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Some general conclusions on thematic mapping using microcomputers
Computers & Geosaences Vol. 11, No. 3, pp. 355-356, 1985 Printed in the U.S.A.
0098-3004/85 $3.00 + .00 Pergamon Press L~.
SOME GENERAL CONCLUSIONS ON THEMATIC MAPPING USING MICROCOMPUTERS D. J. UNWIN a n d V. GARDINER Department of Geography, University of Leicester, Leicester LE 1 7RH, England
(Received 12 June 1984) rather than in attempts to produce high-quality maps that meet existing cartographic standards.
We have no doubt that the workshop that gave rise to this collection of papers was a success in meeting its stated aim of facilitating the exchange of ideas about thematic mapping on microcomputers. Many stimulating presentations, displays, and discussions occurred during the workshop, out of which some general conclusions gradually crystallized. These can be grouped around the six questions asked in the Foreword.
TO WHAT EXTENT IS MAINFRAME EXPERIENCE IN COMPUTER-ASSISTED CARTOGRAPHY OF USE IN MICROCOMPUTER APPLICATIONS? Existing mainframe mapping usually takes place in an environment that uses the FORTRAN language with access to subroutine libraries designed for graphics, such as GHOST or GINO. Display usually is on vector types of output devices. It is clear that microcomputer developments using BASIC with no standard libraries and raster types of displays have gone on more or less in isolation from mainframes. In the main, problems are not confined to thematic mapping and there is room for interaction with CAL, CAD, topographic cartography, and the burgeoning use of graphics in applications, such as video games, military systems, robotics, and so on. Indeed, if the view expressed in respect of production standards is correct, then thematic mapping may have more to learn from these fields than from the traditional mainstream of cartography and computer cartography.
WHAT IS THE CURRENT STATE OF THE ART IN MICROCOMPUTER MAPPING? It is clear that reasonable quality thematic maps can be produced using simple, stand-alone microcomputers, but to date only limited software is readily available. The major limitations of speed, memory, and resolution are set by today's standards of hardware and also by the almost-universal use of interpreted BASIC. Software writing for thematic mapping is not trivial, and most work has used the APPLE II machine, for example, MICROMAP, MICROMAPPER, and T.M.P., although more recent work is using the ACT SIRIUS or BBC Model B. A major problem has been the lack of standards which, given the long time period needed to develop software set against the extremely rapid pace of hardware development, has meant that workers are almost always in a position of being tied to machines such as the APPLE II which now are outdated. Standardized software is a help in transferring from machine to machine.
ARE THERE SIGNIFICANT HARDWARE DEVELOPMENTS THAT WILL AFFECT MAPPING POTENTIAL?
IS THIS SATISFACTORY FOR TEACHING, RESEARCH, OR MAP PRODUCTION? There was general agreement during the workshop that for teaching microcomputers offer a cheap way of providing "hands-on" experience in automated cartography, as well as maps as part of CAL packages such as LAND and RELATE. For research use they were seen to be more limited, but a useful application of existing systems would be in work on fundamentals of map design. Production was seen to be more problematic. Existing systems were seen to be inadequate, or, paradoxically, the most sophisticated systems too expensive for production in a commercial environment. However, note was made that they are capable of producing temporary low-resolution displays for important applications, such as maps in the media, weather maps, and so on. An argument can be made for engaging in this type of application
Hardware developments have been impressive, and the expectation was that this will continue in areas such as the provision of higher quality text, graphics coprocessors and boards, faster compiled languages, and increased cheaper memory as hard disk, special ROM, silicon disks, and so on. There already is a hierarchy of facilities developing that ranges from a cheap "home" machine costing around £200 to sophisticated mapping systems costing in excess of £10,000. In the university environment, it is always possible to link micros to mainframes to produce extremely cheap but powerful graphics workstations, but this type of option usually is not available in schools and colleges. The expectation is that facilities that currently are expensive will become available almost universally at reasonable cost, thus making access to good graphics relatively easy. WHAT ARE THE MOST PRESSING SOFI'WARE NEEDS AND HOW MIGHT THESE BE MET? The major need identified was for good, portable mapping programs that can be used in applications
355
356
D. J. UNWINand V. GARDINER
that go beyond the "pretty" stage that much conventional thematic mapping seems locked into on mainframes. Merely to produce maps on a microcomputer, of whatever graphical sophistication, seems pointless. At the time of the symposium, many delegates identified a need for software for the BBC Model B for use in schools as vital. Second, the question of standardization of software was seen to be critical if progress is to be made, but this is made difficult by the absence of any graphics standards in BASIC, by the seemingly deliberately built-in hardware dependence exhibited by most manufacturers, and by display technology. Suitable standard primitive operations may be defined for vector-mode devices, but identifying similar standards for raster technology is more difficult.
HOW MIGHT DATA FOR THEMATIC MAPPING, SUCH AS THE U.K. POPULATION CENSUS, BE MADE AVAILABLE TO MICROCOMPUTER USERS? A major reason why existing mainframe computercartography systems are not in favor with researchers
in the geosciences is clearly that the labor involved in getting to the stage at which map production becomes possible is seen usually, and rightly, to be excessive. The required maps may be drawn by hand more quickly and, in consequence, are suboptimal. For most practical applications mapping software, for example, GIMMS or GINO, is adequate, most of the labor being in digitizing area boundaries correctly, downloading data from databanks, and creating a suitable information system. At the moment, microcomputer mapping uses relatively small amounts of data, but it is undoubtedly the situation that there will be a demand not only for data such as the census tables p e r se, but also for information on area centroids, boundaries, and so on. Many delegates saw an urgent need to create such files for general distribution on standard minifloppy disk or tape. Distribution mechanisms either exist or are being planned. We conclude that the issues outlined here are matters which should be of concern to workers in cartography and the geosciences. There are a number of areas in which research might be conducted usefully, and it is expected that within the next few years the impact of the microcomputer on computer-aided cartography will become increasingly apparent.
0098-3004/85 $3.00 + .00 Pergamon Press L~.
SOME GENERAL CONCLUSIONS ON THEMATIC MAPPING USING MICROCOMPUTERS D. J. UNWIN a n d V. GARDINER Department of Geography, University of Leicester, Leicester LE 1 7RH, England
(Received 12 June 1984) rather than in attempts to produce high-quality maps that meet existing cartographic standards.
We have no doubt that the workshop that gave rise to this collection of papers was a success in meeting its stated aim of facilitating the exchange of ideas about thematic mapping on microcomputers. Many stimulating presentations, displays, and discussions occurred during the workshop, out of which some general conclusions gradually crystallized. These can be grouped around the six questions asked in the Foreword.
TO WHAT EXTENT IS MAINFRAME EXPERIENCE IN COMPUTER-ASSISTED CARTOGRAPHY OF USE IN MICROCOMPUTER APPLICATIONS? Existing mainframe mapping usually takes place in an environment that uses the FORTRAN language with access to subroutine libraries designed for graphics, such as GHOST or GINO. Display usually is on vector types of output devices. It is clear that microcomputer developments using BASIC with no standard libraries and raster types of displays have gone on more or less in isolation from mainframes. In the main, problems are not confined to thematic mapping and there is room for interaction with CAL, CAD, topographic cartography, and the burgeoning use of graphics in applications, such as video games, military systems, robotics, and so on. Indeed, if the view expressed in respect of production standards is correct, then thematic mapping may have more to learn from these fields than from the traditional mainstream of cartography and computer cartography.
WHAT IS THE CURRENT STATE OF THE ART IN MICROCOMPUTER MAPPING? It is clear that reasonable quality thematic maps can be produced using simple, stand-alone microcomputers, but to date only limited software is readily available. The major limitations of speed, memory, and resolution are set by today's standards of hardware and also by the almost-universal use of interpreted BASIC. Software writing for thematic mapping is not trivial, and most work has used the APPLE II machine, for example, MICROMAP, MICROMAPPER, and T.M.P., although more recent work is using the ACT SIRIUS or BBC Model B. A major problem has been the lack of standards which, given the long time period needed to develop software set against the extremely rapid pace of hardware development, has meant that workers are almost always in a position of being tied to machines such as the APPLE II which now are outdated. Standardized software is a help in transferring from machine to machine.
ARE THERE SIGNIFICANT HARDWARE DEVELOPMENTS THAT WILL AFFECT MAPPING POTENTIAL?
IS THIS SATISFACTORY FOR TEACHING, RESEARCH, OR MAP PRODUCTION? There was general agreement during the workshop that for teaching microcomputers offer a cheap way of providing "hands-on" experience in automated cartography, as well as maps as part of CAL packages such as LAND and RELATE. For research use they were seen to be more limited, but a useful application of existing systems would be in work on fundamentals of map design. Production was seen to be more problematic. Existing systems were seen to be inadequate, or, paradoxically, the most sophisticated systems too expensive for production in a commercial environment. However, note was made that they are capable of producing temporary low-resolution displays for important applications, such as maps in the media, weather maps, and so on. An argument can be made for engaging in this type of application
Hardware developments have been impressive, and the expectation was that this will continue in areas such as the provision of higher quality text, graphics coprocessors and boards, faster compiled languages, and increased cheaper memory as hard disk, special ROM, silicon disks, and so on. There already is a hierarchy of facilities developing that ranges from a cheap "home" machine costing around £200 to sophisticated mapping systems costing in excess of £10,000. In the university environment, it is always possible to link micros to mainframes to produce extremely cheap but powerful graphics workstations, but this type of option usually is not available in schools and colleges. The expectation is that facilities that currently are expensive will become available almost universally at reasonable cost, thus making access to good graphics relatively easy. WHAT ARE THE MOST PRESSING SOFI'WARE NEEDS AND HOW MIGHT THESE BE MET? The major need identified was for good, portable mapping programs that can be used in applications
355
356
D. J. UNWINand V. GARDINER
that go beyond the "pretty" stage that much conventional thematic mapping seems locked into on mainframes. Merely to produce maps on a microcomputer, of whatever graphical sophistication, seems pointless. At the time of the symposium, many delegates identified a need for software for the BBC Model B for use in schools as vital. Second, the question of standardization of software was seen to be critical if progress is to be made, but this is made difficult by the absence of any graphics standards in BASIC, by the seemingly deliberately built-in hardware dependence exhibited by most manufacturers, and by display technology. Suitable standard primitive operations may be defined for vector-mode devices, but identifying similar standards for raster technology is more difficult.
HOW MIGHT DATA FOR THEMATIC MAPPING, SUCH AS THE U.K. POPULATION CENSUS, BE MADE AVAILABLE TO MICROCOMPUTER USERS? A major reason why existing mainframe computercartography systems are not in favor with researchers
in the geosciences is clearly that the labor involved in getting to the stage at which map production becomes possible is seen usually, and rightly, to be excessive. The required maps may be drawn by hand more quickly and, in consequence, are suboptimal. For most practical applications mapping software, for example, GIMMS or GINO, is adequate, most of the labor being in digitizing area boundaries correctly, downloading data from databanks, and creating a suitable information system. At the moment, microcomputer mapping uses relatively small amounts of data, but it is undoubtedly the situation that there will be a demand not only for data such as the census tables p e r se, but also for information on area centroids, boundaries, and so on. Many delegates saw an urgent need to create such files for general distribution on standard minifloppy disk or tape. Distribution mechanisms either exist or are being planned. We conclude that the issues outlined here are matters which should be of concern to workers in cartography and the geosciences. There are a number of areas in which research might be conducted usefully, and it is expected that within the next few years the impact of the microcomputer on computer-aided cartography will become increasingly apparent.