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Sociodemographic perspectives on pregnant women at work
Sociodemographic Perspectives on Pregnant Women at Work Constance L. Shehan
In this article, we review trends in the e m p l o y m e n t o f American w o m e n in both the civilian labor force and the military over the course o f the 20th century, with a particular emphasis given to the years after World War II. T h e occupational distribution o f w o m e n in the civilian labor force and in the military is e x a m i n e d with consideration given to the hazards these female-dominated j o b s may p o s e for workers. Finally, we briefly discuss several simple steps that can be taken to reduce the risk o f occupational hazards to w o m e n ' s health while remaining within the federal legislative mandates granting w o m e n full access to employment.
Copyright 9 1996 by W.B. Saunders Company T h e R e v o l u t i o n in W o m e n ' s L a b o r F o r c e Participation h e r e has b e e n a revolution in the labor participation of American w o m e n over the course o f the 20th century. Both the number a n d proportion of w o m e n of working age who are in the labor force have increased substantially over this period. Between 1890 a n d 1993, the n u m b e r of w o m e n in the labor force increased f r o m 4 million to 58.4 million, and the p r o p o r t i o n of w o m e n of working age who were in the l a b o r force increased f r o m 17.3 to 57.9. Alternatively, the p e r c e n t of the total U.S. labor force that is c o m p o s e d of w o m e n increased over the same period, f r o m 17.2% to 45.8% (Table 1). 1 T h e increase in rates of female labor force participation has occurred across all social a n d d e m o g r a p h i c categories, including race a n d ethnicity, marital status, and the presence of children. W o m e n ' s labor force participation rates at various ages are o f special interest in the context o f pregnancy. Figure 1 illustrates the variation in rates o f female labor force participation at different ages for 1960, 1970, 1980, a n d 1994. W h e n rates of female labor force participation by age are plotted for 1960 and 1970, the resulting pattern approximates an M-shaped curve. T h a t is, rates are highest in the early 20s (before the p r i m e child-bearing years) and again f r o m the mid-30s to mid-40s (after the p r i m e childbearing years). A m o n g the cohorts of A m e r i c a n w o m e n who were having children in the 1960s a n d early 1970s, family responsibilities, particularly those associated with child-bearing and car-
T force
ing for young children, s h a p e d participation in the paid labor force. W o m e n d r o p p e d out of the labor force u p o n the birth o f their first child and stayed out until their children were older. Some never r e t u r n e d to the labor f o r c e ) Today, fewer w o m e n d r o p out of the labor force for long periods of time u p o n the birth of their first child. By 1980, as Fig 1 indicates, there was almost no decline in w o m e n ' s labor force participation during the p r i m e child-bearing years (of 24 to 35). By 1985, the M-shape in the labor force participation rates across the adult female life course had almost completely disappeared. In fact, in 1994, female labor force participation rates were at their highest levels in the age categories that are considered the p r i m e child-bearing years. In 1994, approximately 75% of w o m e n between 24 a n d 35 were in the labor force. 2 As rates of labor force participation a m o n g w o m e n of child-bearing ages have increased, so, too, have the rates a m o n g w o m e n who actually have children. Table 2 shows the changes in the labor force patterns of m a r r i e d w o m e n that occurred between 1960 a n d 1994. In 1960, the highest rates o f participation in the labor force From the Department of Sociology, University of FIorida, Gainesville, FL. Presented at the 4th International Conference on "Sound and Vibration in Pregnancy: Pregnant Women at Work," Gainesville, FL, February 22-23, 1996. Address reprint requests to Constance L. Shehan, PhD, University of Florida, Department of Sociology, 109 Rolfs Hall, PO Box 112030, Gainesville, FL 32611-2030. Copyright 9 1996 by W.B. Saunders Company 0146-0005/96/2001-0005505.00/0
Seminars in Perinatology, Vol 20, No 1 (February), 1996: pp 3-10
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Constance L. Shehan
Table 1. U.S. Women in the Labor Force, 1990 to 1993
Total labor force Total no. of women in labor force Women as percent of labor force Total women of working age] Percent in labor force
18~
1~0
1~2
19~
23.3*
63.9
111.9
128.0
4.0*
18.4
47.9
58.4
17.2
28.8
42.8
45.8
23.1" 17.3
54.3 33.9
90.9 52.7
100.9 57.9
*In millions. J-Age 10 and older in 1890, age 16 and older in 1950, 1982, and 1993. Reprinted from the following: Data for 1890 and 1950 from Waite LJ: U.S. Women at Work, Population Bulletin, 36: 2, 1981. Data for 1982 from Employment and Earnings, 30: 1, 1983, p 8, U.S. Department of Labor. Data for 1993 from Employment and Earnings 41: 1, 1993, p 216, U.S. Department of Labor.
w e r e f o u n d a m o n g m a r r i e d m o t h e r s w h o s e child r e n w e r e o f s c h o o l age (6 to 17). A t t h a t time, n e a r l y two in every five m o t h e r s o f s c h o o l - a g e d c h i l d r e n w e r e e m p l o y e d o r l o o k i n g for p a i d work. By 1994, l a b o r f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n rates f o r this g r o u p o f m a r r i e d w o m e n h a d i n c r e a s e d to 76%. O v e r t h e s a m e 30-year p e r i o d , t h e l a b o r f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n r a t e o f m a r r i e d w o m e n with c h i l d r e n y o u n g e r t h a n a g e 6 have c o n s i s t e n t l y been lower than the rate among mothers of o l d e r c h i l d r e n . I n 1960, f e w e r t h a n o n e in every five m o t h e r s o f p r e s c h o o l c h i l d r e n (18.6%) w e r e in t h e l a b o r force. By 1994, m o r e t h a n t h r e e in every five (61.7%) w e r e in t h e l a b o r force. 3 Simi-
lar patterns mothers. 3
The Influence
have
occurred
of Economic
among
single
Factors
I n t h e o p e n i n g years o f t h e 20th c e n t u r y , t h e p r o t o t y p i c a l f e m a l e w o r k e r was y o u n g a n d u n m a r r i e d . H o w e v e r , as t h e U.S. e c o n o m y g r e w a n d s h i f t e d f r o m g o o d s - p r o d u c i n g to service-producing, the demand for female labor expanded and new groups of women were drawn into the l a b o r force. 4 As t h e c e n t u r y u n f o l d e d a n d t h e n u m b e r o f available y o u n g , single w o m e n was i n s u f f i c i e n t to m e e t t h e d e m a n d s o f t h e l a b o r force, o l d e r m a r r i e d w o m e n w h o s e c h i l d r e n were i n d e p e n d e n t w e r e d r a w n i n t o t h e l a b o r force. Eventually, however, this g r o u p o f r e s e r v e l a b o r was also i n s u f f i c i e n t to m e e t t h e i n c r e a s i n g d e m a n d . T h e n e x t g r o u p o f w o m e n to b e d r a w n i n t o t h e l a b o r f o r c e was w o m e n w h o s e c h i l d r e n w e r e o f s c h o o l age. D u r i n g t h e 1970s, a t i m e when more than one million women entered t h e l a b o r f o r c e e a c h year, m o t h e r s o f p r e - s c h o o l a g e d c h i l d r e n s o u g h t e m p l o y m e n t in r e c o r d numbers. Today, the majority of the married m o t h e r s o f c h i l d r e n y o u n g e r t h a n 6 a r e in t h e l a b o r force. 5 T h i s i n c l u d e s n e a r l y 60% o f t h o s e with i n f a n t s a g e d 1 y e a r o r y o u n g e r . 3 T h e s e trends indicate that many women interrupt their e m p l o y m e n t f o r o n l y s h o r t p e r i o d s o f t i m e as a r e s u l t o f c h i l d b i r t h . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 20% o f U.S. w o m e n n o w s e e m to have c o n t i n u o u s l a b o r f o r c e attachment throughout t h e i r a d u l t years. 5
80
60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
,
.........................................
40
20
16-19
20"24
28-34
35-44
46-,54
55"64
66',
F i g u r e 1. Women's employment by Age,---1960 to 1994. - 0 1-9~601 + 1970, -*1980, ~ 1994. (Reprinted from U.S. Department of Commerce: Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1995: The National Data Book, Washington, DC, 1995.)
Sociodemographic Perspectives in Employment
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Table 2. Labor Force Participation Rates of Married Women, 1960 to 1993, By Presence and Age of Children
Total married women Married women, no children younger than 18 Married women, children 6 through 17 only Married women, children younger than 6
1960
1970
1975
1980
1985
1993
30.5
40.8
44.4
50.1
54.2
59.4
34.7
42.2
43.9
46.0
48.2
52.4
39.0
49.2
52.3
61.7
67.8
74.9
18.6
30.3
36.6
45.1
53.4
59.6
Reprinted from U.S. Department of Commerce: Statistical Abstract of the United States 1995: The National Data Book. Washington, DC, Government Printing Office, Table 637: Marital Status of Women in the Civilian Labor Force: 1960 to 1994, 1995, p 405. j
Clearly, high rates of female labor force participation have extended into earlier a n d earlier stages of m o t h e r h o o d . Increasingly, w o m e n work during pregnancy, many staying until the birth of their babies. This pattern o f female labor force participation has reached new heights over the past decade. Less than half (49.4%) of w o m e n who experienced a first pregnancy between 1966 and 1970 were employed during pregnancy. The p r o p o r t i o n had increased to nearly two thirds (64.5%) by the 1981 t o 1985 period. W o m e n who are in the 9labor force during pregnancy differ significantly from those who are not in the labor force. They are more likely to be white (non-Hispanic), married, o f higher income and education, and to have medical insurance than those who are n o t employed during pregnancy. 6 Statistics pertaining to the n u m b e r o f pregn a n t w o m e n in the workplace at different stages o f pregnancy are difficult to obtain, and factors that influence how long w o m e n work during their pregnancies have not been fully explored. ~ However, data obtained from a national longitudinal study, which provides information a b o u t e m p l o y m e n t during pregnancy at weekly intervals, can be used to suggest the extent to which American w o m e n remain attached to the labor force t h r o u g h o u t their pregnancies. Roughly half o f the employed p r e g n a n t w o m e n in the study were still at work in their 35th week of gestation. An important conclusion drawn from this study is that higher wages are significantly associated, in a positive direction, with the l e n g t h of time a woman stays at work during her pregn~mcy. 5 This may reflect the types of work
that women with higher wages perform; that is, w o m e n with higher wages may be in managerial positions that have lower physical demands and pose fewer fetal and maternal risks. Part of the increase in w o m e n ' s participation in the labor force during pregnancy may be attributed to changes in federal legislation that grant p r e g n a n t w o m e n greater access to employment. In 1978, the Pregnancy Discrimination Act, which prohibited employers from discriminating against pregnant workers, was passed. 7 As a result of this legislation, employers could no longer force a p r e g n a n t w o m a n to go on maternity leave or to quit her j o b altogether. Pregnant workers c a n n o t be treated any less favorably than would any o t h e r temporarily disabled worker. 7
Women's Involvement in the U.S. Mih'tary W o m e n ' s rates of participation in the a r m e d services have followed trends similar to those observed in the civilian labor force, s There has been a general upward trend over the second half of the 20th century. This increase was stimulated in large part by legislative changes that occurred during the 1970s. T h e history of w o m e n ' s participation in the military will be briefly reviewed here. W o m e n were first recruited for military service during World War I. They were recruited to fill a limited n u m b e r of positions in nursing and clerical jobs. Those who served did not have full military status and had no benefits. At the beginning of World War II, the only w o m e n in the a r m e d services were nurses. However, manpower shortages necessitated the creation of the Worn-
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Constance L. Shehan
en's Army Corps in 1942. Shortly thereafter, the Navy and the Coast Guard also admitted women for the first time. The Marine Corps accepted women in 1943. Although the Air Force did not become a separate branch of the -military until after World War II, 800 civilian women flew military aircraft over the Atlantic during the war. In 1948, w o m e n were admitted to the new Air Force. 9 The A r m e d Services Integration Act of 1948 gave military women p e r m a n e n t status. However, it imposed a cap of 2% on the proportion of the military that could be women. It also specified that there could be no w o m e n generals or admirals. Another important limitation imposed by this act was that military w o m e n had to remain childless. Pregnancy was grounds for immediate discharge. For 20 years, until the late 1960s, the average p r o p o r t i o n of the military that was female was approximately 1%.8 Nearly all of the w o m e n in the military during this period were engaged in traditional " w o m e n ' s w o r k " in health care and clerical jobs. In 1967, Public Law 90-30 r e m o v e d the limits on the n u m b e r of w o m e n who could enlist in the a r m e d services. T h e situation for w o m e n in the military changed dramatically during the 1970s. In 1970, the first w o m a n was p r o m o t e d to the rank o f general. In 1972, w o m e n j o i n e d R O T C on college campuses. In 1973, the draft was abolished and the military b e g a n actively recruiting women. In 1976, the service academies first admitted women. By 1978, Congress abolished the W o m e n ' s Army Corps, which resulted in the assignment o f w o m e n to n o n - c o m b a t branches o f the Army. 1~Between 1972 and 1976, the n u m b e r of w o m e n in the U.S. military tripled. By 1990, approximately 11% of all U~S. military personnel were women, n Before 1975, p r e g n a n t w o m e n were routinely discharged f r o m the Army. In 1975, however, the ban on parenting for military w o m e n was lifted a n d discharge for p r e g n a n c y was m a d e voluntary. Today, p r e g n a n t w o m e n are ineligible to enlist in the Army, but they can r e m a i n in the Army if they b e c o m e p r e g n a n t after enlisting. It is estimated that a b o u t o n e third of all p r e g n a n t soldiers have their babies and stay in the Army after going on a 6-week maternity leave. A n o t h e r third are believed to terminate their pregnancies and r e m a i n in the Army. The final third leave the service to have their babies. 1~
Table 3. Female Dominated Jobs, 1993 Percent Female
Bank tellers Child care workers (in private homes) Cleaners (in private homes) Dental assistants Dental hygienists Family day care providers Hairdressers Licensed practical nurses Receptionists Secretaries Telephone operators Typists [Nurses aides, orderlies]
88 97 94 98 99 99 90 95 '97 99 87 94 88
Reprinted from Employment and Earnings, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, January 1994, 41 (1), Table 22: Employed Civiliansby Detailed Occupation, Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin, pp 205-209.
Gender Labeling o f Jobs and Distribution of W o m e n Workers Jobs in b o t h the civilian labor force and the military are gender-labeled. T h a t is, they are considered m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e for m e m b e r s of o n e sex or the other. As a consequence of the g e n d e r labeling of jobs, w o m e n and m e n are segregated at work. Table 3 presents a list o f occupations in the civilian labor force that are "female-domin a t e d , " which is defined in terms of a high proportion ( m o r e than 85%) of w o m e n workers. Included in this list are a n u m b e r of jobs that resemble the work w o m e n do in their h o m e s and families: caring for d e p e n d e n t family m e m bers or n e e d y persons, such as the very y o u n g and the very old, the sick or infirm, and the poor. Jobs such as preschool and elementary teaching, nursing, a n d social work have a high p r o p o r t i o n of w o m e n workers. T h e largest single category of e m p l o y m e n t for w o m e n is clerical work, which is m o r e than 90% female. 12 T h e distribution of w o m e n in military occupations is similar. Even though 86% of all military occupational specialties for enlisted per.sonnel (285 of 331) were o p e n to womerr by 1990, m o s t military w o m e n serve in administrative, clerical, medical, communications, electronics and electrical repair, and intelligence specialties. Table 4 shows the p r o p o r t i o n of enlisted w o m e n in each of several occupational categories. By far, the m o s t c o m m o n occupational category of en-
Sociodemographic Perspectives in Employment
Table 4. Occupational Distribution of Enlisted Military Women, 1990 Occupation
Percent
Communications, intelligence Health care Support, administration Mechanical repair Service, supply Other*
11.0 15.0 34.0 9.0 10.0 21.0
* Other includes infantry, gun crew, seamen; electronics; technical specialties. Source: U.S. Department of Labor, 1993 Handbook on Women Workers: Trends and Issues, p 24.
7
carrier deck jet operation and j e t takeoff, are painfully loud. 1<1~ Clerical workers are also likely to experience headaches, heart disease, eye strain, and neck and back pain as a result of frequent use of video display terminals. Poor air quality and poor ventilation, toxic substances from photocopying equipment and supplies and correction fluids may result in nausea, colds and other respiratory problems, and eye, nose, and throat irritation. Finally, poor lighting and chair design can produce varicose veins, neck and back pain, and eye strain. 13
Hospital Workers listed women is administrative support, with approximately one third employed in such positions. T h e second most c o m m o n occupational category is medical and dental work, employing nearly the same proportion of enlisted women.
C o m m o n Health Hazards in W o m e n ' s Occupations T h e final objective of this brief overview of pregn a n t women in the workplace is to identify the health hazards that are prevalent in the most c o m m o n occupations held by women. Although we identify general health risks for women workers, we will note, when possible, the particular risks to women's reproductive systems and the occupations in which noise and vibration pose exceptional health hazards. Table 5 summarizes the health hazards associated with several of the most c o m m o n occupations held by women in both the civilian labor force and the military: clerical jobs, hospital workers, health care laboratory workers, laboratory technicians and related support staff, and electrical and electronic technicians. 1~
Clerical Workers A m o n g the health hazards e n c o u n t e r e d by clerical workers are hearing loss and anxiety associated with the noise in the office. Table 6 shows the average noise levels of c o m m o n experiences e n c o u n t e r e d in daily life, including those f o u n d in offices. It is important to note that some of the sounds military personnel would be exposed to in the course of their daily work life, such as
W o m e n who work in hospitals are exposed to a n u m b e r of chemical hazards (eg, sterilizing gases, anesthetic gases, and drugs) that can result not only in skin and respiratory irritation, damage to the liver, kidney, and nervous system, and cancer but also reproductive problems. Hospital workers may also be placed at risk of infections through contact with patients, use of contaminated utensils, and handling infected specimens of various kinds. T h r o u g h exposure to radiation, hospital workers may experience tissue damage, genetic changes, and various chemical hazards. 1~
Health Care Laboratory Workers Because they handle biological specimens from humans a n d / o r laboratory animals, workers in health care laboratories are p r o n e to various types of infection. Laboratory technicians who work with toxic chemicals, including various carcinogens, may develop organ damage, genetic changes, and reproductive problems. Those who work with radiation may also experience tissue changes or genetic changes, along with possible reproductive problems. 13
Electrical and Electronic Technicians The use of solvents in this type of work can lead to the development of dermatitis, dizziness, and damage to the nervous system and organs such as the liver. Irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat, along with lung disease, can accompany exposure to solder fumes and p o o r ventilation. 1~
Summary T h e workplace, whether civilian or military, poses many threats to workers, not the least of
8
Constance L. Shehan
Table 5. Common Hazards in Women's Occupations Type of Work
Common Hazards
Health Effects
Clerical workers (14.7 million)
Stress, video display terminals
Hospital workers (3.7 million)
Poor air quality and ventilation of toxic substances (photocopy, duplicators, correction fluids) Noise Poor lighting, poor chair design Infection
Headache, heart disease, eyestrain, neck and back pain Nausea, colds, respiratory problems, eye, nose, and throat irritation; cardiovascular disease
Lifting and falls Radiation Chemical hazards Stress, electric shock Health care laboratory workers (240,000) Lab technicians (1.9 million)
Electrical and electronic technicians (47,600)
Handling biological specimens or animals Toxic chemicals, including carcinogens Radiation in specimens, radioisotopes, machinery using radiation Solvents Acids Sitting and standing Stress Solder fumes, poor ventilation
Anxiety, hearing damage Varicose veins, neck and back pain, eye strain Infection from patients, utensils, specimens Back strain, slipped disc, torn ligaments Tissue damage, genetic changes from X-rays and chemical hazards Skin and respiratory irritation, liver, kidney, nervous system damage, cancer, reproductive problems Headaches, heart disease, gastrointestinal problems Infection Organ damage, changes in genetic material, reproductive problems, cancer Tissue changes or genetic changes, reproductive problems Dermatitis, dizziness, damage to nervous system and organs such as liver Skin burns and irritation Back and shoulder pain, varicose veins, headaches Heart disease, gastrointestinal problems Eye, nose, and throat irritation, lung disease
Adapted from The New Our Bodies, Ourselves, 1992.1~
which affect their reproductive systems. However, it is h i g h l y unlikely, given the large a n d increasing d e m a n d for female labor and the economic d e p e n d e n c e of households a n d families on w o m e n ' s income, that the patterns of labor force participation that have unfolded over the second half of this century will be reversed in the n e a r future. W o m e n are in civilian and military jobs to stay. Changes in federal legislation have increased w o m e n ' s access to jobs, prohibiting employers f r o m discriminating against p r e g n a n t workers as long as they are able to per-
f o r m the tasks required of their employment. O t h e r ways to protect w o m e n workers, a n d their u n b o r n babies, f r o m the occupational hazards that they may e n c o u n t e r must be identified. This article concludes with an overview_of possible workplace changes that can-be instituted to protect w o m e n workers while ensuring t h e m full access to employment. These are a d a p t e d f r o m The Boston W o m e n ' s Health Collective, 1992, p 115. 1. Find substitutes for substances a n d / o r equip-
Sociodemographic Perspectives in Employment
Table 6. Noise Levels and Effects of Common Sounds
Common Sounds
5.
Noise Levels (Decibels)
Carrier deck j e t operation, air raid siren
140
Jet takeoff (200 ft)
130
Auto horn
120
Pile drivers
110
Garbage truck Heavy traffic (50 ft) Alarm clock (2 ft) Freeway traffic; man's voice (3 ft) Air conditioning unit (20 ft) Light auto traffic (10 ft) Living room, bedroom, quiet office Library Broadcasting studio
100 90 8O 7O
Effects Painfully loud (blurring vision, nausea, dizziness) Begin to "feel" the sound Hearing becomes uncomfortable Cannot speak over the sound
7.
6O
Very annoying Annoying Telephone use difficult Intrusive
50
Quiet
4O 30 20
6.
Very quiet
Adapted from Bailey, Robert W: Human Performance Engineering: A Guide for System Designers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice-Hall, 1981, p 494. m e n t t h a t p o s e h e a l t h risks to w o r k e r s . T h i s c a n b e as s i m p l e as s u b s t i t u t i n g w a t e r - b a s e d correction fluid for a similar solvent-based p r o d u c t to r e d u c e t h e risks e n c o u n t e r e d b y c l e r i c a l workers. 2. Revise t h e j o b p r o c e s s so t h a t it c a n b e p e r f o r m e d in a safer'way. I f c h a i r s o r stools a r e p r o v i d e d for r e t a i l sales w o r k e r s ~ a n d clerks a r e e n c o u r a g e d to sit as well as s t a n d , t h e l e g p a i n a n d varicose veins t h a t o c c u r f r e q u e n t l y a m o n g this g r o u p o f w o r k e r s c a n b e g r e a t l y reduced. 3. U s e a u t o m a t i o n in t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f haza r d o u s j o b s . I f m e c h a n i c a l lifting devices a r e u s e d to m o v e heavy loads, t h e b a c k a n d s h o u l d e r strain a s s o c i a t e d with m a n u a l lifting m a y be avoided. 4. I s o l a t e o r e n c l o s e h a z a r d o u s p r o c e s s e s so t h a t w o r k e r s a r e s h i e l d e d f r o m e x p o s u r e . F o r instance, e l e c t r i c a l w o r k e r s a r e o f t e n e x p o s e d to i r r i t a t i n g f u m e s w h e n s o l d e r i n g parts. I f
8.
9
v e n t i l a t i n g h o o d s a r e u s e d , t h e f u m e s will b e m o v e d away f r o m t h e w o r k e r s . I m p r o v e h o u s e k e e p i n g in t h e w o r k p l a c e so t h a t e x p o s u r e to toxic m a t e r i a l s is m i n i m i z e d . F o r i n s t a n c e , textile w o r k e r s a r e e x p o s e d to c o t t o n d u s t t h a t is a s s o c i a t e d with b r o w n l u n g disease. I f d u s t levels a r e k e p t down, this haza r d is r e d u c e d . Regular service and repair of equipment will r e d u c e i n j u r i e s a n d e x p o s u r e to t o x i c l e a k s o r spills. W o r k e r s w h o u s e p h o t o c o p y i n g e q u i p m e n t m a y b e e x p o s e d to i r r i t a t i n g g a s e s if m a c h i n e s a r e i m p r o p e r l y m a i n tained. Provide personal protective equipment, such as r e s p i r a t o r s , gloves, a p r o n s , a n d o t h e r p r o tective c l o t h i n g to r e d u c e e x p o s u r e to irritating fumes and/or substances. R o t a t e w o r k e r s t h r o u g h stressful o r d a n g e r o u s j o b s to m i n i m i z e t h e i r e x p o s u r e to workplace hazards.
A h e a l t h y w o r k f o r c e is a n i n v e s t m e n t t h a t p r o d u c e s a s i g n i f i c a n t r e t u r n to e m p l o y e r s . T h e s e steps will r e a p d i v i d e n d s in t h e f o r m o f h u m a n capital.
References 1. Waite LJ: U.S. Women at Work. Population Bulletin 36:2, 1981 2. U.S. Department of Commerce: Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1995: The National Data Book, Table 631, p 402. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1995 3. U.S. Department of Commerce: Statistical Abstract of the United States 1995: The National Data Book. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1995, table 639, p 406 4. Oppenheimer VK: The Female Labor Force in the United States. Population Monograph Series, No. 5., Berkeley, Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1970 5. Leibowitz A, Klerman JA, Waite LJ: Women's employment during pregnancy and following childbirth. Santa Monica, CA, Rand Corporation. Prepared for the U.S. Department of Labor, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 1992 6. Moss N, Carver K: Maternal employment during pregnancy: Sociodemographic perspectives from the USA. Contemp Rev Obstet Gynaecol 4:177-185, 1992 7. Vogel L: Mothers on the Job: Maternity Policy in the U.S. Workplace. New Brunswick, NJ, Rutgers University Press, 1993 8. HosekJR, Peterson CE: Serving Her Country: An Analy-
10
Constance L. Shehan
sis of Women's Enlistment. Santa Monica, CA, The Rand Corporation. Prepared for the Assistant Secretary of Defense, Force Management and Personnel, 1990 9. Wekesser C, Polesetsky M: Women in the Military. San Diego, CA, Greenhaven Press, 1991 10. Moskos C: Army women. Atlantic Monthly, August 1990, pp 71-78 11. Binkin M: Who Will Fight the Next War? The Changing Face of the American Military. Washington, The Brookings Institute, 1993
12. U.S. Department of Labor: Employment and earnings. 41:205-209, Table 22: Employed civilians by detailed occupation, sex, race, and Hispanic origin, 1994 13. The Boston Women's Health Collective: The New Our Bodies, Ourselves. New York, NY, Simon and Schuster, 1992, pp 115-117 14. MakowerJ: Office Hazards. Washington, Tilden Press, p 135, 1981 15. Bailey RW: Human Performance Engineering: A Guide for System Designers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, PrenticeHall, 1982, p 494
In this article, we review trends in the e m p l o y m e n t o f American w o m e n in both the civilian labor force and the military over the course o f the 20th century, with a particular emphasis given to the years after World War II. T h e occupational distribution o f w o m e n in the civilian labor force and in the military is e x a m i n e d with consideration given to the hazards these female-dominated j o b s may p o s e for workers. Finally, we briefly discuss several simple steps that can be taken to reduce the risk o f occupational hazards to w o m e n ' s health while remaining within the federal legislative mandates granting w o m e n full access to employment.
Copyright 9 1996 by W.B. Saunders Company T h e R e v o l u t i o n in W o m e n ' s L a b o r F o r c e Participation h e r e has b e e n a revolution in the labor participation of American w o m e n over the course o f the 20th century. Both the number a n d proportion of w o m e n of working age who are in the labor force have increased substantially over this period. Between 1890 a n d 1993, the n u m b e r of w o m e n in the labor force increased f r o m 4 million to 58.4 million, and the p r o p o r t i o n of w o m e n of working age who were in the l a b o r force increased f r o m 17.3 to 57.9. Alternatively, the p e r c e n t of the total U.S. labor force that is c o m p o s e d of w o m e n increased over the same period, f r o m 17.2% to 45.8% (Table 1). 1 T h e increase in rates of female labor force participation has occurred across all social a n d d e m o g r a p h i c categories, including race a n d ethnicity, marital status, and the presence of children. W o m e n ' s labor force participation rates at various ages are o f special interest in the context o f pregnancy. Figure 1 illustrates the variation in rates o f female labor force participation at different ages for 1960, 1970, 1980, a n d 1994. W h e n rates of female labor force participation by age are plotted for 1960 and 1970, the resulting pattern approximates an M-shaped curve. T h a t is, rates are highest in the early 20s (before the p r i m e child-bearing years) and again f r o m the mid-30s to mid-40s (after the p r i m e childbearing years). A m o n g the cohorts of A m e r i c a n w o m e n who were having children in the 1960s a n d early 1970s, family responsibilities, particularly those associated with child-bearing and car-
T force
ing for young children, s h a p e d participation in the paid labor force. W o m e n d r o p p e d out of the labor force u p o n the birth o f their first child and stayed out until their children were older. Some never r e t u r n e d to the labor f o r c e ) Today, fewer w o m e n d r o p out of the labor force for long periods of time u p o n the birth of their first child. By 1980, as Fig 1 indicates, there was almost no decline in w o m e n ' s labor force participation during the p r i m e child-bearing years (of 24 to 35). By 1985, the M-shape in the labor force participation rates across the adult female life course had almost completely disappeared. In fact, in 1994, female labor force participation rates were at their highest levels in the age categories that are considered the p r i m e child-bearing years. In 1994, approximately 75% of w o m e n between 24 a n d 35 were in the labor force. 2 As rates of labor force participation a m o n g w o m e n of child-bearing ages have increased, so, too, have the rates a m o n g w o m e n who actually have children. Table 2 shows the changes in the labor force patterns of m a r r i e d w o m e n that occurred between 1960 a n d 1994. In 1960, the highest rates o f participation in the labor force From the Department of Sociology, University of FIorida, Gainesville, FL. Presented at the 4th International Conference on "Sound and Vibration in Pregnancy: Pregnant Women at Work," Gainesville, FL, February 22-23, 1996. Address reprint requests to Constance L. Shehan, PhD, University of Florida, Department of Sociology, 109 Rolfs Hall, PO Box 112030, Gainesville, FL 32611-2030. Copyright 9 1996 by W.B. Saunders Company 0146-0005/96/2001-0005505.00/0
Seminars in Perinatology, Vol 20, No 1 (February), 1996: pp 3-10
3
4
Constance L. Shehan
Table 1. U.S. Women in the Labor Force, 1990 to 1993
Total labor force Total no. of women in labor force Women as percent of labor force Total women of working age] Percent in labor force
18~
1~0
1~2
19~
23.3*
63.9
111.9
128.0
4.0*
18.4
47.9
58.4
17.2
28.8
42.8
45.8
23.1" 17.3
54.3 33.9
90.9 52.7
100.9 57.9
*In millions. J-Age 10 and older in 1890, age 16 and older in 1950, 1982, and 1993. Reprinted from the following: Data for 1890 and 1950 from Waite LJ: U.S. Women at Work, Population Bulletin, 36: 2, 1981. Data for 1982 from Employment and Earnings, 30: 1, 1983, p 8, U.S. Department of Labor. Data for 1993 from Employment and Earnings 41: 1, 1993, p 216, U.S. Department of Labor.
w e r e f o u n d a m o n g m a r r i e d m o t h e r s w h o s e child r e n w e r e o f s c h o o l age (6 to 17). A t t h a t time, n e a r l y two in every five m o t h e r s o f s c h o o l - a g e d c h i l d r e n w e r e e m p l o y e d o r l o o k i n g for p a i d work. By 1994, l a b o r f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n rates f o r this g r o u p o f m a r r i e d w o m e n h a d i n c r e a s e d to 76%. O v e r t h e s a m e 30-year p e r i o d , t h e l a b o r f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n r a t e o f m a r r i e d w o m e n with c h i l d r e n y o u n g e r t h a n a g e 6 have c o n s i s t e n t l y been lower than the rate among mothers of o l d e r c h i l d r e n . I n 1960, f e w e r t h a n o n e in every five m o t h e r s o f p r e s c h o o l c h i l d r e n (18.6%) w e r e in t h e l a b o r force. By 1994, m o r e t h a n t h r e e in every five (61.7%) w e r e in t h e l a b o r force. 3 Simi-
lar patterns mothers. 3
The Influence
have
occurred
of Economic
among
single
Factors
I n t h e o p e n i n g years o f t h e 20th c e n t u r y , t h e p r o t o t y p i c a l f e m a l e w o r k e r was y o u n g a n d u n m a r r i e d . H o w e v e r , as t h e U.S. e c o n o m y g r e w a n d s h i f t e d f r o m g o o d s - p r o d u c i n g to service-producing, the demand for female labor expanded and new groups of women were drawn into the l a b o r force. 4 As t h e c e n t u r y u n f o l d e d a n d t h e n u m b e r o f available y o u n g , single w o m e n was i n s u f f i c i e n t to m e e t t h e d e m a n d s o f t h e l a b o r force, o l d e r m a r r i e d w o m e n w h o s e c h i l d r e n were i n d e p e n d e n t w e r e d r a w n i n t o t h e l a b o r force. Eventually, however, this g r o u p o f r e s e r v e l a b o r was also i n s u f f i c i e n t to m e e t t h e i n c r e a s i n g d e m a n d . T h e n e x t g r o u p o f w o m e n to b e d r a w n i n t o t h e l a b o r f o r c e was w o m e n w h o s e c h i l d r e n w e r e o f s c h o o l age. D u r i n g t h e 1970s, a t i m e when more than one million women entered t h e l a b o r f o r c e e a c h year, m o t h e r s o f p r e - s c h o o l a g e d c h i l d r e n s o u g h t e m p l o y m e n t in r e c o r d numbers. Today, the majority of the married m o t h e r s o f c h i l d r e n y o u n g e r t h a n 6 a r e in t h e l a b o r force. 5 T h i s i n c l u d e s n e a r l y 60% o f t h o s e with i n f a n t s a g e d 1 y e a r o r y o u n g e r . 3 T h e s e trends indicate that many women interrupt their e m p l o y m e n t f o r o n l y s h o r t p e r i o d s o f t i m e as a r e s u l t o f c h i l d b i r t h . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 20% o f U.S. w o m e n n o w s e e m to have c o n t i n u o u s l a b o r f o r c e attachment throughout t h e i r a d u l t years. 5
80
60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
,
.........................................
40
20
16-19
20"24
28-34
35-44
46-,54
55"64
66',
F i g u r e 1. Women's employment by Age,---1960 to 1994. - 0 1-9~601 + 1970, -*1980, ~ 1994. (Reprinted from U.S. Department of Commerce: Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1995: The National Data Book, Washington, DC, 1995.)
Sociodemographic Perspectives in Employment
5
Table 2. Labor Force Participation Rates of Married Women, 1960 to 1993, By Presence and Age of Children
Total married women Married women, no children younger than 18 Married women, children 6 through 17 only Married women, children younger than 6
1960
1970
1975
1980
1985
1993
30.5
40.8
44.4
50.1
54.2
59.4
34.7
42.2
43.9
46.0
48.2
52.4
39.0
49.2
52.3
61.7
67.8
74.9
18.6
30.3
36.6
45.1
53.4
59.6
Reprinted from U.S. Department of Commerce: Statistical Abstract of the United States 1995: The National Data Book. Washington, DC, Government Printing Office, Table 637: Marital Status of Women in the Civilian Labor Force: 1960 to 1994, 1995, p 405. j
Clearly, high rates of female labor force participation have extended into earlier a n d earlier stages of m o t h e r h o o d . Increasingly, w o m e n work during pregnancy, many staying until the birth of their babies. This pattern o f female labor force participation has reached new heights over the past decade. Less than half (49.4%) of w o m e n who experienced a first pregnancy between 1966 and 1970 were employed during pregnancy. The p r o p o r t i o n had increased to nearly two thirds (64.5%) by the 1981 t o 1985 period. W o m e n who are in the 9labor force during pregnancy differ significantly from those who are not in the labor force. They are more likely to be white (non-Hispanic), married, o f higher income and education, and to have medical insurance than those who are n o t employed during pregnancy. 6 Statistics pertaining to the n u m b e r o f pregn a n t w o m e n in the workplace at different stages o f pregnancy are difficult to obtain, and factors that influence how long w o m e n work during their pregnancies have not been fully explored. ~ However, data obtained from a national longitudinal study, which provides information a b o u t e m p l o y m e n t during pregnancy at weekly intervals, can be used to suggest the extent to which American w o m e n remain attached to the labor force t h r o u g h o u t their pregnancies. Roughly half o f the employed p r e g n a n t w o m e n in the study were still at work in their 35th week of gestation. An important conclusion drawn from this study is that higher wages are significantly associated, in a positive direction, with the l e n g t h of time a woman stays at work during her pregn~mcy. 5 This may reflect the types of work
that women with higher wages perform; that is, w o m e n with higher wages may be in managerial positions that have lower physical demands and pose fewer fetal and maternal risks. Part of the increase in w o m e n ' s participation in the labor force during pregnancy may be attributed to changes in federal legislation that grant p r e g n a n t w o m e n greater access to employment. In 1978, the Pregnancy Discrimination Act, which prohibited employers from discriminating against pregnant workers, was passed. 7 As a result of this legislation, employers could no longer force a p r e g n a n t w o m a n to go on maternity leave or to quit her j o b altogether. Pregnant workers c a n n o t be treated any less favorably than would any o t h e r temporarily disabled worker. 7
Women's Involvement in the U.S. Mih'tary W o m e n ' s rates of participation in the a r m e d services have followed trends similar to those observed in the civilian labor force, s There has been a general upward trend over the second half of the 20th century. This increase was stimulated in large part by legislative changes that occurred during the 1970s. T h e history of w o m e n ' s participation in the military will be briefly reviewed here. W o m e n were first recruited for military service during World War I. They were recruited to fill a limited n u m b e r of positions in nursing and clerical jobs. Those who served did not have full military status and had no benefits. At the beginning of World War II, the only w o m e n in the a r m e d services were nurses. However, manpower shortages necessitated the creation of the Worn-
6
Constance L. Shehan
en's Army Corps in 1942. Shortly thereafter, the Navy and the Coast Guard also admitted women for the first time. The Marine Corps accepted women in 1943. Although the Air Force did not become a separate branch of the -military until after World War II, 800 civilian women flew military aircraft over the Atlantic during the war. In 1948, w o m e n were admitted to the new Air Force. 9 The A r m e d Services Integration Act of 1948 gave military women p e r m a n e n t status. However, it imposed a cap of 2% on the proportion of the military that could be women. It also specified that there could be no w o m e n generals or admirals. Another important limitation imposed by this act was that military w o m e n had to remain childless. Pregnancy was grounds for immediate discharge. For 20 years, until the late 1960s, the average p r o p o r t i o n of the military that was female was approximately 1%.8 Nearly all of the w o m e n in the military during this period were engaged in traditional " w o m e n ' s w o r k " in health care and clerical jobs. In 1967, Public Law 90-30 r e m o v e d the limits on the n u m b e r of w o m e n who could enlist in the a r m e d services. T h e situation for w o m e n in the military changed dramatically during the 1970s. In 1970, the first w o m a n was p r o m o t e d to the rank o f general. In 1972, w o m e n j o i n e d R O T C on college campuses. In 1973, the draft was abolished and the military b e g a n actively recruiting women. In 1976, the service academies first admitted women. By 1978, Congress abolished the W o m e n ' s Army Corps, which resulted in the assignment o f w o m e n to n o n - c o m b a t branches o f the Army. 1~Between 1972 and 1976, the n u m b e r of w o m e n in the U.S. military tripled. By 1990, approximately 11% of all U~S. military personnel were women, n Before 1975, p r e g n a n t w o m e n were routinely discharged f r o m the Army. In 1975, however, the ban on parenting for military w o m e n was lifted a n d discharge for p r e g n a n c y was m a d e voluntary. Today, p r e g n a n t w o m e n are ineligible to enlist in the Army, but they can r e m a i n in the Army if they b e c o m e p r e g n a n t after enlisting. It is estimated that a b o u t o n e third of all p r e g n a n t soldiers have their babies and stay in the Army after going on a 6-week maternity leave. A n o t h e r third are believed to terminate their pregnancies and r e m a i n in the Army. The final third leave the service to have their babies. 1~
Table 3. Female Dominated Jobs, 1993 Percent Female
Bank tellers Child care workers (in private homes) Cleaners (in private homes) Dental assistants Dental hygienists Family day care providers Hairdressers Licensed practical nurses Receptionists Secretaries Telephone operators Typists [Nurses aides, orderlies]
88 97 94 98 99 99 90 95 '97 99 87 94 88
Reprinted from Employment and Earnings, U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, January 1994, 41 (1), Table 22: Employed Civiliansby Detailed Occupation, Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin, pp 205-209.
Gender Labeling o f Jobs and Distribution of W o m e n Workers Jobs in b o t h the civilian labor force and the military are gender-labeled. T h a t is, they are considered m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e for m e m b e r s of o n e sex or the other. As a consequence of the g e n d e r labeling of jobs, w o m e n and m e n are segregated at work. Table 3 presents a list o f occupations in the civilian labor force that are "female-domin a t e d , " which is defined in terms of a high proportion ( m o r e than 85%) of w o m e n workers. Included in this list are a n u m b e r of jobs that resemble the work w o m e n do in their h o m e s and families: caring for d e p e n d e n t family m e m bers or n e e d y persons, such as the very y o u n g and the very old, the sick or infirm, and the poor. Jobs such as preschool and elementary teaching, nursing, a n d social work have a high p r o p o r t i o n of w o m e n workers. T h e largest single category of e m p l o y m e n t for w o m e n is clerical work, which is m o r e than 90% female. 12 T h e distribution of w o m e n in military occupations is similar. Even though 86% of all military occupational specialties for enlisted per.sonnel (285 of 331) were o p e n to womerr by 1990, m o s t military w o m e n serve in administrative, clerical, medical, communications, electronics and electrical repair, and intelligence specialties. Table 4 shows the p r o p o r t i o n of enlisted w o m e n in each of several occupational categories. By far, the m o s t c o m m o n occupational category of en-
Sociodemographic Perspectives in Employment
Table 4. Occupational Distribution of Enlisted Military Women, 1990 Occupation
Percent
Communications, intelligence Health care Support, administration Mechanical repair Service, supply Other*
11.0 15.0 34.0 9.0 10.0 21.0
* Other includes infantry, gun crew, seamen; electronics; technical specialties. Source: U.S. Department of Labor, 1993 Handbook on Women Workers: Trends and Issues, p 24.
7
carrier deck jet operation and j e t takeoff, are painfully loud. 1<1~ Clerical workers are also likely to experience headaches, heart disease, eye strain, and neck and back pain as a result of frequent use of video display terminals. Poor air quality and poor ventilation, toxic substances from photocopying equipment and supplies and correction fluids may result in nausea, colds and other respiratory problems, and eye, nose, and throat irritation. Finally, poor lighting and chair design can produce varicose veins, neck and back pain, and eye strain. 13
Hospital Workers listed women is administrative support, with approximately one third employed in such positions. T h e second most c o m m o n occupational category is medical and dental work, employing nearly the same proportion of enlisted women.
C o m m o n Health Hazards in W o m e n ' s Occupations T h e final objective of this brief overview of pregn a n t women in the workplace is to identify the health hazards that are prevalent in the most c o m m o n occupations held by women. Although we identify general health risks for women workers, we will note, when possible, the particular risks to women's reproductive systems and the occupations in which noise and vibration pose exceptional health hazards. Table 5 summarizes the health hazards associated with several of the most c o m m o n occupations held by women in both the civilian labor force and the military: clerical jobs, hospital workers, health care laboratory workers, laboratory technicians and related support staff, and electrical and electronic technicians. 1~
Clerical Workers A m o n g the health hazards e n c o u n t e r e d by clerical workers are hearing loss and anxiety associated with the noise in the office. Table 6 shows the average noise levels of c o m m o n experiences e n c o u n t e r e d in daily life, including those f o u n d in offices. It is important to note that some of the sounds military personnel would be exposed to in the course of their daily work life, such as
W o m e n who work in hospitals are exposed to a n u m b e r of chemical hazards (eg, sterilizing gases, anesthetic gases, and drugs) that can result not only in skin and respiratory irritation, damage to the liver, kidney, and nervous system, and cancer but also reproductive problems. Hospital workers may also be placed at risk of infections through contact with patients, use of contaminated utensils, and handling infected specimens of various kinds. T h r o u g h exposure to radiation, hospital workers may experience tissue damage, genetic changes, and various chemical hazards. 1~
Health Care Laboratory Workers Because they handle biological specimens from humans a n d / o r laboratory animals, workers in health care laboratories are p r o n e to various types of infection. Laboratory technicians who work with toxic chemicals, including various carcinogens, may develop organ damage, genetic changes, and reproductive problems. Those who work with radiation may also experience tissue changes or genetic changes, along with possible reproductive problems. 13
Electrical and Electronic Technicians The use of solvents in this type of work can lead to the development of dermatitis, dizziness, and damage to the nervous system and organs such as the liver. Irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat, along with lung disease, can accompany exposure to solder fumes and p o o r ventilation. 1~
Summary T h e workplace, whether civilian or military, poses many threats to workers, not the least of
8
Constance L. Shehan
Table 5. Common Hazards in Women's Occupations Type of Work
Common Hazards
Health Effects
Clerical workers (14.7 million)
Stress, video display terminals
Hospital workers (3.7 million)
Poor air quality and ventilation of toxic substances (photocopy, duplicators, correction fluids) Noise Poor lighting, poor chair design Infection
Headache, heart disease, eyestrain, neck and back pain Nausea, colds, respiratory problems, eye, nose, and throat irritation; cardiovascular disease
Lifting and falls Radiation Chemical hazards Stress, electric shock Health care laboratory workers (240,000) Lab technicians (1.9 million)
Electrical and electronic technicians (47,600)
Handling biological specimens or animals Toxic chemicals, including carcinogens Radiation in specimens, radioisotopes, machinery using radiation Solvents Acids Sitting and standing Stress Solder fumes, poor ventilation
Anxiety, hearing damage Varicose veins, neck and back pain, eye strain Infection from patients, utensils, specimens Back strain, slipped disc, torn ligaments Tissue damage, genetic changes from X-rays and chemical hazards Skin and respiratory irritation, liver, kidney, nervous system damage, cancer, reproductive problems Headaches, heart disease, gastrointestinal problems Infection Organ damage, changes in genetic material, reproductive problems, cancer Tissue changes or genetic changes, reproductive problems Dermatitis, dizziness, damage to nervous system and organs such as liver Skin burns and irritation Back and shoulder pain, varicose veins, headaches Heart disease, gastrointestinal problems Eye, nose, and throat irritation, lung disease
Adapted from The New Our Bodies, Ourselves, 1992.1~
which affect their reproductive systems. However, it is h i g h l y unlikely, given the large a n d increasing d e m a n d for female labor and the economic d e p e n d e n c e of households a n d families on w o m e n ' s income, that the patterns of labor force participation that have unfolded over the second half of this century will be reversed in the n e a r future. W o m e n are in civilian and military jobs to stay. Changes in federal legislation have increased w o m e n ' s access to jobs, prohibiting employers f r o m discriminating against p r e g n a n t workers as long as they are able to per-
f o r m the tasks required of their employment. O t h e r ways to protect w o m e n workers, a n d their u n b o r n babies, f r o m the occupational hazards that they may e n c o u n t e r must be identified. This article concludes with an overview_of possible workplace changes that can-be instituted to protect w o m e n workers while ensuring t h e m full access to employment. These are a d a p t e d f r o m The Boston W o m e n ' s Health Collective, 1992, p 115. 1. Find substitutes for substances a n d / o r equip-
Sociodemographic Perspectives in Employment
Table 6. Noise Levels and Effects of Common Sounds
Common Sounds
5.
Noise Levels (Decibels)
Carrier deck j e t operation, air raid siren
140
Jet takeoff (200 ft)
130
Auto horn
120
Pile drivers
110
Garbage truck Heavy traffic (50 ft) Alarm clock (2 ft) Freeway traffic; man's voice (3 ft) Air conditioning unit (20 ft) Light auto traffic (10 ft) Living room, bedroom, quiet office Library Broadcasting studio
100 90 8O 7O
Effects Painfully loud (blurring vision, nausea, dizziness) Begin to "feel" the sound Hearing becomes uncomfortable Cannot speak over the sound
7.
6O
Very annoying Annoying Telephone use difficult Intrusive
50
Quiet
4O 30 20
6.
Very quiet
Adapted from Bailey, Robert W: Human Performance Engineering: A Guide for System Designers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice-Hall, 1981, p 494. m e n t t h a t p o s e h e a l t h risks to w o r k e r s . T h i s c a n b e as s i m p l e as s u b s t i t u t i n g w a t e r - b a s e d correction fluid for a similar solvent-based p r o d u c t to r e d u c e t h e risks e n c o u n t e r e d b y c l e r i c a l workers. 2. Revise t h e j o b p r o c e s s so t h a t it c a n b e p e r f o r m e d in a safer'way. I f c h a i r s o r stools a r e p r o v i d e d for r e t a i l sales w o r k e r s ~ a n d clerks a r e e n c o u r a g e d to sit as well as s t a n d , t h e l e g p a i n a n d varicose veins t h a t o c c u r f r e q u e n t l y a m o n g this g r o u p o f w o r k e r s c a n b e g r e a t l y reduced. 3. U s e a u t o m a t i o n in t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f haza r d o u s j o b s . I f m e c h a n i c a l lifting devices a r e u s e d to m o v e heavy loads, t h e b a c k a n d s h o u l d e r strain a s s o c i a t e d with m a n u a l lifting m a y be avoided. 4. I s o l a t e o r e n c l o s e h a z a r d o u s p r o c e s s e s so t h a t w o r k e r s a r e s h i e l d e d f r o m e x p o s u r e . F o r instance, e l e c t r i c a l w o r k e r s a r e o f t e n e x p o s e d to i r r i t a t i n g f u m e s w h e n s o l d e r i n g parts. I f
8.
9
v e n t i l a t i n g h o o d s a r e u s e d , t h e f u m e s will b e m o v e d away f r o m t h e w o r k e r s . I m p r o v e h o u s e k e e p i n g in t h e w o r k p l a c e so t h a t e x p o s u r e to toxic m a t e r i a l s is m i n i m i z e d . F o r i n s t a n c e , textile w o r k e r s a r e e x p o s e d to c o t t o n d u s t t h a t is a s s o c i a t e d with b r o w n l u n g disease. I f d u s t levels a r e k e p t down, this haza r d is r e d u c e d . Regular service and repair of equipment will r e d u c e i n j u r i e s a n d e x p o s u r e to t o x i c l e a k s o r spills. W o r k e r s w h o u s e p h o t o c o p y i n g e q u i p m e n t m a y b e e x p o s e d to i r r i t a t i n g g a s e s if m a c h i n e s a r e i m p r o p e r l y m a i n tained. Provide personal protective equipment, such as r e s p i r a t o r s , gloves, a p r o n s , a n d o t h e r p r o tective c l o t h i n g to r e d u c e e x p o s u r e to irritating fumes and/or substances. R o t a t e w o r k e r s t h r o u g h stressful o r d a n g e r o u s j o b s to m i n i m i z e t h e i r e x p o s u r e to workplace hazards.
A h e a l t h y w o r k f o r c e is a n i n v e s t m e n t t h a t p r o d u c e s a s i g n i f i c a n t r e t u r n to e m p l o y e r s . T h e s e steps will r e a p d i v i d e n d s in t h e f o r m o f h u m a n capital.
References 1. Waite LJ: U.S. Women at Work. Population Bulletin 36:2, 1981 2. U.S. Department of Commerce: Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1995: The National Data Book, Table 631, p 402. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1995 3. U.S. Department of Commerce: Statistical Abstract of the United States 1995: The National Data Book. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1995, table 639, p 406 4. Oppenheimer VK: The Female Labor Force in the United States. Population Monograph Series, No. 5., Berkeley, Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1970 5. Leibowitz A, Klerman JA, Waite LJ: Women's employment during pregnancy and following childbirth. Santa Monica, CA, Rand Corporation. Prepared for the U.S. Department of Labor, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 1992 6. Moss N, Carver K: Maternal employment during pregnancy: Sociodemographic perspectives from the USA. Contemp Rev Obstet Gynaecol 4:177-185, 1992 7. Vogel L: Mothers on the Job: Maternity Policy in the U.S. Workplace. New Brunswick, NJ, Rutgers University Press, 1993 8. HosekJR, Peterson CE: Serving Her Country: An Analy-
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sis of Women's Enlistment. Santa Monica, CA, The Rand Corporation. Prepared for the Assistant Secretary of Defense, Force Management and Personnel, 1990 9. Wekesser C, Polesetsky M: Women in the Military. San Diego, CA, Greenhaven Press, 1991 10. Moskos C: Army women. Atlantic Monthly, August 1990, pp 71-78 11. Binkin M: Who Will Fight the Next War? The Changing Face of the American Military. Washington, The Brookings Institute, 1993
12. U.S. Department of Labor: Employment and earnings. 41:205-209, Table 22: Employed civilians by detailed occupation, sex, race, and Hispanic origin, 1994 13. The Boston Women's Health Collective: The New Our Bodies, Ourselves. New York, NY, Simon and Schuster, 1992, pp 115-117 14. MakowerJ: Office Hazards. Washington, Tilden Press, p 135, 1981 15. Bailey RW: Human Performance Engineering: A Guide for System Designers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, PrenticeHall, 1982, p 494