Styles and Types of Wine

CHAPTER 7

Styles and Types of Wine CHAPTER CONTENTS Still Table Wines White Cultivars Red Cultivars Production Procedures White Wine Styles Red Wine Styles Rose´ Wine Styles Sparkling Wines Fortified Wines (Dessert and Appetizer Wines) Sherry Port Madeira Vermouth Brandy

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Organization is a human trait. This is most obvious in language, where objects and ideas are codified in words. However, producing a coherent, logical classification of wine based on either evolution or flavor seems hopeless. Wine covers too wide a range of beverages that have evolved over millennia; in various locations; under a diversity of environmental and cultural heritages; produced from many, distinctly different cultivars; and whose flavor is modified by multiple factors. Modern technical advances and understanding have improved wine quality, at the same time renewed interest in older techniques has resurfaced. The result is an eclectic mix of products, with little inherent commonality by which to organize a rational classification scheme. In its absence, wines have been organized around simple, easily detectable features. Traditionally, this means by color, presence or absence of an obvious effervescence, whether alcohol has been added during or after fermentation (fortification), and origin (geographic and/or varietal). Wine Tasting: A Professional Handbook, Second Edition Copyright # 2009 by Academic Press, Inc. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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Although this approach is simplistic, long use has given it familiarity and a sense of accreditation. It does provide the consumer with a crude idea of the wine’s sensory attributes. For example, white wines typically have a milder flavor, often with a fruity/floral aspect. In contrast, red wines tend to be more flavorful and astringent. They are rarely sweet or even semi-sweet, whereas whites may be. The association between anything sparkling and celebration is longstanding and one of the prime reasons why sparkling wines are grouped together in a special category. Identification of a fortified category also has a usage rationale. These wines are consumed in smaller quantities, either before or after a meal. These categorizations have also been used in levying taxes—sparkling and fortified being taxed at a higher rate than still wines. Designation by grape variety is typical outside Europe. It has particular benefit in that it indicates, regardless of geographic origin, the basic flavor traits that might be expected. In contrast, most European wines have traditionally been identified by regional origin, except in German-speaking regions. Here, varietal origin is usually clearly denoted. While this is now seemingly an oversight, local consumers in European countries were little concerned about varietal origin. All regional wines were made from the same, few, related cultivars, and the wines possessed a fairly consistent character. In addition, they were frequently the only wines available due to poor transport. Adequate differentiation could be based on vineyard or regional origin alone. Although designation by varietal name has much in its favor, its use may be limited by the various synonyms under which it may go in different countries or subregions. For example Syrah in France is Shiraz in Australia; Cannonau in Sardinia is Garnacha in Spain and Grenache, Alicante, or Carignane in France; Pinot noir in France is Blauerburgunder in Germany and Pinot nero in Italy; and Zinfandel in California is Primitivo in southern Italy and Crljenak kastelanski in Croatia. Regardless of varietal or regional designation, the consumer must have prior experience with these designations for them to be of benefit. Because most consumers seldom possess this degree of knowledge, designation by country of origin often gives the perception of confidence concerning quality or characteristics (even if unjustified). Color designation is another supposedly “safe” indicator. Regrettably, both give only a rough indication of the wine’s sensory attributes. Although many European wines carry geographic appellations that have become familiar, consistency of style is more an illusion than reality. In many regions, the wine is a blend from several cultivars. The proportional mix can change from producer to producer, as well as vary from year to year, depending on the vintage conditions and the views of the winemaker. In addition, with the spread and adoption of techniques from around the globe, regional distinction has blurred even further.

Still Table Wines

Geographic origin (appellation) is often subliminally assumed to guarantee quality. In reality, it simply is a certification of geographic origin. Even as a geographic indicator, appellation designation is a major hurdle to many consumers. Typically, the names bear no logical relationship one to another. For example, Pommard and Pauillac do not obviously suggest that the first is from Burgundy and the second from Bordeaux. Learning these appellations is often considered a right of passage to connoisseurship. However, wine shops simplify matters for the majority of purchasers by physically organizing their wines by country and subregion. In the New World, geographic designation is simply that. It is only occasionally associated with a readily distinguishable style—for example, Marborough Sauvignon blanc from New Zealand or ice wines from Canada. Most New World regions (and even wineries) produce a diversity of wines from many different grape varieties. Although not perfect, varietal origin is usually a better indicator of probable flavor characteristics than regional origin. The former tendency of naming New World wines after European regions has almost disappeared. This not only pleases producers in the named regions, but also removes a source of potential confusion. In addition, it no longer promotes recognition of appellations other than those from which the wine comes. For example, the generic use of “champagne” for “sparkling wines” has encouraged consumers to think of champagne as the standard against which all sparkling wines should be compared. This does benefit only champagne producers. With the increasing importance of wines from regions other than Europe, geographically based wine classifications are losing much of their former marketing advantage. Thus, the arrangement presented in the following sections is based primarily on stylistic differences. These have broader applicability but still require experience for effective use. Nonetheless, all but the broadest categories are of little value to those with minimal wine experience. This probably explains the popularity of wine columns that suggest best buys and annual wine compendia. These tips help the neophyte develop the experience to a point at which he or she can use wine categories to direct purchases.

STILL TABLE WINES Still table wines constitute the largest grouping of wines and correspondingly requires the most extensive number of subcategories (Table 7.1). Following tradition, this grouping is initially divided based on color, reflecting major differences in use, flavor, and production technique.

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Table 7.1 Categorization of Still Wines Based on Stylistic Differences A. White* Potential for Aging Well (often matured in oak cooperage)

Better When Consumed Young (seldom matured in oak cooperage) Varietal aroma atypical

Varietal aroma typical

Varietal aroma atypical

Varietal aroma typical

Trebbiano Muscadet Folle blanche Chasselas Aligote´

Mu¨ller-Thurgau Kerner Pinot grigio Chenin blanc Seyval blanc

Sauternes Vernaccia di San Gimignano Vin Santo

Riesling Chardonnay Sauvignon blanc Parellada Se´millon

B. Red* Better When Consumed Young

Potential for Aging Well

Varietal aroma atypical

Varietal aroma typical

Maturation in-tank traditional

Maturation in-barrel

Gamay Grenache Carignan Barbera

Dolcetto Grignolino Baco noir Lambrusco

Tempranillo Sangiovese Nebbiolo Garrafeira

Cabernet Sauvignon Pinot noir Syrah Zinfandel

C. Rose´* Dry Tavel Cabernet rose´ White Zinfandel Some Blush wines

Sweet Mateus Pink Chablis Rosato some Blush wines

*Representative examples in italics refer to the names of grape cultivars used in the wine’s production.

Wines possessing a distinctive varietal aroma generally increase in flavor complexity during the first few years of bottle aging. Correspondingly, they are more highly regarded and command a higher price. Depending on their geographic origin, the label may or may not indicate varietal origin. A recent trend in the New World is a return to the former European tradition— naming wines without denoting varietal origin on the front label. Well-known examples are Opus One, Dominus, Conundrum, and Grange Hermitage. This naming may reflect their desire to indicate that they stand alone, not being just another varietal wine. As briefly noted in Chapter 8, the most significant factor in wine production is the winemaker. How the wine develops depends on decisions the winemaker makes. However, unless one knows the winemaker and his or her stylistic preferences, this knowledge is of little help in purchase decisions. Beyond the winemaker, the grape variety or varieties set limits to the sensory attributes of a wine. It is the wool, whereas the winemaker is

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the weaver/tailor and the winery equipment the loom. Thus, in a fundamental sense, wine classification should be based on the cultivar(s) fermented. Unfortunately, many grape cultivars do not, or are not known to, possess a readily distinguishable varietal aroma. This may reflect only a historic accident, leading to their not having been grown widely enough, or their characteristics insufficiently studied in comparison to so-called premium cultivars. Some of the aromatic attributes of the more widely cultivated wine-grape varieties are briefly described in the following sections. Examples of other cultivars that could significantly expand the flavor palate of wine include Cayuga White, Ehrenfelser, Fiano, Parellada, Rhoditis, Symphony, Traminette, and Torrontes as whites, and Chambourcin, Dolcetto, Graciano, Grignolino, Lambrusco, Limberger, Malvasia Nero, Negro Amaro, and Touriga National for reds. This is no more than a personal short list of potential vinous gems still to be brought to broader attention.

White Cultivars Chardonnay is probably the most recognized white wine grape. It not only generates wines with an appealing fruit fragrance, but also tends to do well under diverse climatic conditions. In addition to producing fine table wines, it is an important component in the blending of one of the most well-known sparkling wines, champagne. Under optimal conditions, the wine develops aspects reminiscent of various fruits, frequently said to resemble apple, peach, or melon. Mu ¨ ller-Thurgau is possibly the most widely grown of modern V. vinifera cultivars, constituting about 30% of German hectarage. It is the progeny of a cross between Riesling and Madeleine Royale or Chasselas de Courtillier. Its mild acidity, subtle fruity fragrance, as well as early maturity make it ideal for producing light wines in cooler climates. Muscat blanc is one of many members of the Muscat family of cultivars. Their aroma is so distinctive that it is described in terms of the cultivar name—muscaty. Because of the intense flavor, slight bitterness, and tendency to oxidize, Muscat grapes have been used most commonly in producing dessert wines. The reduced bitterness and lower oxidation susceptibility of Symphony, a new Muscat cultivar, permit the production of dryer wines with better aging potential. Moscato bianco is the primary cultivar used in the flourishing sparkling wine industry located in Asti, Italy. Parellada is a variety distinctive to the Catalonian region of Spain. It produces an aroma that is apple- to citrus-like, occasionally showing hints of licorice or cinnamon.

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Pinot gris and Pinot blanc are color mutants of Pinot noir. They are both cultivated throughout the cooler climatic regions of Europe for the production of dry, botrytized, and sparkling wines. Pinot gris yields a richer, more fragrant wine, with aspects of passion fruit, whereas Pinot blanc is more subtly fruity, with suggestions of hard cheese. Riesling is without doubt Germany’s most highly regarded grape variety. It produces fresh, aromatic, well-aged wines, which can vary from dry to sweet. Its complex floral aroma, commonly reminiscent of roses and pine, has made it acclaimed throughout central Europe and much of the world. Outside of Germany, its largest plantings appear to be in California and Australia. Sauvignon blanc is the most important of white Carmenet varieties in Bordeaux, and the major white cultivar in the upper Loire Valley. It has become popular in California and New Zealand in recent years. Often, its aroma shows elements of green peppers, as well as a herbaceous aspect, especially in cooler climates. Better clones possess a subtly floral character. Traminer is a distinctively aromatic cultivar grown throughout the cooler regions of Europe and much of the world. Although occasionally possessing a rose´ blush in the skin, it produces a white wine. It is fermented to produce both dry and sweet styles, depending on regional preferences. Intensely fragrant, rose´-colored (Gewu ¨ rztraminer) clones generally possess an aroma resembling lichi fruit. Viognier has become popular in the USA and Australia, following lanˆne Valley since the phylloxera epidemic of the late guishing in the Rho 1800s. The wine matures quickly and is characterized by the development of a fragrant, muscat-like peach to apricot aroma. Viura is the main white variety cultivated in Rioja. In cooler areas, it produces a fresh wine possessing a subtle floral aroma with aspects of citron. After extended aging in large wood cooperage, it develops a golden color and rich butterscotch to banana fragrance that characterizes the traditional white wines of Rioja.

Red Cultivars Cabernet Sauvignon is the most well-known member of the Carmenet family of grape cultivars. Its renown comes from its involvement in most Bordeaux wines (and equivalents). Other members of the family include Merlot and Malbec. Their inclusion in Bordeaux blends moderates the tannin content donated primarily by Cabernet Sauvignon. The tendency of Merlot to mature more quickly has made it a popular substitute for

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Cabernet Sauvignon. Under optimal conditions, Cabernet Sauvignon yields a fragrant wine possessing a black-currant aroma. Under less favorable conditions, it generates a predominant bell-pepper aroma. Cabernet Sauvignon probably is the offspring of an accidental crossing between grapes related to, if not identical with, Cabernet Franc and Sauvignon blanc. Gamay noir is the primary, white-juiced, Gamay cultivar. Its reputation has risen in association with the popularity of Beaujolais wines. Crushed and fermented by standard procedures, Gamay produces a light red wine with few distinctive characteristics. However, when processed by carbonic maceration, it yields a distinctively fruity wine. Most of these features come from the grape-berry fermentation phase of carbonic maceration. Nebbiolo is generally acknowledged as producing the most highly regarded red wine in northwestern Italy. With traditional vinification, it produces a wine high in acid and tannin content that requires years to mellow. The color has a tendency to oxidize rapidly. Common aroma descriptors include tar, violets, and truffles. Pinot noir is the most famous Noirien grape variety. It is particularly environmentally sensitive, producing its typical fragrance (beets, peppermint, or cherries) only occasionally. The cultivar exists as a varied collection of distinctive clones. Usually, the more prostrate, lower-yielding clones produce the more flavorful wines. The upright, higher-yielding clones are more suited to the production of rose´ and sparkling wines. The South African cultivar, Pinotage, is a cross between Pinot noir and Cinsaut. Sangiovese is an ancient cultivar consisting of many distinctive clones, grown extensively throughout central Italy. It is most well known for the light- to full-bodied wines from Chianti, but also produces many fine red wines elsewhere in Italy. Under optimal conditions, it yields a wine possessing an aroma considered reminiscent of cherries, violets, and licorice. Sangiovese is also labeled under local synonyms, such as Brunello and Prugnolo, used in producing Brunello di Montalcino and Vino Nobile di Montepulciano wines, respectively. Shiraz (Syrah in France) has become famous for yielding a deep red tannic wine with long aging potential in Australia. This has helped Syrah ˆne Valley of France. Its wines regain the prominence it once held in the Rho are peppery with aspects reminiscent of violets, raspberries, and currants. Tempranillo is probably the finest Spanish red-grape variety. Under favorable conditions, it yields a delicate, subtle wine that ages well. It is the most important red cultivar in Rioja. Outside Spain, it is primarily grown in Argentina. It usually goes under the name Valdepen ˜ as in

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California. Tempranillo generates an aroma distinguished by a complex, berry-jam fragrance, with nuances of citrus and incense. Zinfandel is extensively grown in California. Its precise origin is unknown, but is clearly related to several Austrian, Croatian, and Hungar` et al., 2008). This variety occurs under a variety of synoian varieties (Calo nyms, such as Primitivo in Italy and Crljenak kastelanski in Croatia. Zinfandel is used to produce a wide range of wines, from ports to light blush wines. In rose´ versions, it shows a raspberry fragrance, whereas full-bodied red wines possess rich berry flavors.

Production Procedures Cultivar properties set limits on the attributes the wine may possess. However, these properties are often markedly modified by the growing conditions, as well as grape health and maturity at harvest. They can also be modified and transformed by the production procedures chosen by the winemaker. Occasionally, the fermentation conditions have more effect on the characteristics of the finished wine than the cultivar. Because production procedures have often arisen independently over centuries, there is no evolutionary logic by which they should be organized. For simplicity, they have been grouped relative to their use, either before, during, or after alcoholic fermentation. Many procedures are designed primarily to adjust for deficits in grape or wine attributes. Examples are clarification procedures, the addition of enzymes, hyperoxidation, acidity adjustments, and chaptalization. Since these inherently do not result in stylistic changes, they are not discussed here. What are noted in the following sections are those that principally affect the wine’s stylistic characteristics.

Prior to Fermentation Before the development of efficient stemmer-crushers in the late 1800s, some grapes remained whole throughout much if not all of the fermentation process. Before breaking open and releasing their juice, they underwent a grape-berry fermentation. Although the alcohol content rose to only about 2%, it activated the production of distinctive aromatic compounds. If the grape clusters were collected and piled together without crushing, most of the grapes underwent grape-cell fermentation. This is in essence what occurs in the process now termed carbonic maceration (Fig. 7.1). It is how Beaujolais wines are produced and why they possess a distinctive fragrance. Although occasionally used to produce white wines, this procedure is primarily employed in the production of red wines.

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FIGURE 7.1 Flow diagram of carbonic maceration wine production. Grapes harvested in the heat of the day and whole clusters dumped into wide shallow fermentor

Top of vat sealed loosely and air flushed out with CO2 (optional), grapes are allowed to self-ferment at temperatures reaching 30⬚ C or above

Some berries break under the weight of those above them, the juice released begins yeast-induced fermentation

Free-run juice/wine drained off

Remaining grapes pressed to obtain the press-run fraction

Ferment fractions separately at cooler temperatures of cellar and blend as desired for style

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Occasionally, harvested grapes are stored whole for a period of postmaturation. For the production of certain white wines, the grapes are left to partially dry in the sun. This increases their relative sugar content, enhancing their alcohol producing potential. In some locations, this has resulted in the production of fortified wines. A classic example is the sherry-like wine from Montilla, Spain. Partial drying has also been used in the production of red wines. Here, however, the grapes are usually stored under cool, shaded conditions. For the production of old-style Chianti wines, part of the harvest was so stored. These grapes were subsequently crushed and added to the wine derived from the majority of the harvest, inducing a second fermentation. For reasons that are still unclear, this technique produces a lighter wine that can be enjoyed early. The procedure, called governo, produced the jug Chianti that for decades made it synonymous with easy drinking wine. Partially drying grape clusters or their wings (the smaller side branch of a cluster) are also occasionally used in Veneto and Lombardy, Italy (Fig. 7.2). During the slow drying and over-maturation, nascent Botrytis infections may reactivate (Plate 7.1, Usseglio-Tomasset et al., 1980). They generate chemical changes that resemble those that occur during the noble-rotting of white grapes in the vineyard. These include marked increases in glycerol, gluconic acid, and sugar content. Surprisingly, the anthocyanin content is not as oxidized as might be expected. Botrytis has the potential to produce a powerful polyphenol oxidase, laccase. Thus, although the color may be more brickish than usual for a red wine of equivalent age, it is not brown. Nonetheless, the sharp tulip and daffodil odor of recioto wines, such as Amarone, probably derives from phenols oxidized by laccase. Typically, harvested grapes are destemmed and crushed shortly after harvest. The crush is then either allowed to ferment directly (red wines) or kept cool for flavor extraction for up to 24 h prior to pressing (white wines). Occasionally, white grapes are pressed whole (without prior destemming and crushing). This is typical in the production of sparkling and botrytized wines, but is also receiving renewed interest from dry, white wine producers. Its primary benefit is to minimize the extraction of tannins or undesirable constituents found in the skins. Depending on the character of the desired wine, it can also limit the extraction of flavorants. Before pressing, the juice (or wine) is normally allowed to run free under gravity (free-run). Extra juice (or wine) is subsequently extracted by pressing the remainder (called pomace). There are many methods of extracting the remaining juice or wine (press-run). The method and number of successive pressings affect the release of flavorants, anthocyanin pigments, and tannic substances. It is up to the winemaker to decide what method is most appropriate for the style desired and to determine what proportion of free- to

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FIGURE 7.2 Flow diagram of recioto wine production.

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press-run juice (or wine) should be used in the finished wine. These procedures affect the attributes of the wine but do not modify the wine’s style as the procedures noted previously. As noted, crushed white grapes may be left in contact with the seeds and skins for several hours after crushing. The process, termed maceration, helps extract grape flavorants, most of which are located in the skin. To limit the growth of microbes during this period, maceration is usually conducted at cool temperatures. The same procedure may also be used in the production of rose´ wines, but this time to limit the extraction of anthocyanins. Cool maceration is also being used with some red wines, notably Pinot noir. In this instance, maceration may last several days. It has been associated with improved coloration and flavor. Why coloration is improved is unclear, but may be associated with the extraction of other phenolics. Because Pinot noir wines tend to be relatively poorly colored, the extra phenolics may help stabilize them from oxidative color loss.

During Fermentation Conditions during fermentation tend to have more significance to the stylistic characteristics of red wine than white wines. This undoubtedly results from differences in the length of contact time between the seeds and skins (pomace) and juice during fermentation. For standard red wines, this duration can vary from 2 to 5 days. Shorter periods are usually associated with more active mixing of the fermenting juice and pomace. Without periodic mixing, most of the pomace floats to the surface, forming a cap. The temperature and alcohol content in the cap can be quite different from that of the main volume of the ferment. Mixing limits or eliminates this difference, as well as facilitates the extraction of anthocyanins and flavorants from the skins. In the past, when mixing of the juice and pomace was less efficient, it was common for wineries to leave the pomace in contact with the fermenting juice until fermentation was complete. Depending on the size of the fermentor, winery temperature, and the temperature of the grapes entering the winery, fermentation might take from a few days up to several weeks. The latter often extracted excessive amounts of tannins, requiring fining to reduce, and prolonged aging, before the wine lost its extreme astringency. Few wineries currently use prolonged skin contact, preferring shorter, more efficient, gentle mixing to extract intense color and rich flavor, without the high tannin contents of old. By the judicious selection of skin contact time, mixing, and blending of the free-run with press-run fractions, the winemaker can significantly alter the style of the wine, from light and fruity to heavy and jammy. Fermentation temperature is another factor winemakers use to adjust the style of their wines. It can be used in the production of both red and

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white wines, but most commonly with white wines. With few exceptions, red wines begin their fermentation at above 20
C, rising up into the midto high-20s. Cooling is employed if fermentation is too rapid and the temperature approaches that which might kill the yeasts. The higher fermentation temperatures used for red wines favor the improved extraction of anthocyanins. For white wines, winemakers frequently select a temperature relating to the style they wish to produce. For more fruity, lighter wines, temperatures may be held at about 15
C. This is frequently the case for wines produced from grapes that are fairly neutral in aroma and are intended for early consumption. For wines meant to be stored for several years before opening, higher temperatures are preferred. These wines generally are more full flavored and produced from grapes with more distinctive aromas. Cool temperatures may also be specifically chosen to slow fermentation, inducing its premature cessation, leaving the wine with residual sugar. Choice of spontaneous versus induced fermentation and the selection of yeast strain are other techniques of directing stylistic properties. This is clearly the case with neutral-flavored grapes, where most of the wine’s aromatic character comes from yeast metabolism. Thus, wines can be given a fruity aspect they would not otherwise possess. Inoculation with a particular yeast strain can also avoid the production of undesirable concentrations of hydrogen sulfide or acetic acid. Spontaneous fermentations allow a greater diversity of yeast species to influence the flavor profile of the wine. Whether this is beneficial or detrimental depends largely on personal preference and good luck. Malolactic fermentation is another process that can subtly (or occasionally not so subtly) modify wine character. Originally, this bacterial fermentation was used to reduce wine acidity and the perceived astringency of red wines. Subsequently, malolactic fermentation came to be viewed as a tool in structuring a wine’s properties. Relative to flavor modification, malolactic fermentation is most well recognized for its donation of a buttery attribute. Moreover, different strains of Oenococcus oeni, the principal bacterium inducing malolactic fermentation, produce additional constituents that can variously influence a wine’s character. Examples are the production of acetic and succinic acids, as well as a variety of higher alcohols, acetaldehyde, and ethyl acetate. Malolactic fermentation can also modify perceived bitterness, fruitiness, and overall quality.

After Fermentation Wines designed for early consumption are usually aged in stainless steel tanks. This is especially so for white and rose´ wines, where maturation in oak cooperage may supply flavors that mask the wine’s delicate fragrance.

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However, this tendency is largely dictated by habituation or tradition. For example, varieties such as Riesling and Sauvignon blanc are seldom aged in oak, whereas Chardonnay and Pinot grigio are typically matured in oak. The character transferred from oak cooperage varies depending on how the wood was seasoned, how it was heated during cooperage production, the size of the cooperage, the duration of maturation, and the number of times it has stored wines. The species of oak and the conditions of growth also influence the flavors donated. Thus, the oak aspect (regardless of intensity) may express features resembling wood to coconut fragrances, vanilla notes, a roasted or toasty character, caramel-like aspects, or smoky overtones. These features provide the winemaker with a veritable palate of flavors from which to choose. However, this variation can make the oak aspect of a wine difficult to recognize and characterize. In addition, oak flavors change as much during in-bottle aging as do the sensory attributes of the wine itself. Another procedure that can be used by the winemaker to adjust the stylistic attributes of a wine is sur lies maturation. This old procedure is currently receiving much renewed attention worldwide. It typically involves delaying racking (removing wine from the yeast lees that settle during maturation). The storage cooperage of preference is small oak barrels (225 liters). To limit the production of reduced sulfur off-odors originating from the lees, the wine and lees are manually stirred to permit the absorption of oxygen. The procedure is viewed as a means of enhancing the wine’s flavor complexity.

White Wine Styles White wines, in some ways, come in a wider diversity of styles than red wines. The major production options leading to these styles are outlined in Fig. 7.3. Particularly popular are dry wines possessing a clean, refreshing taste and fruity bouquet. This is often derogatively termed the “international style.” Cool fermentation favors its development by enhancing both the production and retention of fruit esters (ethyl esters of low-molecular-weight fatty acids). These fermentation byproducts occur in excess of their equilibrium constants in young wine. As they hydrolyze back to their alcohol and acid constituents, the wine loses its fruitiness. Storage under cool conditions slows this hydrolysis, helping to retain the fragrance donated by these esters. Because fruit esters are produced primarily by yeast metabolism, grape variety has little effect on their production. Consequently, choice of yeast strain is particularly important when producing white wine from cultivars lacking a marked or distinctive varietal aroma.

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FIGURE 7.3

Classification of white wines based on basic production options.

Only a comparatively few white grape varieties are noted for their aging potential, for example Riesling, Chardonnay, and Sauvignon blanc. As the aroma fades, it is often replaced by a pleasing aged bouquet. The chemical nature of this change is largely unknown. Most white wines are dry, as befits their primary use as a food beverage. The fresh, crisp acidity achieves balance in combination with food, enhancing food flavors and reducing the fishy character of some sea foods. The lower flavor intensity of most white wines also suits their combination with relatively mild-flavored foods. Premium quality white sweet wines also have bracing acidity. It provides the balance they otherwise would lack. The lighter of these semi-sweet wines are often taken cold, and by themselves, as a “sipping” wine. In contrast, the sweeter versions typically replace dessert. Consequently, the term “dessert wine” refers more to their substitution for, rather than compatibility with, dessert. Although the presence of a varietal aroma is important to most premium white wines, a few are characterized by the loss of their varietal aroma. A classic example involves “noble-rotted” grapes (Fig. 7.4, Plate 7.3). Under a unique set of autumn conditions, infection by Botrytis cinerea leads to juice concentration and degradation of most varietal impact compounds. This loss is replaced with a distinctive botrytized fragrance. Wine derived from these grapes has a rich, luscious, apricoty, honey-like aroma. Examples of botrytized wines are the beerenausleses and trochenbeerenausleses of Germany and Austria, the Tokai aszus of Hungary, and the Sauternes

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FIGURE 7.4

Flow diagram of botrytized wine production.

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of France. In the New World, they may be variously called botrytized or selected-later-harvest wines. Additional styles that age well, without the benefit of a marked varietal character, are ice wines (eisweins) (Plates 7.4, 7.5, 7.6) and vino santo (partially oxidized, sweet wine). Figure 7.5 outlines the procedures leading to the major, sweet, white wine styles. As noted, recognizing the varietal aroma of a wine is often difficult. Factors such as vintage, fermentation, and maturation conditions can minimize or modify the wine’s varietal character. The most readily identifiable are varieties depending primarily on monoterpene alcohols (e.g., Muscat, Viognier, Torrontes, Gewu ¨ rztraminer) or several labrusca cultivars (e.g., Niagara, Glenora). Table 7.2 provides a list of descriptors often thought to characterize particular white grape cultivars.

FIGURE 7.5

Classification of sweet white wines based on production method.

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Table 7.2 Aroma Descriptive Terms for Several Varietal White Wines* Grape Variety

Country of Origin

Aroma Descriptors

Chardonnay Chenin blanc Garganega Gewu¨rztraminer Muscat Parellada Pinot Gris Riesling Rousanne Sauvignon blanc Se´millon Torbato Viognier Viura

France France Spain Italy Greece Spain France Germany France France France Italy France Spain

apple, melon, peach, almond camellia, guava, waxy fruity, almond litchi, citronella, spicy muscaty citrus, green apple, licorice fruity, romano cheese rose, pine, fruity peach bell pepper, floral, herbaceous fig, melon green apple peach, apricot vanilla, butterscotch, banana

*Note that the varietal aroma frequently has but a faint resemblance to the fragrance of the descriptor. Descriptors often act as anchor terms verbally representing the memory for the varietal aroma.

Red Wine Styles Modern red wines are almost exclusively dry. The absence of detectable sweetness is consistent with their use as a food beverage. The bitter and astringent compounds characteristic of most red wines bind with food proteins, producing a balance that otherwise would not develop for years. In contrast, well-aged red wines are more appreciated alone. Their diminished tannin content does not require food to develop smoothness. In addition, their subtly complex bouquet is more apparent in the absence of food flavors. Most red wines that age well are matured in oak cooperage (Fig. 7.6). Storage in small oak cooperage (225 liters) usually speeds wine maturation and adds complementary oaky, vanilla, or spicy/smoky flavors. Following maturation, the wines generally receive additional in-bottle aging, either at the winery or by the consumer. Where less oak character is desired, used barrels or large (1000 to 10,000 liter) oak tanks may be employed. Barrel aging appears to accentuate the varietal character of several major red cultivars, such as Cabernet Sauvignon, whereas tank maturation tends to moderate varietal distinctiveness. Alternatively, the wine may be matured in inert tanks to avoid oxidation or the uptake of accessory flavors. Production procedures used in red wine making often depends on the consumer group for whom the wine is intended. Wines expected to be

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FIGURE 7.6

Oak maturation options.

consumed early tend to have mild flavors, whereas those requiring extended aging (to develop their full flavor potential) are unpleasantly tannic and bitter when young. Beaujolais nouveau is a prime example of a wine destined for early consumption. Its production by carbonic maceration and the inclusion of little press-wine give it a distinctive fresh, fruity flavor. The early drinkability of the wine (within a few weeks of fermentation) comes at the cost of short shelf-life. Nouveau wines seldom retain their typical attributes for more than twelve months. Loss of appeal often begins within six months. In contrast, premium Cabernet Sauvignon and Nebbiolo wines illustrate the other extreme. They may require one to several decades before they develop a smooth mouth-feel and refined bouquet. Some of the basic options in red wine production are illustrated in Fig. 7.7 The reasons for these differences in aging potential are poorly understood. Features that favor fruit maturation, such as adequate temperature and sun exposure, moisture and nutrient conditions, and fruit/leaf ratio, are clearly important. Vinification at moderate temperatures in the presence of the seeds and skins, followed by skillful maturation, is also essential. Nevertheless, these techniques alone cannot explain why most red cultivars do not produce wines that age well, even following optimal processing. Part of the answer possibly relates to the types and ratios of anthocyanins and tannins. Red cultivars vary markedly in their anthocyanin and tannic composition (see Bourzeix et al., 1983). Retention of sufficient acidity and the judicious uptake of oxygen during maturation favor color retention. Distinctive aromatic constituents, such as the methoxypyrazines, eventually

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FIGURE 7.7

Classification of red wines based on basic production options.

Still Table Wines

oxidize, isomerize, hydrolyze, or polymerize to less aromatic compounds. They may be the origin of the cigar box, leather, mushroomy scents that characterize the aged bouquets of the best premium red wines. Although most red wines owe much of their character to the cultivar(s) used in their production, some owe most of the character to their production technique. Notable examples were noted earlier. Carbonic maceration (Fig. 7.1) has several advantages. It generates a wine with a distinctive and very fruity fragrance rarely found elsewhere (except with Limberger wines). It also permits the wine to be released from the winery for consumption shortly after production. Its disadvantages include the extensive use of fermentor volume, special fermentation conditions, requirement for manual grape harvesting, and the wine’s relatively low price. The advantage of recioto production (Fig. 7.2) comes from the concentration of flavors and the production of a distinctive, oxidized, phenolic odor. It donates a character that is unique and noticeably different from the same wine produced by standard procedures (e.g., Valpolicella della Amarone versus Valpolicella). The emphasis often placed on a wine’s aging potential generates questions regarding when wines should be consumed. This, however, reflects a misconception that wines are best at some particular stage in maturation. In reality, wine progresses through a spectrum of aromatic changes, many of which are equally but distinctly pleasurable. The aging question also relates to how the wine is consumed (with a meal or by itself) and whether the consumer prefers the fresh fruity aroma of a young wine; the richer, more complex attributes of mature wines; or the milder, subtle bouquet of a fully aged premium red. It is more appropriate to refer to a wine’s plateau than to its peak (Fig. 7.8). One of the major features that distinguish superior wines is the duration of the plateau. Wines with little aging potential have comparatively short plateaus, whereas premium wines ideally have plateaus that can span decades. Because most grape varieties are still cultivated locally, close to their presumed origin, limited information is available on their winemaking potential. New World experience has been largely restricted to a few cultivars from France and Germany—reflecting the biases of those who started vineyards in former colonial regions. Consequently, the qualities of the extensive number of cultivars that characterize Italy, Spain, and Portugal, let alone those from Eastern Europe, are essentially untapped. How many varietal diamonds await discovery only time will tell. This does not negate the qualities of the cultivars that provide the majority of the world’s varietally designated wines. It does indicate, though, the limited aroma base available for producing most wines. Sadly, the self-perpetuating cycle of

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FIGURE 7.8 Diagrammatic representation of the changes in aromatic character associated with aging in (a) Nouveau-type wine (e.g., Beaujolais nouveau), (B) standard quality red wine (e.g., generic red Bordeaux), and (C) premium quality red wine (e.g., cru red Bordeaux) (, fermentation bouquet; ----, aroma; . . . . . . ., aged bouquet).

A

B

C

consumer, critic, and producer conservatism limits the more extensive investigation of other varieties. Nonetheless, more adventuresome winemakers are investigating both largely forgotten indigenous cultivars, as well as newly developed varieties. Thus, there is increasing hope that consumers may soon not depend so much on variations-on-a-theme, but sample new and pleasurable sensory experiences. As noted relative to white wines, aroma expression is often indistinct. Clear demonstration of a varietal fragrance depends on optimal grape growing, winemaking, and storage conditions. Under these conditions, the aroma characteristics of several red cultivars are approximately as noted in Table 7.3.

Still Table Wines

Table 7.3 Aroma Descriptive Terms for Several Varietal Red Wines* Grape Variety

Country of Origin

Aroma Descriptors

Aleatico Barbera Cabernet Franc Cabernet Sauvignon Corvina Dolcetto Gamay noir Grignolino Merlot Nebbiolo Nerello Mascalea Pinot noir Sangiovese Syrah/Shiraz Tempranillo Touriga Nacional Zinfandel

Italy Italy France France Italy Italy France Italy France Italy Italy France Italy France Spain Portugal Italy

cherries, violets, spice berry jam bell pepper blackcurrant, bell pepper berry (tulip/daffodil in Amarone) quince, almond kirsch, raspberry (after carbonic maceration) clove blackcurrant violet, rose, truffle, tar violet cherry, raspberry, beet, mint cherry, violet, licorice currant, violet, berry jam, pepper citrus, incense, berry jam, truffle cherry, mint raspberry, berry jam, pepper

*Note that the varietal aroma frequently has but a faint resemblance to the fragrance of the descriptor. Descriptors often act as anchor terms verbally representing the memory for the varietal aroma.

Rose´ Wine Styles Except for sparkling rose´s, which are made by blending a small amount of red wine into the base white wine, still rose´s are usually produced from red grapes given short maceration. This limits anthocyanin uptake, generating a slight pinkish coloration. Frequently, this process involves a gentle crushing of the grapes, followed by contact between the juice and pomace for between 12 and 24 h under cool conditions (to delay the onset of fermentation). The juice is run off and fermented similarly to a white wine. Alternatively, the grapes may be pressed whole to limit color extraction. Where fruit coloration is low, the grapes may be crushed and fermented with the skins until sufficient pigment has been extracted. Alternatively, pectinase enzymes may be added to the crush to enhance color extraction as well as encourage flavor liberation from the skins. Subsequently, the juice is fermented without further skin contact. Occasionally, rose´ production can be a byproduct of red wine production. This typically occurs in poorer years, when there is insufficient color to generate a typical red wine. The technique, called saigne´e, involves drawing off a portion of the fermenting juice, which is used to produce a rose´. The remaining juice continues its fermentation with the seed and skins, achieving a more intense color than would have been possible otherwise.

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Although short maceration limits anthocyanin uptake (achieving the desired color), it even more markedly restricts tannin extraction. Thus, rose´s tend to show poor color stability (much of the color being derived from unstable free anthocyanins, not the more stable tannin-anthocyanin polymers typical of red wines). Despite their relatively low anthocyanin concentration, these phenolics still appear to act as important antioxidants (Murat et al., 2003). For example, they protect 3-mercaptohexan-1-ol from oxidation (and rapid loss of this essential ingredient to the fruity fragrance of several rose´ wines). Phenethyl acetate and isoamyl acetate are also significant contributors to the fruity flavor of many rose´s (Murat, 2005). Rose´s have the stigma of lacking aging potential. Correspondingly, they have never been taken seriously by connoisseurs. Furthermore, rose´s are often denigrated for possessing some of the bitterness, but not the flavor of red wines, while not exhibiting the fresh crispness or fruitiness typical of white wines. To mask the bitterness, many rose´s are processed semisweet, and mildly carbonated to increase their appeal as a cool refreshing drink. Both features augment their negative connotation among wine aficionados. To counter the unfavorable image frequently associated with the name rose´, some ostensively rose´ wines are now termed “blush” wines. Despite the negative connotations, there has been a recent and marked upsurge in rose´ popularity. Most red grape varieties can be used in producing rose´ wines. However, except for saigne´e versions, it is not economically sound to use premium cultivars in the production of rose´s. Of all cultivars, Grenache is probably the favorite. In California, Zinfandel is also popular for rose´ (blush) production. Some Pinot noir wines are so pale as to be de facto rose´s, notably the Spatburgunder (Pinot noir) wines of Germany.

SPARKLING WINES Sparkling wines derive much of their distinctive character from their high carbon dioxide content (often 600 kPa—six times atmospheric). Its prickling, tactile sensation is central to the style. The cold serving temperature further accentuates the pleasing pain sensation generated by the dissolved gas. In addition, the bubbles generate a textural feel. Flat sparkling wine (like decarbonated soft drinks or soda water) loses its appeal. For most sparkling wines, the base wines are chosen to be nearly colorless, relatively low in alcohol content (to avoid the final alcohol content exceeding 12%), minimal varietal aroma (favoring expression of a sur lies-derived, toasty aspect), and relatively acidic (to heighten the flavor, as citric acid does to fish).

Sparkling Wines

Typically, sparkling wines are classified by production procedure (Fig. 7.9) and flavor characteristics (Table 7.4). Most derive their effervescence from trapping carbon dioxide, generated during a second, yeast fermentation. Although definitive, this classification system seldom denotes clear sensory differences. For example, both standard and transfer methods can produce dry to semi-dry versions. Differences arise primarily from the duration of the sur-lies-like maturation following the second fermentation. Yeast contact releases compounds that are critical to the development of the distinctive fragrance, described as toasty. Prolonged yeast contact (typically 1 year, but occasionally 3 or more years) also favors the release of mannoproteins. These yeast cell-wall degradation products not only entrap flavorants (releasing them when the wine is in the glass), but also favor the production of a delicate but abundant effervescence. This involves the production of multiple chains of minute bubbles, as well as the mousse that forms in the center of the glass and around the meniscus. Additional differences in character arise from the cultivars and conditions used in preparing the base wine. This is particularly marked in the production of some Charmat-produced wines, for example, Asti Spumante. The use of Muscato d’Asti donates the characteristic, marked, muscat aroma of Asti Spumante, while premature termination of fermentation gives it its sweet finish. The Charmat process is also extensively used in the production of many other Italian wines, many of which may be produced in dry, sweet (amabile), or slightly sparkling (frizzante) versions. The most well known outside Italy are Proscecco (white) and Lambrusco (red). Occasionally, these are produced by adding grape must to finished wine and inducing a second, in-bottle fermentation. With red versions, the second fermentation is often incomplete, producing a pe´tillant wine with mild sweetness. Many sparkling wines in Germany (Sekt) are (or were) produced using the Charmat method. The predominant use of the traditional (champagne) method largely reflects consumer image. All three standard procedures employ a second, yeast fermentation to produce the carbon dioxide. Assuming similar quality base wines, the resultant wines should be very similar to identical. The traditional and transfer processes are identical up until disgorging (Fig. 7.9). In the traditional process, the wine remains in the bottle in which the second fermentation took place. In the transfer process, the wine is discharged into a pressurized tank. The wine is filtered (to remove the lees), transferred into new bottles, and restoppered. Other than avoiding the expense of riddling and minimizing any bottle-to-bottle variation, there are no published data indicating any sensory difference accruing from the choice of procedure. The basic disadvantage of the transfer process is the expense of purchasing the pressurized tanks into which the wine is discharged, prior to eliminating

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FIGURE 7.9

Flow diagram of the three principal methods of sparkling wine production.

Sparkling Wines

Table 7.4 Sparkling-Type Wines With Added Flavors

Without Added Flavors

Fruit Flavored

Highly Aromatic

Subtle Flavor

Carbonated

Muscat Based, Sweet

Crackling/Carbonated

Traditional Style, Dry/sweet

Coolers

Asti

Perlwein Lambrusco Vinho Verde

Champagne Cava Spumante Sekt

the yeast sediment. Automation of the riddling step, required in the traditional method, has largely eliminated the financial savings that formerly favored the transfer method. Riddling transfers the lees to the bottle neck, prior to ejection during disgorging. The Charmat process uses a specially designed fermentation tank that can withstand more than the six atmospheres of pressure that develops during the second fermentation. At the end of the maturation period, the wine is filtered (as in the transfer method) before bottling and corking. Its expense involves both the pressurized tanks and the controls needed to avoid the development of a highly reduced environment in the accumulated yeast sediment. The latter could generate reduced sulfur odors. Properties considered appropriate for the majority of dry sparkling wines are outlined in Table 7.5 Carbonation (incorporating carbon dioxide under pressure) is the least expensive method of producing sparkling wine. However, its primary use in the soft drink industry and in the production of flavored pe´tillant wines has given the process a negative connotation with connoisseurs. Although carbonation obviates the presence of a toasty aspect, it can accentuate the varietal aroma of the wine (or any faults the wine may possess). Absence of yeast contact also minimizes the extraction of mannoproteins. This tends to limit the production of the fine effervescence so desired in sparkling wines. Although this aspect is critical to aficionados, most consumers probably would not notice the difference—attention is usually directed toward celebration, not the attributes of the wine. Sparkling wines are predominantly white, due to difficulties posed by the presence of phenolics in red wine. Phenolics not only suppress yeast action, as the pressure builds up during the second fermentation (and, therefore, limiting CO2 production), but also favor gushing when the bottle is opened. To partially circumvent these problems, most rose´ sparkling wines are

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Table 7.5 Desired Attributes for Most Sparkling Wines Appearance 1. Brilliantly clear. 2. Pale straw-yellow to bright gold. 3. Slow prolonged release of carbon dioxide that produces many, long, continuous chains of minute bubbles. 4. Bubbles mound on the surface in the center of the glass (mousse) and collect around the edges of the glass (chordon de mousse). Fragrance 1. Presence of a complex subtle bouquet that shows a hint of toastiness. 2. Subdued varietal character (to avoid masking the subtle bouquet). 3. Possess a long finish. 4. Absence of atypical or grape-like aspects. Taste 1. Bubbles that explode in the mouth, producing a tingling, prickling sensation on the tongue. 2. Possess a zestful acidity without tartness. 3. Presence of a clean, lingering, after-taste. 4. Well-balanced. 5. Absence of a noticeable astringency or bitterness.

produced by blending a small amount of red wine into the cuve´e. Sparkling red wines are usually carbonated and possess a reduced carbon dioxide content (to minimize gushing). Extensive blending is used in the production of sparkling wines. This process usually involves combining wines from many vineyards, as well as several vintages and cultivars. Only in superior years do all the base wines come from a single vintage. Blending not only minimizes sensory deficiencies in the base wines, but also tends to accentuate their individual qualities. Examples of cultivars used are Parellada, Xarel-lo, and Macabeo in the production of cava from Catalonia; and Chardonnay, Pinot noir, and Pinot Meunier in Champagne. In other regions, single varieties may be used, for example, Riesling in Germany, Chenin blanc in the Loire, and Muscat in Asti, Italy. Carbonated sparkling wines show a wide diversity of styles. These include dry white wines, such as Vinho Verde; most crackling rose´s; and fruit-flavored coolers. In the case of Vinho Verde, the wine originally obtained its slight sparkle from the late onset of malolactic fermentation in wine stored in barrels. This occurred during the spring following fermentation. The wine was originally served directly out of the barrels. However, when the makers started to bottle the wine, filtering provoked the release of most of the carbon dioxide. To reestablish the sparkle, the wine was carbonated just prior to bottling. Because the pressure is relatively low, there is no need to use the strengthened bottles required for most sparkling wines.

Fortified Wines (Dessert and Appetizer Wines)

Regardless of the source, it is the nature and content of mannoproteins that largely affect bubble size. When the bottle is opened, the dissolved carbon dioxide becomes unstable, relative to atmospheric pressure. Without agitation, there is insufficient free-energy to result in a rapid gas escape. Inherently, the excess dissolved carbon dioxide would slowly dissipate by diffusion over several hours. When wine is poured, however, the free-energy generated permits the well-known, rapid, but short-lived formation of bubbles. Once this ends, the formation of the characteristic chains of bubbles depends on the presence of minute particles on the glass or that are suspended in the wine. Dust particles are the most well studied of these nucleation sites (Liger-Belair et al., 2002). When the wine is poured, microscopic air bubbles are trapped in crevices of these particles. Carbon dioxide can easily diffuse (with little energy) into these nucleation sites. As their volume increases, bubbles of carbon dioxide bud off and initiate the effervescent chains so typical of sparkling wine. As they rise, additional carbon dioxide uptake enlarges the bubbles, and the distance between each increases. On reaching the surface, most bubbles burst. Some, however, begin to accumulate, forming a mound in the center of the glass (mousse). Others collect around the edge of the glass (cordon de mousse). Because of the small amount of protein in wine, the bubbles quickly coalesce, forming larger but increasing unstable bubbles. Thus, sparkling wine does not produce a head of foam as does beer. Glass cleaning is of particular importance to the wine’s effervescence characteristics. Even small traces of detergent can hinder bubble generation. This results as detergent covers the nucleation sites with a thin layer of hydrophobic molecules. The diffusion of carbon dioxide into nucleation sites is retarded or prevented, limiting the formation of a continuous chain of bubbles. This can be easily demonstrated by washing wine glasses with detergent and improperly rinsing or drying them. Using soft drinks in lieu of sparkling wine is equally demonstrative but avoids the loss of good wine. The use of flutes is always recommended. Otherwise, it is difficult to fully appreciate the beauty and elegance of the effervescence.

FORTIFIED WINES (DESSERT AND APPETIZER WINES) All terms applied to the category of fortified wines are somewhat misleading. For example, the sherry-like wines from Montilla, Spain, achieve their elevated alcohol content naturally (without fortification). The alternative designations of “aperitif” and “dessert wines” are also somewhat erroneous. Sparkling wines are often viewed as the ultimate aperitifs, and botrytized

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Table 7.6 Fortified Wines With Added Flavors

Without Added Flavors

Vermouth Byrrh Marsala (some) Dubonnet

Sherry-like Jerez-Xere`s-sherry Malaga (some) Montilla Marsala Chaˆteau-Chalon New World solera & submerged sherries Port-like Porto New World ports Madeira-like Madeira Baked New World sherries & ports Muscatel Muscat-based wines Setu´bal Samos (some of) Muscat de Beaunes de Venise Communion wine

wines are often considered the preeminent dessert wines. Table 7.6 provides a categorization of some of the more common fortified wines. Regardless of designation, fortified wines are generally consumed in small amounts. Thus, individual bottles are rarely consumed completely upon opening. Their high alcohol content limits microbial spoilage, and their marked flavor and oxidation resistance permits them to remain stable for weeks after opening. Exceptions are fino sherries and vintage ports. Fino sherries lose their distinctive properties several months after bottling, whereas the unique character of vintage ports erodes as quickly as do table wines upon opening. Fortified wines come in a diversity of styles. Dry and/or bitter versions function as aperitifs before meals. By activating the release of digestive enzymes, they promote digestion (Teyssen et al., 1999). Examples are fino sherries and dry vermouths. The latter are flavored with a variety of herbs and spices. Typically, though, fortified wines are sweet. Major examples are oloroso sherries, ports, madeiras, and marsalas. These wines are traditionally consumed after meals, possibly in lieu of dessert. Unlike table wines that have been produced for millennia, fortified wines are of comparatively recent origin. The oldest may be fino-type sherries. Sherry-like wines may have been made as far back as late Roman

Fortified Wines (Dessert and Appetizer Wines)

times. Under hot, dry conditions, production is possible without the addition of alcohol. The extremely low humidity in bodegas (above-ground wine cellars), selectively favors water evaporation from the surfaces of storage barrels. This results in a progressive rise in the wine’s alcohol content. The alcohol both suppresses bacterial spoilage and, within a limited alcohol range, favors the development of a yeast pellicle on the wine’s surface. The addition of distilled spirits has the same effects, but more rapidly and consistently. The other major types of fortified wines—port, madeira, marsala, and vermouth—had to await the development of alcohol distillation. Concentration via distillation is an ancient technique. It was practiced by the Egyptians at least 2500 years ago. However, its use to concentrate alcohol developed much later. About the 10th century A.D., the Arabs developed efficient stills for alcohol purification. Alcohol distillation in Europe developed in earnest only in the 1500s. Fortification of wine with distilled spirits was apparently first used in preparing the herb-flavored medicinal called treacle. This later evolved into modern vermouth. Subsequently, it was used in the production of many fortified wines, liqueurs, brandies, and the range of fortified spirits common today. Despite this, credit for the production of the first distilled alcoholic beverage appears to go to the Chinese, some 2000 years ago. The use of wine spirits in sherry production was occasionally practiced by the middle 1600s. Its use in port stabilization began about 1720. By 1750, the practice shifted from fortifying the finished wine to fermenting must. The resultant disruption of fermentation retained up to 50% of the original grape sugar content. Extensive treading (grape crushing and mixing by foot in shallow stone fermentors) throughout the short fermentation period achieved sufficient pigment extraction to produce a dark red wine. The tannin, sugar, and alcohol content helped supply the wine with longaging potential. Combined with the use of cork as a bottle closure, evolution of bottle-shape from the original onion shape (Fig. 7.10) led to the rediscovery of the benefits of wine aging. These advantages were clearly recognized by the early 1800s.

Sherry Sherry is produced in two basic styles: fino and oloroso (Fig. 7.11). Each comes in a number of subcategories. In fino production, the alcohol content is raised to between 15 and 15.5% before maturation begins, whereas with oloroso, the alcohol content is increased to 18%. At about 15% ethanol, changes in yeast cell wall composition lead

FIGURE 7.10 Illustration of an onionshaped wine bottle, circa 1725.

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FIGURE 7.11 Flow diagram of sherry production. Shading indicates whether the butts are kept full or partially rd (20%) empty. (Reprinted from Wine Science: Principles and Application, 3 ed. R. S. Jackson (2008), with permission from Elsevier).

Fortified Wines (Dessert and Appetizer Wines)

to their forming a pellicle (flor) that covers the wine. At 18%, all microbial activity in the wine is typically inhibited. The flor covering protects the wine, stored in partially filled barrels (termed butts), from excessive oxidation. While oxidation does occur, it is slow and involves the synthesis of a wide range of aldehydes and acetals. There is also production of important flavorants, notably soloton. Aging involves factional blending, where fractions of wine from older series of barrels (criaderas) are removed and replaced by wine from younger criaderas (Fig. 7.11). After about 5 years, the wine has reached an average alcohol content of 16 to 17%. Unlike most other categories, fino sherries are typically left unsweetened, even for export. They are pale to very light gold in color, and characterized by a mild walnut-like bouquet. Manzanilla is the palest and lightest of all fino sherry styles. Amontillado sherries begin their development as a fino, but partway through their development, the alcohol content is raised. They subsequently complete their maturation similar to an oloroso. This style is darker in color and often 1 to 3% stronger in alcohol content than a typical fino. Amontillados are also more fullflavored, with a clean, nutty bouquet. For export, they are usually slightly sweetened. Oloroso sherries are the most oxidized of sherry styles. These sherries receive no flor protection and undergo minimal fractional blending. Thus, they possess a more pungent, aldehydic, nutty bouquet, which can give a false impression of sweetness. Amoroso sherries are heavily sweetened versions, usually with a golden-amber to brown color. The dark color comes from melanoid pigments produced during the heat concentration of the sweetening juice. Cream sherries are amaroso sherries initially developed for the English market. Palo cortado and raya sherries are special oloroso sherries. They are more subtle and rougher versions, respectively. Sherry-like wines are produced elsewhere, but seldom approach the diversity that epitomizes Spanish sherries. Some European semi-equivalents are noted in Table 7.6. There are few equivalents made outside Europe, despite the name. Those that display the name solera are likely to be similar. Most non-European sherries used to be baked, producing a caramelized character more typical of inexpensive madeiras. They were essentially always sweet.

Port Port is made from red, and occasionally white, grapes in the Duoro region of Portugal. Fermentation is stopped prematurely by the addition of nonrectified wine spirits (aguardente), retaining about half of the original grape

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sugars. This produces a sweet wine with an alcohol content of about 18%. The addition of aguardente also contributes significantly to the wine’s fragrance. For example, the majority of the fusel alcohols, esters, benzaldehyde, and some terpenes come principally from aguardente (Rogerson and de Freitas, 2002). These constituents give porto much of its distinctive fragrance. Subsequent maturation defines the various port styles (Fig. 7.12). The blending of wines from various cultivars and locations produces the consistency required for the production of “house” brands. Although there are distinctive port styles, proprietary blends tend to typify port as much as they do sherries or sparkling wines. Vintage-style ports are blended from wines produced during a single vintage and aged in inert or oak cooperage. Vintage Port is the most prestigious example. It is produced only in exceptional years, when the grape quality is especially high. Only rarely are the grapes derived from a single vineyard (quinta). After maturing for about 2 years, the wine is bottled unfined. Consequently, the wine “throws” considerable sediment. It takes from 10 to 20 years before its famously complex aroma and bouquet are considered to have reached maturity. It can subsequently continue to age well for an indefinite period. Late-bottled Vintage Port (L.B.V.P.) is treated similarly but receives about 5 years’ maturation before bottling. By this time, most of the sediment has settled, eliminating the need for decanting that is required with Vintage Port. The style possesses some of the character of Vintage Port but benefits little from bottle aging. Wood ports are derived from the blending of wines from several vintages. Aging occurs predominantly in small oak casks (termed pipes). Maturation is not intended to give the wine an oak flavor, but to permit slow oxidation (casks are not filled completely). The cooperage is used repeatedly to minimize the uptake of an oaky character. The most common wood port is Ruby port. The wine receives 2 to 3 years’ maturation before bottling. Tawny port is a blend of long-aged ruby ports, which has lost most of its bright red color. The finest tawnys are sold with an indication of their average age, typically more than 10 years. Inexpensive tawny ports are frequently a blend of ruby and white ports. White ports, derived from white grapes, are matured similarly to ruby ports. They may come in dry, semisweet, or sweet styles, and often superficially resemble amaroso sherries. Port-like wines are produced in several countries, notably Australia and South Africa. Only seldom are similar cultivars and aging procedures used. Fortification is usually with highly rectified (flavorless) alcoholic spirits. Thus, they lack the distinctive flavor of Portuguese ports (porto). Most ports produced in North America are baked. Thus, they typically possess a madeira-like (caramelized) odor.

Fortified Wines (Dessert and Appetizer Wines)

FIGURE 7.12

Flow diagram of port wine production.

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Madeira Fortification of madeira wine developed as a means of microbially stabilizing wine for long sea voyages. However, during voyages to North America, the wine often experienced prolonged heating in the hulls. When it became clear that the colonists preferred the “baked” version, producers began to intentionally heat the wine before shipping (more than 40
C for up to 3 months). Maturation occurs in wooden cooperage for several years. To avoid giving the wine an oak character, the barrels are used repeatedly. Madeira is produced in diverse styles, ranging from dry to very sweet. They may involve the use of a single cultivar and be vintage-dated, or extensively blended and carry only a brand name. Despite these variations, the predominant factor that distinguishes madeira is their pronounced baked (caramelized) flavor. With prolonged aging, a complex, highly distinctive bouquet develops that many connoisseurs adore. In contrast, inexpensive versions are used primarily in cooking.

Vermouth Since ancient times, wine has been used as a carrier for various medicinal herbs and spices. This presumably is the origin of vermouth. Fortification aided both its preservation and facilitated flavorant extraction. Modern vermouths are subdivided into Italian and French styles. Italian vermouths are fortified to between 16 and 18% alcohol, and contain from 4 to 16% sugar (for dry and sweet versions, respectively). French vermouths contain about 18% alcohol and 4% sugar. Sugar partially helps to mask the wine’s bitterness. The base wine is often a neutral-flavored white wine, though the best Italian vermouths are produced from the aromatic Muscato bianco variety. Upward of 50 herbs and spices may be used in flavoring. The types and quantities employed are proprietary secrets. After flavorant extraction, the wine is aged for 4 to 6 months. During this period, the components “blend in.” Before bottling, the wine may be sterile filtered or pasteurized.

BRANDY By definition, brandy is distilled wine. Brandies are produced in almost every wine-producing region, but the most well recognized come from two regions in southwestern France, Armagnac and Cognac. They are differentiated by geography, cultivar use, and the type of still used (Jackson, 2008). All brandies are aged in oak barrels, and wines from different lots

References

are blended to make the proprietary blends that typify the industry. The major brandy designations are based on a combination of the minimum age of the youngest distillate used and the minimum average age of the blend. Respectively, these are Three Stars (2/2 years); VO, VSOP (4/5years); XO, Extra, Napoleon, Vieille Re´serve, Hors d’Age (5/6 years). Related distilled beverages, variously called marc (France), grappa (Italy), aguardiente or orujo (Spain), bagaceira (Portugal), and tsipouro (Greece) are derived from pomace-based wine. They can be more grapy or neutral flavored than brandies, depending on the degree for rectification during distillation. They tend to be rougher in character due to their shorter maturation period. By tradition, brandies possess moderate levels of higher alcohols, generally in the range of 65–100 mg/liter (donating pungency), aldehydes and acetals (supplying sharpness), oak lactones (furnishing a coconut fragrance), phenolic aldehyde derivatives from lignin degradation (providing vanilla and sweet fragrances), and ethyl esters of C8 to C12 fatty acids (appending fruity/ floral notes). The oxidation and transformation of fatty acids into ketones and heat-derived furans and pyrazines generate caramel and roasted notes. Excessive amounts of low volatile constituents, such as ethyl lactate and 2-phenylethanol, tend to produce an atypical heavy flavor, whereas highly volatile constituents create sharp, irritating notes. Terpenes typically add their particular character only when Muscat cultivars are used as the base wine.

SUGGESTED READINGS Amerine, M. A., and Singleton, V. L. (1977). Wine—An Introduction. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. Beckett, F. (2006). Wine by Style. Mitchell Beazley, London. Halliday, J., and Johnson, H. (2007). The Art and Science of Wine. Firefly Books, Buffalo, N.Y. Jackson, R. S. (2008). Wine Science: Principles and Application, 3rd ed. Academic Press, San Diego, CA. Johnson, H., and Robinson, J. (2007). The World Atlas of Wine, 6th ed. Mitchell Beazley, London.

REFERENCES Bourzeix, M., Heredia, N., and Kovac, V. (1983) Richesse de diffe´rents ce´pages en compose´s phe´noliques totaux et en anthocyanes. Prog. Agric. Vitic. 100, 421–428.

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