS). The BS subscale consists of 10 items. The cutoff scores used to identify low and high BS Ss were 2 and 6-corresponding to the 29th and 90th percentiles for the 574 Ss. These cutoffs yielded from 17 to 105 Ss in 8 cells. The numbers of low and high BS Ss included were 217 and 80; male and female Ss included were 109 and 188. The “BS by Drug Use” frequency breakdown showed that among males, a significantly higher percentage of high (53%), relative to low (32%), BS Ss reported having tried drugs (2 = 2.25, P < 0.05). The difference between the high (46%) and low BS female (31%) Ss was not significant (2 = 1.79, P < 0.05).

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MANOVA on the seven Mental Experience Inventory subscales revealed no significant twoand three-way interactions. The main effects of Gender and Drug Use were significant [F(7283) = 3.19 and 7.67, P = 0.003 and 0.000, respectively]. The main effect of BS was not significant [F(7283) = 1.55, P = 0.1511. Further univariate analyses of variance on the Gender main effect yielded significant effects for the Sense of Mental Potency subscale with males scoring higher than females. Significant univariate Drug Use main effects were obtained for Psi-Related Beliefs, Paranormal Experiences, Daydreaming, Introspection and Altered Consciousness. In each case, drug users scored significantly higher than nonusers (see Table 1). 2. Disinhibition Subscale (DZS). The DIS consists of 10 items. The cutoff scores used for identifying the low and high DIS Ss were 3 and 8&corresponding to the 21st and 80th percentiles for the 574 Ss. These cutoff scores yielded from 9 to 89 Ss in 8 cells. The numbers of low and high DIS Ss included were 153 and 139; male and female Ss included were 125 and 167. The “DIS by Drug Use” frequency breakdown showed that among males, a significantly higher percentage of high (61%) relative to low (21%), DIS Ss had tried drugs (Z = 4.23, P < 0.01). Among females, 20% of the lows and 63% of the highs (Z = 5.49, P < 0.01) reported having tried drugs. MANOVA revealed no significant two- and three-way interactions. Gender and DIS main effects were not significant, but Drug Use was significant [F(7278) = 7.68, P < O.OOO]. Significant univariate Drug Use main effects were obtained for Psi-Related Beliefs, Paranormal Experiences and Introspection. On each scale, drug users endorsed a higher number of items than nonusers (see Table 1). 3. Thrill and Adventure Seeking Subscale (TAS). The cutoff scores used for identifying the low and high TAS Ss were 5 and 9-corresponding to the 24th and 77th percentiles for the 574 Ss. These cutoff scores yielded from 12 to 80 Ss in 8 cells. The numbers of low and high TAS Ss included were 168 and 175; male and female Ss included were 126 and 217. The “TAS by Drug Use” frequency breakdown showed that among males, a significantly higher percentage of the high (54%) relative to low (26%) TAS Ss reported having tried drugs (Z = 3.54, P < 0.01). Among females, 34% of the lows and 42% of the highs reported having tried drugs (Z = 1.18, P < 0.05). MANOVA revealed no significant two- and three-way interactions. The main effects for Gender, Drug Use and TAS were all significant [F(7329) ratios ranged between 7.53 and 9.17, P = 0.000 in all cases]. Further univariate analyses for the Gender main effect yielded significant effects for Daydreaming and Introspection. Females endorsed a higher number of items on these subscales than males (see Table 1). Significant univariate Drug Use main effects were obtained for Psi-Related Beliefs, Paranormal Experiences, Daydreaming, Introspection and Altered Consciousness. In each case, drug users endorsed a significantly higher number of items than nonusers (see Table 1). Significant univariate main effects for TAS were obtained for Psi-Related Beliefs, Paranormal Experiences, Sense of Being High, Daydreaming, Sense of Potency and Introspection. In each case, high, relative to low, TAS Ss endorsed a significantly higher number of items (see Table 1). 4. Experience Seeking Subscale (ES). The cutoff scores used for identifying the low and high ES Ss were 3 and 7-corresponding to the 20th and 83rd percentiles for the 574 Ss. The cutoff scores yielded from 10 to 73 Ss in 8 cells. The numbers of low and high ES Ss included were 157 and 127; male and female Ss included were 114 and 170. The “ES by Drug Use” frequency breakdown showed that among males, a significantly higher percentage of the high (79%), relative to low (22%), ES Ss reported trying drugs (Z = 5.94, P < 0.01). Among females, 19% of the lows and 58% of the highs (Z = 5.20, P < 0.01) reported drug use. MANOVA revealed no significant two- and three-way interactions. The main effects of Gender, Drug Use and ES were all significant; F(7270) ratios were 2.05 (P = 0.004), 7.89 (P = 0.000) and 9.62 (P = O.OOO),respectively.

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A marginally significant univariate Gender main effect was obtained for the subscale Sense of Mental Potency [F(1276) = 5.78, P = 0.0171. The proportion of items endorsed by males and females were 0.67 and 0.54. No other univariate Gender main effects were significant. Significant univariate main effects for Drug Use were obtained for Psi-Related Beliefs, Paranormal Experiences, Daydreaming and Introspection. On each subscale, drug users endorsed a higher number of items than nonusers. Significant univariate main effects for ES were obtained for all subscales. On each subscale, high, relative to low, ES Ss endorsed a higher number of items (see Table 1). DISCUSSION

Sensation

Seeking

and Drug Use

The results were somewhat different for males and females. Among males, significantly higher proportions of high, relative to low, scoring Ss on the General Sensation Seeking Scale and its four subscales (analyzed separately), reported having tried mind altering substances. These results are consistent with the findings of other investigators (e.g. Zuckerman, Bone, Neary, Mangelsdorff & Brustman, 1972; Zuckerman, Neary & Brustman, 1979) who have found that males scoring high on the General Sensation Seeking Scale and its four subscales are more likely than those scoring low to have tried at least one mind altering substance (drug or alcohol). Among females, a significantly higher proportion of high, compared to low, scoring Ss reported trying drugs when classified on the General SS Scale, DIS and ES subscales, but not on the BS and TAS subscales. These results are partially consistent with Zuckerman et al. (1972), who found that although all (General SS and sub) scales were predictive of drug use among females, only DIS and ES were predictive of alcohol use. Given the above results it seems that the one item measure, “I have tried mind altering substances”, served as a reasonably good measure of drug use in the present study. Sensation

Seeking

and Paranormal

Beliefs and Experiences

Drug Use main effect. MANOVA and further univariate analyses for the Drug Use main effect revealed that drug users, relative to nonusers, endorsed, on the average, significantly more items on Psi-Related Beliefs, Paranormal Experiences and Introspection (P < 0.01 in all cases) in all five analyses. Furthermore, drug users, as opposed to nonusers, endorsed more items on Daydreaming and Altered Consciousness when the Ss were classified on the basis of General SS Scale, BS and TAS subscales. Gender main efect. For the BS, TAS and ES subscales males showed significantly higher belief in the potency of mind than females. On the TAS, females showed a greater tendency to daydream than males. Sensation Seeking main effect. On the General SS, TAS and ES Scales, high, as opposed to low, sensation seeking Ss endorsed significantly more items on Psi-Related Beliefs, Paranormal Experience and Introspection. Furthermore, high, vis-ci-uis low, ES Ss endorsed significantly more items on each of the Mental Experience Inventory subscales. SUMMARY

AND

CONCLUSIONS

There are five main findings of the present study: (a) high, relative to low, sensation seekers (particularly males) were more likely to report using drugs; (b) drug users, relative to nonusers, expressed stronger belief in psi-related phenomena, reported more frequent paranormal experiences and tended to be more introspective; (c) high, relative to low, sensation seekers (General SS, TAS and ES, but not BS and DIS) expressed stronger belief in psi-related phenomena, reported more frequent paranormal experiences and tended to be more introspective; (d) males and females did not differ in their extent of paranormal beliefs and experiences; and (e) the two- and three-way interactions were not significant in any of the analyses. The above results suggest that using drugs and believing in and experiencing paranormal phenomenon share something in common-both are types of sensation seeking behaviors that may arise from seeking thrill and adventure, and seeking novel and varied experiences. While boredom

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seeking

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susceptibility and disinhibition appear to be of significance in drug use, they are less so in paranormal beliefs and experiences. It is possible that drug use and interest in paranormal phenomena may occur more for introspective reasons (personal enlightenment, discovering one’s abilities) than for meeting social needs or yielding to peer pressure. High, as opposed to low, BS and TAS sensation seekers may also use drugs merely to alter consciousness (to feel different, let go of one’s mind). Drug use and gender did not moderate the relationship between sensation seeking and belief and/or experiences in paranormal phenomena as the two- and three-way interactions were not significant in any of the analyses. REFERENCES Brown, L. T., Ruder, V. G., Ruder, J. H. & Young, S. D. (1974). Stimulation seeking and the change seeker index. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 3 11. Davis, G. A., Peterson, J. M. & Farley, F. H. (1974). Attitudes, motivation, sensation seeking, and belief in ESP as predictors of real creative behavior. Journal of Creafive Behavior, 8, 3 l-39. Franken, R. E. & Rowland, G. L. (1990). Sensation seeking and fantasy. Personalify and Individual Differences, JJ, 191-193. Kohn, P. M., Hunt, R. W. & Hoffman, F. M. (1982). Aspects of experience seeking. Canadian Journalof Behavioral Science, 14, 13-23. Kumar, V. K. & Pekala, R. J. (1988a). The Cognitive Preference Questionnaire. Unpublished psychological test. West Chester, PA: West Chester University. Kumar, V. K. & Pekala, R. J. (1988b). The Altered Stales Experience Questionnaire. Unpublished psychological test. West Chester, PA: West Chester University. Pekala, R. J., Kumar, V. K. & Cummings, J. (1992). Types of high hypnotically susceptible individuals and reported attitudes and experiences of the paranormal and the anomalous. American Journal of Psychical Research, 86, 135-150. Tobacyk, J. J. & Milford, G. (1983). Belief in paranormal phenomena: assessment instrument development and implications for personality functioning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 1029-1037. Zuckerman, M. (1979). Sensation Seeking: beyond fhe opfimal level of arousal. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Zuckerman, M. (1983). A biological theory of sensation seeking. In Zuckerman, M. (Ed.), Biological bases of sensation seeking, impulsivity, and anxiety. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Zuckerman, M., Eysenck, S. & Eysenck, H. J. (1978). Sensation seeking in England and America: cross-cultural, age, and sex comparisons. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 139-149. Zuckerman, M., Neary, R. S. & Brustman, B. A. (1979). Sensation-seeking scale correlates in experience (smoking, drugs, alcohol, “hallucinations,” and sex) and preference for complexity (designs). Proceedings of the 78th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association. Zuckerman, M., Bone, R. N., Neary, R., Mangelsdorff, D. & Brustman, B. (1972). What is the sensation seeker? Personality trait and experience correlates of the Sensation Seeking Scales. Journal of Consulfing and Clinical Psychology, 39, 308-32 1.