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Superstorm Sandy marine debris wash-ups on Long Island — What happened to them?
Marine Pollution Bulletin 108 (2016) 215–231
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Marine Pollution Bulletin journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpolbul
Superstorm Sandy marine debris wash-ups on Long Island — What happened to them? R. Lawrence Swanson ⁎, Kamazima Lwiza, Kaitlin Willig, Kaitlin Morris School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-5000, USA
a r t i c l e
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Article history: Received 3 December 2015 Received in revised form 31 March 2016 Accepted 14 April 2016 Available online 6 May 2016 Keywords: Superstorm Sandy Long Island Marine debris Debris collection
a b s t r a c t Superstorm Sandy generated huge quantities of debris in the Long Island, NY coastal zone. However, little appears to have been washed offshore to eventually be returned to Long Island's beaches as marine debris wash-ups. Information for our analysis includes debris collection statistics, very high resolution satellite images, along with wind and sea level data. Rigorous debris collection efforts along with meteorological conditions following the storm appear to have reduced the likelihood of debris wash-ups. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Storm surge generated debris resulting from destruction of facilities and infrastructure as well as discharges from storm sewers and overland flow during Superstorm Sandy (October 29, 2012) created a major waste management problem for Long Island, New York. Superstorm Sandy struck the New Jersey coast near Brigantine. Maximum sustained winds reached 130 kmh−1 (70 knots) as it approached the coast, and the National Hurricane Center classified it as a posttropical cyclone (Blake et al., 2013). Sandy's geographic extent was extremely large (≈1612 km or 870 nautical miles in diameter), generating a record-breaking storm surge in many locations (Blake et al., 2013). Early estimates within the United States rank Sandy as one of the most devastating and costly ($71 billion in 2012 dollars) storms (NOAA, 2013). Storm tide (sum of astronomical tide plus storm surge above a specified tidal datum) was 4.29 m (14.00 ft) above MLLW (Blake et al., 2013) or 3.44 m (11.28 ft) above NAVD 88 at The Battery, NY — a record elevation for that station. The storm tide of the U.S. Geological Survey Water Quality monitoring station at Hog Island Channel in Hempstead Bay, Long Island was 2.98 m (9.78 ft) above NAVD 88 where the Bay Park Sewage Treatment Plant (Fig. 1) was severely damaged by Sandy storm surge (height of water level above predicted astronomical tide) and totally shut down for several days (Swanson et al., 2015).
⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (R.L. Swanson), kamazima. [email protected] (K. Lwiza), [email protected] (K. Willig), kaitlin. [email protected] (K. Morris).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.04.029 0025-326X/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Maximum storm surge at The Battery and Atlantic City, NJ occurred almost simultaneously with predicted high tide. For several tidal cycles, storm surges on the order of a meter persisted. While many Atlantic coastal states experienced marine debris from Sandy, NOAA (2013) identified the New York Bight including both New Jersey and New York as sustaining “heavy” damage to critical infrastructure. In part this damage was because of the high population density of the area — ocean coastline counties of New York and New Jersey rank numbers one and two in the country (Wilson and Fischetti, 2010). The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA's) “model estimated relative marine debris encounter probability” following Sandy identifies coastal New Jersey and the south shore of Long Island as being in the medium to high range and New York Harbor toward the high (NOAA, 2013). This same report stipulates that considerable debris was transported from the barrier islands into the back bays and their marshes and uplands. On Long Island, debris did wash into waterways, onto marshes, beaches, and into the open ocean. Such material can be a threat to public health and safety as well as a hazard to navigation. Ecologically, it can damage wetlands and be harmful to living marine resources. Entanglement, ingestion, and suffocation affecting fishes, mammals, turtles, birds, and other marine organisms are of particular concern. Debris can also be a vector for invasive species as it is spread across the oceans (Gregory, 2009). It can have a major impact on local economies as a consequence of closed beaches or shellfishing grounds—particularly when it is associated with combined sewer overflows (CSOs) and malfunctioning sewage treatment plants. The marine debris wash-ups along the coast of New Jersey in 1987 and New York in 1988 (Swanson and Zimmer, 1990) resulted in tourist-related, total expenditure losses between $1.3 billion and $5.4 billion in 1987 dollars (Kahn et al., 1989; Swanson et al., 1991;
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Fig. 1. Map of study area (Hempstead Bay, Great South Bay, south shore of Long Island) defined in Google Earth extract. The border demarcates the study area of approximately 415 km2.
Valle-Levinson and Swanson, 1991). Some 37 million to 121 million user-days at ocean beaches were lost during the same events (ValleLevinson and Swanson, 1991). Ofiara (2015) revisited these economic losses and the impact of some of the environmental policies that were adopted at that time. Debris (destruction of built infrastructure and marine facilities) from the 2011 Japanese tsunami transited the North Pacific Ocean, stranding on the shores of Washington, Oregon, and Alaska. The Wall Street Journal reported about the possible invasive species attached to much of
that debris and the potential harmful repercussions that might occur in the Pacific Northwest (Muldoon, 2015). Following Superstorm Sandy, there was a concerted effort to remove debris rapidly by various governmental entities on Long Island. These included the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Nassau and Suffolk Counties, and the Towns of Hempstead, Babylon, Islip, and Brookhaven. On April 15, 2013, close to the opening of the Long Island boating season, the Supervisor of the Town of Hempstead warned that despite cleaning up debris for five months, much remained in local waterways. Navigational
Table 1 Partial estimated debris removal costs and tonnages from some towns in Nassau and Suffolk Counties. Town
Estimated tonnage (tonnes (tons))
Estimated total costs (millions of $)
Babylon Brookhaven Islip Fire Island (Brookhaven and Islip)
11,974 (13,201)
56,122 (~61,875)
5.5 8.28 11.3 4.3–4.9
108,844 (120,000)
29.4–30.1 8.4–9.6
Suffolk County (total) Hempstead Long Beach
29.7
Nassau County (total)
38.1–39.3
Method of disposal
Truck, barge. Most was landfilled in upstate N.Y. and Pennsylvania. Some debris were burned at Brookhaven Landfill temporarily.
Most was relocated to WTE facilities, a small amount was landfilled, and a small amount was composted.
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Fig. 2. Helicopter flying over water 0.6 km from Fire Island Inlet. Note the shadow of the helicopter on the water, (40.62113571, −73.31500018).
Fig. 3. GeoEye-1 panchromatic image mosaicked from four images (two from December 3, 2011; December 14, 2011, October 20, 2012) to represent Superstorm Sandy pre-storm condition.
hazards persisted (Murray, 2013). Some of the materials collected included lumber, damaged boats, bulkheading, sections of houses, oil tanks, furniture, oil, and sewage related items. Operation SPLASH, an environmental organization, even collected a grandfather clock and a soda vending machine (Murray, 2013).
The causes of these several marine debris events were considerably different but serve to show the devastation that extreme natural events and their associated marine debris can have. The March 11, 2011 Japanese tsunami was generated by a magnitude 9 undersea quake about 80 km (43 nautical miles) offshore of
Fig. 4. GeoEye-1 panchromatic image, November 3, 2012, representing post-storm conditions after Superstorm Sandy.
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Table 2 Select monthly wind speeds, directions, and constancies. Ideal conditions for a marine debris wash-up on LI's south shore are a source of marine debris (e.g., CSO events, storm surge) and persistent wind (constancy N50%) with a direction from 135°T–225°T. Year
Month
Resultant wind direction (°T)
Resultant wind speed (mph)
Scalar wind speed (mph)
Constancy (%)
1976 1987 1988 2012 2012 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013
June August July November December January February March April May June July August September
200 230 210 330 320 280 310 320 190 200 200 210 230 270
6.3 1.3 1.3 5.9 4.8 7.2 6.3 7.5 1.4 2.9 4.5 4.1 3.8 2.6
11.4 9.9 9.3 11.1 11.8 12.0 13.2 13.9 12.3 10.4 11.0 9.9 9.7 9.7
55 13 58 53 41 60 48 54 11 28 41 41 39 27
Sendai in the Pacific Ocean (NOAA, 2015a). It was the fourth largest since 1900 at that time. As of early 2015, about 16,000 deaths with some 2000 people still missing were attributed to it. More than 102,000 homes were destroyed by the tsunami alone. The overall cost from the earthquake and tsunami in Japan was $220 billion (NOAA, 2015a).
Tide gauges close to the tsunami's landfall in Japan recorded water levels as high as 9 m (29.5 ft). Run up, or the difference between the elevation of the maximum landward penetration and sea level at the time of arrival, was 38.9 m (127.6 ft) (tide removed) (NOAA, 2015b). The tsunami was experienced throughout the Pacific Ocean basin. For example, at Port Orford, OR, the water level elevations relative to mean lower low water were 1.94 m (6.4 ft) and −0.97 m (−3.2 ft) at maximum and minimum, respectively. Corrected for tide levels at the time, the maximum tsunami wave height was 2.96 m (11.3 ft) (NOAA, 2015b). However, once in the ocean, the debris from any of these events was subject to the same forces—wind and current. The significance of wind is particularly important for large floating pieces where windage (area above the waterline exposed to the wind) may be more important to its dispersion and transport than current (see, for example, ValleLevinson and Swanson, 1991). With persistent summer southerly winds, Long Island's ocean beaches are prone to debris wash-ups provided that there is a source of material. There was a concern following Sandy, given its destructive nature, that the south shore of Long Island would experience washups during the summer of 2013 from: • debris transported seaward with the northwesterly winds of winter thus returning with the southerlies of summer and, • refloated debris from that stored in marshes and above the general
Fig. 5. Felled trees on South Black Banks Hassock indicating wind gusts with varying directions.
Fig. 6. Not a single tree fell in the forest stand near Bergen Point County Park.
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Fig. 7. Large marine debris, which could be a pier or roof, (40.59752363, −73.71931521).
high tide line, etc. caused by the higher sea levels that occur in summer (Swanson, 1976).
2. Materials and methods 2.1. Cleanup
To the best of our knowledge, there was neither a significant problem concerning the wash-up of debris immediately following the storm nor over the following summer. We attribute this to several factors:
We compiled debris collection statistics from the Towns of Babylon, Brookhaven, Hempstead, and Islip, and from Fire Island and the City of Long Beach. Most of this information was gathered through interviews or email (Table 1).
• there was a considerable effort to remove debris that accumulated along the shoreline following Sandy, • the prevailing winds after the storm through the following summer were not conducive for returning floating debris to the Island, and • sea level did not reach elevations necessary to refloat the ravages of the storm.
2.2. Satellite imagery
We explore these notions by reviewing some of the waste collection statistics generated by the various agencies and organizations that gathered storm-generated debris, examining satellite imagery for evidence of debris in the water following the storm, and reviewing the wind and sea level history in the region over the period November 2012 through August 2013.
The study area was limited to the southern portions of Nassau County and western Suffolk County (just east of East Islip) where much of the Sandy damage was sustained. The emergence of new satellite sensors, which produce very high resolution (VHR) images, has revolutionized the way environmental and urban monitoring is conducted. Digital data formats can easily be put into a geographic information system (GIS) that provide an attractive alternative to aerial photographs. The images used in this investigation span a period of four years (2011–2014) with the main focus in November 2012, immediately following Sandy. To minimize costs, we initially used a small image from the French satellite SPOT 6, covering 100 km2 (38.6 miles2) with a 1.5 m (4.9 ft) panchromatic and 6 m (19.7 ft) multispectral (blue, green, red, near
Fig. 8. A stranded boat, (40.59668736, −73.7191533).
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Fig. 9. Large debris (~2–3 m) Fire Island Inlet sticking above water high enough to cast a shadow. There are several other pieces of debris, notably the large piece to the northeast, (40.6061987, −73.34601529).
infra-red) resolution. The resolution of 1.5 m (4.9 ft) was too coarse for the task. We then ordered two satellite images from GeoEye-1 of the south shore of Long Island between Fire Island Inlet and to the west of Jones Inlet, covering 415 km2 (160 miles2) (Fig. 1). The images provide 0.41 m (16 in.) panchromatic and 1.65 m (5.4 ft) multispectral resolution in 15.2 km (9.4 miles) swaths. The spacecraft is in sunsynchronous orbit flying at an altitude of 681 km (423 mi). We obtained our images from Apollo mapping, one of several vendors for Digital Globe products. Fig. 2 demonstrates the resolution scale of GeoEye-1 image by capturing a flying helicopter and its shadow on the water. For the pre-storm assessment, we had to use a mosaic of four images (two from December 3, 2011; December 14, 2011; October 20, 2012) in order to create one that was cloud free (Fig. 3). For the post-storm (Fig. 4), we were able to obtain one image with less than 15% cloud cover on November 3, 2012. We used Integraph's ERDAS Imagine software to analyze the images. The five images were georeferenced in the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system, Zone 18 north, North American Datum for 1983 (NAD83). Every image was supplied with a mathematical model of the image geometry represented by rational polynomial coefficients (RPCs). We reviewed approximately 254 subscenes for any signs of damage, marine debris or change detection. We focused on 104 of them. Sixty-eight sub-scenes of the post-storm image were examined for marine debris offshore. Thirty-six sub-
scenes were analyzed for damage of structures and wetlands. Google Earth time series images were also used to supplement the VHR images.
2.3. Wind sea level observations In order to determine factors that influenced marine debris patterns, daily wind data observed at JFK International Airport (adjacent to the study area) were obtained from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) website (http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/IPS/lcd/ lcd.html). We computed frequencies in major directions and plotted monthly wind roses from October 2012 to September 2013. Additionally, the monthly wind data were used to compile wind persistence or constancy statistics, defined as: (Mean vector wind speed/mean scalar wind speed) ×100. This measure provides an indication of the persistence of the wind relative to the resultant direction (Table 2). Monthly mean sea level data from NOAA (2015c) were used to compare sea level from November 2012 to September 2013 to that from around the time of the storm. This information at The Battery, NY is useful for understanding whether elevated sea level occurred such that marine debris could have been refloated after Sandy. The Sandy Hook, NJ tide gauge record did not operate continuously following the storm.
Fig. 10. A house moved onto wetland apparently from southeast based on scars on the vegetation on West Crow Island, (40.61566281, −73.54833359).
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Fig. 11. a A large piece of debris (probably a construction barge with a crane) on North Meadow Island, (40.61021825, −73.5686275). Fig. 11b A Google Earth image taken on March 6, 2012 showing no barge. Fig. 11c A Google Earth image taken on November 3, 2012 showing the barge.
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Fig. 12. A pier or roof debris in the channel on Long Beach, (40.59331397,−73.7116298).
Fig. 13. Submerged pier. The pier remains intact floating at the surface, (40.61557936, −73.69553816).
3. Results 3.1. Cleanup As can be imagined, the magnitudes of the debris collected postSandy are incomplete. Some data were reported by weight, others by
volume. Conversion from one mode to the other is imprecise. The various organizations involved in collection didn't have all their data totally collated and tabulated during our inquiry. Operation SPLASH removed 18.6 tonne (20.5 ton) of debris from Hempstead Bay in just a few hours. Operation SPLASH also reported that 3639 tonne (4000 ton) of debris were removed from marshes and waterways around West Bay by private contractors following
Fig. 14. Damaged marina and submerged boats in Hewlett Neck, (40.62129667, −73.69734046).
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Fig. 15. Damaged piers on east side of channel but piers on the west side almost intact Hewlett Bay Park, (40.62989018, −73.69084065).
Fig. 16. Pier moved onto land Hewlett Bay Park, (40.63241303, −73.69159614).
Sandy (Rob Weltner, personal communication, August 12, 2015). This included some 20 “bay houses” destroyed by the storm. (Bay houses are small, two- or three-room, single story structures usually with a deck built on pilings in the marshes and are historic fishing and hunting shacks now used for recreation) (Long Island Traditions, 2015). The
New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) and Nassau County issued the contracts. The NYSDEC estimated that more than 453,600 tonne (500,000 ton) of debris were generated on Long Island by Sandy (Scully, 2014). Most of this material was transported off Long Island to a variety of solid waste management
Fig. 17. Missing pier and a damaged one nearby but minimum damage overall at Sequams Lane E in Babylon Cove, (40.6878645, −73.31185088).
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Fig. 18. Wantagh Park, all piers appear to be undamaged, (40.64599618, −73.5149083).
facilities; some was recycled. The NYSDEC allowed limited discretion with regard to state air quality regulations to permit up to 3823 m3d−1 (5000 yd3d−1) of vegetative material to be burned at the Town of Brookhaven ashfill due to the excessive volume of material collected and the unavailability of railcars or marine vessels for transport. The burning in several “fire boxes” was terminated when the permit was not renewed in mid-February 2013 largely because of complaints from the community near the ashfill concerning odors and the possibility of toxic fumes. Emergency authorizations were given to several facilities to treat increased loads (Scully, 2014). For example, the Covanta Waste-to-Energy plants at both the Towns of Hempstead and Babylon handled considerable quantities of the collected debris. Thus, municipal solid waste (MSW) collected in the Town of Brookhaven backed up at its transfer station because of insufficient capacity at Hempstead where Brookhaven MSW is incinerated. Some sites that were not permitted were also given temporary authorizations to handle debris waste for a period not to exceed 60 days (Scully, 2014). Following Sandy, 113 emergency authorizations were granted to handle storm-generated refuse (Scully, 2014). In addition to trucking and barging debris off Long Island, three permitted railroad transfer facilities were also used including Farmingdale, Lindenhurst, and Brentwood. Barges operated out of Oceanside, hauling 18.1–27.2 tonne (20–30 ton) of waste per barge. They transited the Hudson River to the vicinity of Albany where they were offloaded to trucks for ultimate disposition (Michael White, personal communication). Some debris was treated as Construction and Demolition (C&D) waste and disposed at the Brookhaven Town Ashfill. The U. S. Army
Corps of Engineers removed much of the debris that accumulated on Fire Island (Michael White, personal communication). The quantities of material collected by various entities (Table 1) suggest that debris removal was quite effective. However the collection efforts were clearly not coordinated; transportation of debris and venues for disposal were not always readily available. The federal government had to intervene, imposing emergency conditions through the Surface Transportation Board (formerly the Interstate Commerce Commission) and the Federal Railroad Administration (Michael White, personal communication) in order to allow the railroads to provide railcars at reasonable rates to move material quickly. While not necessarily coordinated, Long Island towns were perhaps the most effective in removing debris. This is largely the consequence of towns traditionally handling MSW on a day-to-day basis and being aware of public pushback when MSW is not routinely removed on schedule (Michael White, personal communication). 3.2. Satellite imagery Results are described on a figure-by-figure basis. The white arrows or boxes in the figures indicate areas of interest. The numbers in parentheses represent latitude followed by longitude in decimal degrees. Fig. 5 shows fallen trees in South Black Banks Hassock. We examined fallen trees to ascertain if there was any pattern to the destruction, which could then be used to determine the most damaging wind direction. However, no pattern was found. Fig. 6 shows a tree stand in the vicinity of the Bergen Point County Park where it is apparent that not a single
Fig. 19. House moved 230 m west toward the center of Oak Island, (40.64493331,−73.29342243).
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Fig. 20. Boat with its pier stranded in salt marsh, (40.61923421,−73.68599458).
tree fell. The location is close to the shore, which implies that the wind spatial patterns varied substantially over small distances. A large piece of marine debris, which is probably a broken pier or a roof blown off a building, appears in Fig. 7. Fig. 8 shows a small boat, ~3.5 m (~11.5 ft), stranded on the side of a wetland. By November 3, 2012, five days after the storm, there were large debris pieces still floating offshore (Fig. 9). The piece in the middle of the image is estimated to have above surface expression of 2–3 m (6.6– 9.8 ft), probably a boat. Fig. 10 is an excellent demonstration of the storm's force, showing how a house was transported from near the shoreline into the interior of a wetland on West Crow Island. The largest piece of debris was a construction barge with its crane intact as shown in Fig. 11a. Using Google Earth, there was no sign of the barge before the storm (Fig. 11b), but there was on November 3, 2012 (Fig. 11c). The Google Earth image (not shown) for this area taken on June 19, 2014 shows that the abandoned barge was still there. Figs. 12–17 indicate damage to piers in the study area. However, Fig. 18 shows that piers in Wantagh Park seem to be unscathed. If there was any damage, it was not detectable with GeoEye-1. Fig. 15 shows that piers on the west side of the channel in Hewlett Bay Park were not affected, whereas those on the eastern side sustained some form of damage. This is intriguing because one would expect damage to be almost evenly distributed on both sides as the storm surge moved into the channel. We hypothesize that as it was transiting upstream into the channel, it was being pushed to the eastern side by the wind. Certainly, because the channel is narrow, the Coriolis effect due to the Earth's rotation is not expected to have much impact. Fig. 19 is another example of a house (on Oak Island) being moved approximately 230 m (755 ft)
from its original location. Note that its pier remained intact. A stranded boat with its pier appears in a salt marsh (Fig. 20). In addition, Figs. 21 and 22 indicate damage to piers on Barnum Island and Anchor Estates. A variety of marine debris offshore, probably including furniture, small pieces of buildings, and boats, is shown in Figs. 23–26. Seemingly, based on our image, the concentration of debris decreased with distance from shore. However, if debris was released from the bays in pulses, we cannot ascertain whether there was more debris farther offshore due to the small aerial coverage of our image. From the images, offshore marine debris was found in the western portion of our study area closer to the Nassau County/New York City border. It was composed of small objects ranging from 1 pixel to 6 pixels (0.5–3 m, 1.5–9.8 ft), with an average size of 3 pixels (1.5 m, 4.9 ft). The heaviest concentration was relatively close to shore.
3.3. Wind and sea level observations In November and December, immediately following Sandy, winds were variable from the south through the west to the northeast but the prevailing winds were offshore from the northerly quadrants (Fig. 27 and Table 2). Constancies were quite high and the wind was capable of transporting floatables seaward and to the south. In January 2013, the winds were north of west while the constancy was 60%. February and March also had strong, persistent northwesterlies. The winds shifted to south-southwesterly in April and May (Fig. 28) but with constancies of only 11 and 28%, respectively. By June through August, the winds were southerly to southwesterly, but the constancies were below 50%
Fig. 21. Several piers damaged on Barnum Island, (40.5973949,−73.64877612).
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Fig. 22. Several damaged piers nearby Anchor Estates, (40.58934291,−73.71557591).
(typically the minimum constancy for a major wash-up on the south shore) and speeds were relatively low as well. Fig. 29 shows the monthly sea level anomalies relative to the record since 1990 for The Battery, NY. With the exception of December 2012 and March 2013, monthly mean sea levels were lower than those around the time of Sandy. In fact, sea level during 2013 was generally lower than that of several previous years. The storm surge in West Bay reached 2.98 m (9.79 ft) relative to NAVD 88 during Sandy (Swanson et al., 2015). The highest recorded water level elevation over the period of November 2012 through September 2013 was 1.42 m (4.65 ft) (NAVD 88), some 1.5 m (5 ft) lower than the maximum elevation during Sandy (USGS, 2015, downloaded August 12, 2015). Sea levels generally didn't reach elevations to refloat much debris stored in wetlands and elsewhere for most of 2013. 4. Discussion A concerted effort was made following Sandy to physically remove debris from the storm that was along the coastline and in the marshes. In fact, Rob Weltner of Operation SPLASH and a frequenter of the south shore lagoons stated that the marshes in Hempstead Bay were “very clean compared to the past” (personal communication, August 12, 2015). While we were able to detect some debris in the water following Sandy, our satellite images didn't detect large quantities. Water levels
throughout much of the year following Sandy never reached elevations that would have refloated stored debris from the surge. The prevailing winds for some months following Sandy were also not conducive to transporting material that escaped into the water back to the south shore of Long Island. Long Island experienced major marine debris wash-ups in the summers of 1976 and 1988. In these instances, the material was largely sewage-related (grease balls, condoms, tampon applicators, plastics). Essentially anything that floated had the potential to wash ashore (Swanson et al., 1978; Swanson and Zimmer, 1990). Besides sewage materials and other waste, medical waste (syringes with and without needles, bandages, pill vials, laboratory gloves, etc.) was a particular concern during the 1988 beach wash-ups (Swanson and Zimmer, 1990). These events occurred because excessive rainfall triggered combined sewer overflows (CSOs) in the New York-New Jersey Harbor Estuary in conjunction with persistent southerly to southwesterly winds for an extended period of time (weeks). Little was known about the behavior of medical waste in water. However, field experiments showed that the speed, direction of travel, and scatter were dependent on windage (Valle-Levinson and Swanson, 1991). For example, the range of scatter (in degrees) was five times greater for large vials relative to drift cards, which had no windage. In June 1976, the mean vector wind speed and direction were 2.8 ms−1 (6.3 mph) and 200°T, respectively (Table 2). Comparable
Fig. 23. Scattered marine debris (~2 m in length), (40.56148412, −73.69729964).
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Fig. 24. Scattered marine debris approximately 3 km south of Atlantic Beach, (40.55561624, −73.69003091).
Fig. 25. A possibly stranded boat or buoy tall enough to cast a shadow, (40.56548775, −73.61336445).
statistics for July 1988 were 2.4 ms−1 (5.4 mph) and 21°T. The constancies were 55% in 1976 and 58% in 1988. As a contrast, the constancy in August 1987 was 13% (Swanson and Zimmer, 1990). In the latter case, New Jersey beaches experienced a major wash-up of debris while Long Island beaches were clean. Also, if the wind is west of southwest,
the Coriolis effect seems to shift floatable debris just enough to the right of the wind so as to avoid a wash up on Long Island, which falls along a roughly east-northeast direction. Larger debris associated with storm events would be subject to not only windage but draft as well. Generally the flow of water through
Fig. 26. Stranded boat, (40.67369757, −73.29899317).
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the New York Bight is from the northeast to the southwest following the contours of bottom topography (Hansen, 1977). However, this flow can be modified considerably by local wind stress (Hansen, 1977; Han et al., 1980). On occasions the flow can be reversed (Han et al., 1980). With the general flow of surface water being from the northeast toward the southwest in the New York Bight, in all likelihood, any material that was in the water was transported offshore by the northwesterly winds and dispersed to the south immediately after Sandy. The winds were not sufficiently strong and persistent to transport debris back to the north the following summer. Additionally, the character of the Sandy-related debris was different than that of the classic sewage derived debris that has been associated with Long Island beach closures. In the case of our study area, where there are no CSOs,
several of the sewage treatment plants (Bay Park, for example) shut down as a consequence of flooding during Sandy (Swanson et al., 2015). They did not bypass unscreened sewage. Sandy debris was generally larger and bulkier so that the draft to windage ratio was larger. Much of the Sandy-related material was prone to the vagaries of ocean currents, not just the influence of the wind at the air–sea interface. 5. Conclusions A concerted effort was made following Sandy to physically remove storm debris along the coastline and in the marshes. The prevailing winds for some months following Sandy were determined not to be
Fig. 27. Wind roses for October 2012 to March 2013 showing strong offshore winds, which kept the debris offshore.
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conducive to transporting material that escaped into the water back to the south shore of Long Island. Long Island's south shore did not experience a major wash-up of Sandy-related debris in the months following the initial event. Many expected that a marine debris wash-up would occur in the summer of 2013 with the summertime high stands of sea level (monthly mean sea level for the New York region fluctuates about 17 cm (6.7 in.) throughout the year; it's highest in summer (Swanson, 1976)) and the prevailing southerly to southwesterly winds. Stored material would be refloated and some that had escaped cleanup would drift shoreward. This was not the case.
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We attribute this to: • the intensive effort to clean up debris immediately following Sandy, • the winds immediately following the storm were strongly offshore dispersing debris broadly to the south with the general flow of water from northeast to southwest, and • debris was not washed from marshes and above the Sandy storm high water mark because mean sea level in the region during 2013 was generally lower than that around the time of Sandy.
Fig. 28. Wind roses for April to September 2013. In spring strong winds were predominantly from the southeast. There were weak winds in May from east-southeast to south-southwest. Summer wind direction was the normal southwesterlies.
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Fig. 29. Five month moving average of monthly mean sea level with seasonal cycle and linear trend removed for The Battery, NY (NOAA, 2015c).
In many ways, it was fortunate that Sandy occurred at the end of October rather than during the height of the beach season. Very likely beaches would have been closed for a considerable period to avoid injuries and to allow clean up. Material that escaped into the ocean would likely have been washed back onto Long Island beaches. It is clear that excessive rainfall can cause CSO events that overwhelm sewage treatment plants causing release of sewage related items and other debris to the marine environment. This then is transported seaward by classic estuarine circulation processes. However, it is interesting to speculate about the physical processes that influence generation and distribution of marine debris from storm surge and tsunami events. The 2011 Japanese tsunami created so much debris that NOAA actually made forecasts of its fate over a five-year time span. Sandy doesn't seem to have contributed that much debris to the open ocean. Cleanup operations didn't begin immediately after the event so seemingly debris could have escaped into the ocean. The difference is based on the fact that the scale of the tsunami crest is much larger than a storm surge. A tsunami hazard is typically quantified by the inundation area, run-up height, and flow depth and speed (Sugawara et al., 2014). The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, ranked as the most devastating on record, causing waves as high as 10 m (32.8 ft) (Wijetunge, 2006), although run-up heights have been reported up to 20 m (66 ft). Storm surge, on the other hand, is usually less than 2 m (2.6 ft); however, there are reports of surges upward of 5 m (16.4 ft) around the Indian coast (Dube et al., 1997). Tsunami by their sheer sizes can be more destructive on land. Crests are capable of carrying a bus or a large yacht 1 km (0.62 mi) inland. As water starts to recede during the trough phase, the debris created by destruction can be carried far to sea with its long wave length. While the meteorological and physical oceanographic forces were not favorable for a wash-up on the south shore of Long Island, the biggest factor reducing a beach debris problem was that of the quick clean-up response of the towns and cities on Long Island. Additionally, the NYSDEC acted responsibly in assuring that emergency and routine permits were issued in a timely manner so that clean up could be undertaken smoothly. It seems that the towns are the appropriate level of government to undertake such an onerous task, as they understand the frustration that exists when waste isn't quickly and effectively removed and they have access to much of the needed equipment. These governmental agencies are close to the people. Certainly there is need to improve coordination among towns in order to reduce competition for resources such as trucks, barges, and waste facilities for ultimate disposal. Working relationships must be
improved between government and private industry for providing hauling and disposal services. In times of emergency, industry cannot exploit the situation for excessive profits. Acknowledgments This work was carried out and funded under the auspices of New York State's Resiliency Institute for Storm Emergencies (award #67784). We would like to acknowledge the assistance of the Towns of Hempstead, Babylon, Islip, and Brookhaven in providing waste load statistics even as debris was being collected. Michael White of Anthony E. Core, P.C. was particularly helpful in giving us insight into the complications that arose as waste was being collected and disposal venues were sought. We also appreciate the assistance of Bonnie Stephens in preparing and editing this manuscript. References Blake, E.S., Kimberlain, T.B., Berg, R.J., Cangialosi, J.P., Beven II, J.L., 2013. Tropical Cyclone Report, Hurricane Sandy (AL 182012) 22–29 October 2012. National Hurricane Center, NOAA, Miami, FL, p. 157 pp. Dube, S.K., Rao, A.D., Sinha, P.C., Murty, T.S., Bahulayan, N., 1997. Storm surge in the bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea: the problem and its prediction. Mausam 48 (2), 283–304. Gregory, M.R., 2009. Environmental implications of plastic debris in marine settings — entanglement, ingestion, smothering, hangers-on, hitch-hiking and alien invasions. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 364, 2013–2025. Han, G., Hansen, D.V., Galt, J.A., 1980. Steady-state model of the New York Bight. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 10, 1998–2020. Hansen, D.V., 1977. Circulation. MESA New York Bight Monograph 3. New York Sea Grant Institute, Albany, NY, p. 23 pp. Kahn, J., Ofiara, D., McCay, B., 1989. Economic measures of beach closures, economic measures of toxic seafood, economic measures of pathogens in shellfish, economic measures of commercial navigation and recreational boating—floatable hazards. WMI. Use Impairments and Ecosystem Impacts of the New York Bight. Waste Management Institute. SUNY, Stony Brook, NY, p. 271. Long Island Traditions, 2015. Bay Houses. Longislandtraditions.org/southshore/ architecture/bayhouses/index.html Downloaded February 9, 2016. Muldoon, K., 2015. After slow, cold trip across Pacific, sea creatures find little warmth. Wall Street J. 10 Vol. CCLXV. January 13. Murray, K., 2013. Murray to mariners: Beware of Sandy debris, Town, County, and SPLASH steer boaters to safe start of season on waterways. http://toh.li/news/894 Downloaded February 8, 2015. NOAA, 2013. Seven Marine Debris Events Report: Superstorm Sandy, Overview and Update to Congress. August 2013 Marinedebris.noaa.gov/report/seven-marine-debrisevent-report-superstorm-Sandy Downloaded February 4, 2016. NOAA, 2015a. March 11, 2011 Japan Earthquake and Tsunami. National Centers for Environmental Information. www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazard/11march2011.html Update March 2015. Downloaded February 8, 2016. 5 pp. NOAA, 2015b. Tides and Currents, Water Levels. http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/ stations.html?type=Water+Levels Downloaded February 29, 2016.
R.L. Swanson et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin 108 (2016) 215–231 NOAA, 2015c. Monthly mean sea level interannual variation. tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/ trends/residual1980.htm?stand=8518750 Downloaded August 11, 2013. Ofiara, D.O., 2015. The New York Bight 25 years later: use impairments and policy challenges. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 90, 281–298. Scully, P.A., 2014. State of solid waste management on Long Island. Power Point Presentation at the National Waste and Recycling Association, Garden City, NY February 26. Sugawara, D., Goto, K., Jaffe, B.E., 2014. Numerical models of tsunami sediment transport— current understanding and future directions. 50th anniversary special issue. Mar. Geol. 352, 295–320. Swanson, R.L., 1976. Tides. MESA New York Bight Monograph 3. New York Sea Grant Institute, Albany, NY, p. 34 pp. Swanson, R.L., Zimmer, R.L., 1990. Meteorological conditions leading to the 1987 and 1988 wash ups of floatable wastes on New York and New Jersey beaches and comparison of these conditions with the historical record. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 30, 59–78. Swanson, R.L., Stanford, H.M., O'Connor, J.S., Chanesman, S., Parker, C.A., Eisen, P.A., Mayer, G.F., 1978. June 1976 pollution of Long Island ocean beaches. J. Environ. Eng. Div. 104 (EE6), 1067–1085 ASCE.
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Swanson, R.L., Bell, T.M., Kahn, J., Olha, J., 1991. Use impairments and ecosystem impacts of the New York Bight. Chem. Ecol. 5, 99–127. Swanson, R.L., Wilson, R.E., Brownawell, B., Willig, K., 2015. Performance of selected sewage treatment plants in Nassau, Suffolk, and Westchester Counties with emphasis on the marine environmental impacts from flooding at the Bay Park Facility. Technical Report, New York State Resiliency Institute for Storms and Emergencies, NYS RISE TR-41-13. USGS, 2015. USGS current conditions for 0131143 Hog Island Channel at Island Park, NY. waterdata.usgs.gov/ny/nwis/uv?site_no=01311143. Valle-Levinson, A., Swanson, R.L., 1991. Wind induced scattering of medically-related and sewage-related floatables. Mar. Technol. Soc. J. 25 (2), 49–56. Wijetunge, J.J., 2006. Tsunami on 26 December 2004: spatial distribution of tsunami height and the extent of inundation in Sri Lanka. Sci. Tsunami Haz. 24 (3), 225–239. Wilson, S.G., Fischetti, T.R., 2010. Coastline Population Trends in the United States: 1960– 2008. www.census.gov/prod/2010pubs/p25-1139 pdf. Downloaded February 5, 2016.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Marine Pollution Bulletin journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpolbul
Superstorm Sandy marine debris wash-ups on Long Island — What happened to them? R. Lawrence Swanson ⁎, Kamazima Lwiza, Kaitlin Willig, Kaitlin Morris School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-5000, USA
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 3 December 2015 Received in revised form 31 March 2016 Accepted 14 April 2016 Available online 6 May 2016 Keywords: Superstorm Sandy Long Island Marine debris Debris collection
a b s t r a c t Superstorm Sandy generated huge quantities of debris in the Long Island, NY coastal zone. However, little appears to have been washed offshore to eventually be returned to Long Island's beaches as marine debris wash-ups. Information for our analysis includes debris collection statistics, very high resolution satellite images, along with wind and sea level data. Rigorous debris collection efforts along with meteorological conditions following the storm appear to have reduced the likelihood of debris wash-ups. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Storm surge generated debris resulting from destruction of facilities and infrastructure as well as discharges from storm sewers and overland flow during Superstorm Sandy (October 29, 2012) created a major waste management problem for Long Island, New York. Superstorm Sandy struck the New Jersey coast near Brigantine. Maximum sustained winds reached 130 kmh−1 (70 knots) as it approached the coast, and the National Hurricane Center classified it as a posttropical cyclone (Blake et al., 2013). Sandy's geographic extent was extremely large (≈1612 km or 870 nautical miles in diameter), generating a record-breaking storm surge in many locations (Blake et al., 2013). Early estimates within the United States rank Sandy as one of the most devastating and costly ($71 billion in 2012 dollars) storms (NOAA, 2013). Storm tide (sum of astronomical tide plus storm surge above a specified tidal datum) was 4.29 m (14.00 ft) above MLLW (Blake et al., 2013) or 3.44 m (11.28 ft) above NAVD 88 at The Battery, NY — a record elevation for that station. The storm tide of the U.S. Geological Survey Water Quality monitoring station at Hog Island Channel in Hempstead Bay, Long Island was 2.98 m (9.78 ft) above NAVD 88 where the Bay Park Sewage Treatment Plant (Fig. 1) was severely damaged by Sandy storm surge (height of water level above predicted astronomical tide) and totally shut down for several days (Swanson et al., 2015).
⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (R.L. Swanson), kamazima. [email protected] (K. Lwiza), [email protected] (K. Willig), kaitlin. [email protected] (K. Morris).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.04.029 0025-326X/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Maximum storm surge at The Battery and Atlantic City, NJ occurred almost simultaneously with predicted high tide. For several tidal cycles, storm surges on the order of a meter persisted. While many Atlantic coastal states experienced marine debris from Sandy, NOAA (2013) identified the New York Bight including both New Jersey and New York as sustaining “heavy” damage to critical infrastructure. In part this damage was because of the high population density of the area — ocean coastline counties of New York and New Jersey rank numbers one and two in the country (Wilson and Fischetti, 2010). The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA's) “model estimated relative marine debris encounter probability” following Sandy identifies coastal New Jersey and the south shore of Long Island as being in the medium to high range and New York Harbor toward the high (NOAA, 2013). This same report stipulates that considerable debris was transported from the barrier islands into the back bays and their marshes and uplands. On Long Island, debris did wash into waterways, onto marshes, beaches, and into the open ocean. Such material can be a threat to public health and safety as well as a hazard to navigation. Ecologically, it can damage wetlands and be harmful to living marine resources. Entanglement, ingestion, and suffocation affecting fishes, mammals, turtles, birds, and other marine organisms are of particular concern. Debris can also be a vector for invasive species as it is spread across the oceans (Gregory, 2009). It can have a major impact on local economies as a consequence of closed beaches or shellfishing grounds—particularly when it is associated with combined sewer overflows (CSOs) and malfunctioning sewage treatment plants. The marine debris wash-ups along the coast of New Jersey in 1987 and New York in 1988 (Swanson and Zimmer, 1990) resulted in tourist-related, total expenditure losses between $1.3 billion and $5.4 billion in 1987 dollars (Kahn et al., 1989; Swanson et al., 1991;
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Fig. 1. Map of study area (Hempstead Bay, Great South Bay, south shore of Long Island) defined in Google Earth extract. The border demarcates the study area of approximately 415 km2.
Valle-Levinson and Swanson, 1991). Some 37 million to 121 million user-days at ocean beaches were lost during the same events (ValleLevinson and Swanson, 1991). Ofiara (2015) revisited these economic losses and the impact of some of the environmental policies that were adopted at that time. Debris (destruction of built infrastructure and marine facilities) from the 2011 Japanese tsunami transited the North Pacific Ocean, stranding on the shores of Washington, Oregon, and Alaska. The Wall Street Journal reported about the possible invasive species attached to much of
that debris and the potential harmful repercussions that might occur in the Pacific Northwest (Muldoon, 2015). Following Superstorm Sandy, there was a concerted effort to remove debris rapidly by various governmental entities on Long Island. These included the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Nassau and Suffolk Counties, and the Towns of Hempstead, Babylon, Islip, and Brookhaven. On April 15, 2013, close to the opening of the Long Island boating season, the Supervisor of the Town of Hempstead warned that despite cleaning up debris for five months, much remained in local waterways. Navigational
Table 1 Partial estimated debris removal costs and tonnages from some towns in Nassau and Suffolk Counties. Town
Estimated tonnage (tonnes (tons))
Estimated total costs (millions of $)
Babylon Brookhaven Islip Fire Island (Brookhaven and Islip)
11,974 (13,201)
56,122 (~61,875)
5.5 8.28 11.3 4.3–4.9
108,844 (120,000)
29.4–30.1 8.4–9.6
Suffolk County (total) Hempstead Long Beach
29.7
Nassau County (total)
38.1–39.3
Method of disposal
Truck, barge. Most was landfilled in upstate N.Y. and Pennsylvania. Some debris were burned at Brookhaven Landfill temporarily.
Most was relocated to WTE facilities, a small amount was landfilled, and a small amount was composted.
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Fig. 2. Helicopter flying over water 0.6 km from Fire Island Inlet. Note the shadow of the helicopter on the water, (40.62113571, −73.31500018).
Fig. 3. GeoEye-1 panchromatic image mosaicked from four images (two from December 3, 2011; December 14, 2011, October 20, 2012) to represent Superstorm Sandy pre-storm condition.
hazards persisted (Murray, 2013). Some of the materials collected included lumber, damaged boats, bulkheading, sections of houses, oil tanks, furniture, oil, and sewage related items. Operation SPLASH, an environmental organization, even collected a grandfather clock and a soda vending machine (Murray, 2013).
The causes of these several marine debris events were considerably different but serve to show the devastation that extreme natural events and their associated marine debris can have. The March 11, 2011 Japanese tsunami was generated by a magnitude 9 undersea quake about 80 km (43 nautical miles) offshore of
Fig. 4. GeoEye-1 panchromatic image, November 3, 2012, representing post-storm conditions after Superstorm Sandy.
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Table 2 Select monthly wind speeds, directions, and constancies. Ideal conditions for a marine debris wash-up on LI's south shore are a source of marine debris (e.g., CSO events, storm surge) and persistent wind (constancy N50%) with a direction from 135°T–225°T. Year
Month
Resultant wind direction (°T)
Resultant wind speed (mph)
Scalar wind speed (mph)
Constancy (%)
1976 1987 1988 2012 2012 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013
June August July November December January February March April May June July August September
200 230 210 330 320 280 310 320 190 200 200 210 230 270
6.3 1.3 1.3 5.9 4.8 7.2 6.3 7.5 1.4 2.9 4.5 4.1 3.8 2.6
11.4 9.9 9.3 11.1 11.8 12.0 13.2 13.9 12.3 10.4 11.0 9.9 9.7 9.7
55 13 58 53 41 60 48 54 11 28 41 41 39 27
Sendai in the Pacific Ocean (NOAA, 2015a). It was the fourth largest since 1900 at that time. As of early 2015, about 16,000 deaths with some 2000 people still missing were attributed to it. More than 102,000 homes were destroyed by the tsunami alone. The overall cost from the earthquake and tsunami in Japan was $220 billion (NOAA, 2015a).
Tide gauges close to the tsunami's landfall in Japan recorded water levels as high as 9 m (29.5 ft). Run up, or the difference between the elevation of the maximum landward penetration and sea level at the time of arrival, was 38.9 m (127.6 ft) (tide removed) (NOAA, 2015b). The tsunami was experienced throughout the Pacific Ocean basin. For example, at Port Orford, OR, the water level elevations relative to mean lower low water were 1.94 m (6.4 ft) and −0.97 m (−3.2 ft) at maximum and minimum, respectively. Corrected for tide levels at the time, the maximum tsunami wave height was 2.96 m (11.3 ft) (NOAA, 2015b). However, once in the ocean, the debris from any of these events was subject to the same forces—wind and current. The significance of wind is particularly important for large floating pieces where windage (area above the waterline exposed to the wind) may be more important to its dispersion and transport than current (see, for example, ValleLevinson and Swanson, 1991). With persistent summer southerly winds, Long Island's ocean beaches are prone to debris wash-ups provided that there is a source of material. There was a concern following Sandy, given its destructive nature, that the south shore of Long Island would experience washups during the summer of 2013 from: • debris transported seaward with the northwesterly winds of winter thus returning with the southerlies of summer and, • refloated debris from that stored in marshes and above the general
Fig. 5. Felled trees on South Black Banks Hassock indicating wind gusts with varying directions.
Fig. 6. Not a single tree fell in the forest stand near Bergen Point County Park.
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Fig. 7. Large marine debris, which could be a pier or roof, (40.59752363, −73.71931521).
high tide line, etc. caused by the higher sea levels that occur in summer (Swanson, 1976).
2. Materials and methods 2.1. Cleanup
To the best of our knowledge, there was neither a significant problem concerning the wash-up of debris immediately following the storm nor over the following summer. We attribute this to several factors:
We compiled debris collection statistics from the Towns of Babylon, Brookhaven, Hempstead, and Islip, and from Fire Island and the City of Long Beach. Most of this information was gathered through interviews or email (Table 1).
• there was a considerable effort to remove debris that accumulated along the shoreline following Sandy, • the prevailing winds after the storm through the following summer were not conducive for returning floating debris to the Island, and • sea level did not reach elevations necessary to refloat the ravages of the storm.
2.2. Satellite imagery
We explore these notions by reviewing some of the waste collection statistics generated by the various agencies and organizations that gathered storm-generated debris, examining satellite imagery for evidence of debris in the water following the storm, and reviewing the wind and sea level history in the region over the period November 2012 through August 2013.
The study area was limited to the southern portions of Nassau County and western Suffolk County (just east of East Islip) where much of the Sandy damage was sustained. The emergence of new satellite sensors, which produce very high resolution (VHR) images, has revolutionized the way environmental and urban monitoring is conducted. Digital data formats can easily be put into a geographic information system (GIS) that provide an attractive alternative to aerial photographs. The images used in this investigation span a period of four years (2011–2014) with the main focus in November 2012, immediately following Sandy. To minimize costs, we initially used a small image from the French satellite SPOT 6, covering 100 km2 (38.6 miles2) with a 1.5 m (4.9 ft) panchromatic and 6 m (19.7 ft) multispectral (blue, green, red, near
Fig. 8. A stranded boat, (40.59668736, −73.7191533).
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Fig. 9. Large debris (~2–3 m) Fire Island Inlet sticking above water high enough to cast a shadow. There are several other pieces of debris, notably the large piece to the northeast, (40.6061987, −73.34601529).
infra-red) resolution. The resolution of 1.5 m (4.9 ft) was too coarse for the task. We then ordered two satellite images from GeoEye-1 of the south shore of Long Island between Fire Island Inlet and to the west of Jones Inlet, covering 415 km2 (160 miles2) (Fig. 1). The images provide 0.41 m (16 in.) panchromatic and 1.65 m (5.4 ft) multispectral resolution in 15.2 km (9.4 miles) swaths. The spacecraft is in sunsynchronous orbit flying at an altitude of 681 km (423 mi). We obtained our images from Apollo mapping, one of several vendors for Digital Globe products. Fig. 2 demonstrates the resolution scale of GeoEye-1 image by capturing a flying helicopter and its shadow on the water. For the pre-storm assessment, we had to use a mosaic of four images (two from December 3, 2011; December 14, 2011; October 20, 2012) in order to create one that was cloud free (Fig. 3). For the post-storm (Fig. 4), we were able to obtain one image with less than 15% cloud cover on November 3, 2012. We used Integraph's ERDAS Imagine software to analyze the images. The five images were georeferenced in the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system, Zone 18 north, North American Datum for 1983 (NAD83). Every image was supplied with a mathematical model of the image geometry represented by rational polynomial coefficients (RPCs). We reviewed approximately 254 subscenes for any signs of damage, marine debris or change detection. We focused on 104 of them. Sixty-eight sub-scenes of the post-storm image were examined for marine debris offshore. Thirty-six sub-
scenes were analyzed for damage of structures and wetlands. Google Earth time series images were also used to supplement the VHR images.
2.3. Wind sea level observations In order to determine factors that influenced marine debris patterns, daily wind data observed at JFK International Airport (adjacent to the study area) were obtained from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) website (http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/IPS/lcd/ lcd.html). We computed frequencies in major directions and plotted monthly wind roses from October 2012 to September 2013. Additionally, the monthly wind data were used to compile wind persistence or constancy statistics, defined as: (Mean vector wind speed/mean scalar wind speed) ×100. This measure provides an indication of the persistence of the wind relative to the resultant direction (Table 2). Monthly mean sea level data from NOAA (2015c) were used to compare sea level from November 2012 to September 2013 to that from around the time of the storm. This information at The Battery, NY is useful for understanding whether elevated sea level occurred such that marine debris could have been refloated after Sandy. The Sandy Hook, NJ tide gauge record did not operate continuously following the storm.
Fig. 10. A house moved onto wetland apparently from southeast based on scars on the vegetation on West Crow Island, (40.61566281, −73.54833359).
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Fig. 11. a A large piece of debris (probably a construction barge with a crane) on North Meadow Island, (40.61021825, −73.5686275). Fig. 11b A Google Earth image taken on March 6, 2012 showing no barge. Fig. 11c A Google Earth image taken on November 3, 2012 showing the barge.
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Fig. 12. A pier or roof debris in the channel on Long Beach, (40.59331397,−73.7116298).
Fig. 13. Submerged pier. The pier remains intact floating at the surface, (40.61557936, −73.69553816).
3. Results 3.1. Cleanup As can be imagined, the magnitudes of the debris collected postSandy are incomplete. Some data were reported by weight, others by
volume. Conversion from one mode to the other is imprecise. The various organizations involved in collection didn't have all their data totally collated and tabulated during our inquiry. Operation SPLASH removed 18.6 tonne (20.5 ton) of debris from Hempstead Bay in just a few hours. Operation SPLASH also reported that 3639 tonne (4000 ton) of debris were removed from marshes and waterways around West Bay by private contractors following
Fig. 14. Damaged marina and submerged boats in Hewlett Neck, (40.62129667, −73.69734046).
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Fig. 15. Damaged piers on east side of channel but piers on the west side almost intact Hewlett Bay Park, (40.62989018, −73.69084065).
Fig. 16. Pier moved onto land Hewlett Bay Park, (40.63241303, −73.69159614).
Sandy (Rob Weltner, personal communication, August 12, 2015). This included some 20 “bay houses” destroyed by the storm. (Bay houses are small, two- or three-room, single story structures usually with a deck built on pilings in the marshes and are historic fishing and hunting shacks now used for recreation) (Long Island Traditions, 2015). The
New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) and Nassau County issued the contracts. The NYSDEC estimated that more than 453,600 tonne (500,000 ton) of debris were generated on Long Island by Sandy (Scully, 2014). Most of this material was transported off Long Island to a variety of solid waste management
Fig. 17. Missing pier and a damaged one nearby but minimum damage overall at Sequams Lane E in Babylon Cove, (40.6878645, −73.31185088).
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Fig. 18. Wantagh Park, all piers appear to be undamaged, (40.64599618, −73.5149083).
facilities; some was recycled. The NYSDEC allowed limited discretion with regard to state air quality regulations to permit up to 3823 m3d−1 (5000 yd3d−1) of vegetative material to be burned at the Town of Brookhaven ashfill due to the excessive volume of material collected and the unavailability of railcars or marine vessels for transport. The burning in several “fire boxes” was terminated when the permit was not renewed in mid-February 2013 largely because of complaints from the community near the ashfill concerning odors and the possibility of toxic fumes. Emergency authorizations were given to several facilities to treat increased loads (Scully, 2014). For example, the Covanta Waste-to-Energy plants at both the Towns of Hempstead and Babylon handled considerable quantities of the collected debris. Thus, municipal solid waste (MSW) collected in the Town of Brookhaven backed up at its transfer station because of insufficient capacity at Hempstead where Brookhaven MSW is incinerated. Some sites that were not permitted were also given temporary authorizations to handle debris waste for a period not to exceed 60 days (Scully, 2014). Following Sandy, 113 emergency authorizations were granted to handle storm-generated refuse (Scully, 2014). In addition to trucking and barging debris off Long Island, three permitted railroad transfer facilities were also used including Farmingdale, Lindenhurst, and Brentwood. Barges operated out of Oceanside, hauling 18.1–27.2 tonne (20–30 ton) of waste per barge. They transited the Hudson River to the vicinity of Albany where they were offloaded to trucks for ultimate disposition (Michael White, personal communication). Some debris was treated as Construction and Demolition (C&D) waste and disposed at the Brookhaven Town Ashfill. The U. S. Army
Corps of Engineers removed much of the debris that accumulated on Fire Island (Michael White, personal communication). The quantities of material collected by various entities (Table 1) suggest that debris removal was quite effective. However the collection efforts were clearly not coordinated; transportation of debris and venues for disposal were not always readily available. The federal government had to intervene, imposing emergency conditions through the Surface Transportation Board (formerly the Interstate Commerce Commission) and the Federal Railroad Administration (Michael White, personal communication) in order to allow the railroads to provide railcars at reasonable rates to move material quickly. While not necessarily coordinated, Long Island towns were perhaps the most effective in removing debris. This is largely the consequence of towns traditionally handling MSW on a day-to-day basis and being aware of public pushback when MSW is not routinely removed on schedule (Michael White, personal communication). 3.2. Satellite imagery Results are described on a figure-by-figure basis. The white arrows or boxes in the figures indicate areas of interest. The numbers in parentheses represent latitude followed by longitude in decimal degrees. Fig. 5 shows fallen trees in South Black Banks Hassock. We examined fallen trees to ascertain if there was any pattern to the destruction, which could then be used to determine the most damaging wind direction. However, no pattern was found. Fig. 6 shows a tree stand in the vicinity of the Bergen Point County Park where it is apparent that not a single
Fig. 19. House moved 230 m west toward the center of Oak Island, (40.64493331,−73.29342243).
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Fig. 20. Boat with its pier stranded in salt marsh, (40.61923421,−73.68599458).
tree fell. The location is close to the shore, which implies that the wind spatial patterns varied substantially over small distances. A large piece of marine debris, which is probably a broken pier or a roof blown off a building, appears in Fig. 7. Fig. 8 shows a small boat, ~3.5 m (~11.5 ft), stranded on the side of a wetland. By November 3, 2012, five days after the storm, there were large debris pieces still floating offshore (Fig. 9). The piece in the middle of the image is estimated to have above surface expression of 2–3 m (6.6– 9.8 ft), probably a boat. Fig. 10 is an excellent demonstration of the storm's force, showing how a house was transported from near the shoreline into the interior of a wetland on West Crow Island. The largest piece of debris was a construction barge with its crane intact as shown in Fig. 11a. Using Google Earth, there was no sign of the barge before the storm (Fig. 11b), but there was on November 3, 2012 (Fig. 11c). The Google Earth image (not shown) for this area taken on June 19, 2014 shows that the abandoned barge was still there. Figs. 12–17 indicate damage to piers in the study area. However, Fig. 18 shows that piers in Wantagh Park seem to be unscathed. If there was any damage, it was not detectable with GeoEye-1. Fig. 15 shows that piers on the west side of the channel in Hewlett Bay Park were not affected, whereas those on the eastern side sustained some form of damage. This is intriguing because one would expect damage to be almost evenly distributed on both sides as the storm surge moved into the channel. We hypothesize that as it was transiting upstream into the channel, it was being pushed to the eastern side by the wind. Certainly, because the channel is narrow, the Coriolis effect due to the Earth's rotation is not expected to have much impact. Fig. 19 is another example of a house (on Oak Island) being moved approximately 230 m (755 ft)
from its original location. Note that its pier remained intact. A stranded boat with its pier appears in a salt marsh (Fig. 20). In addition, Figs. 21 and 22 indicate damage to piers on Barnum Island and Anchor Estates. A variety of marine debris offshore, probably including furniture, small pieces of buildings, and boats, is shown in Figs. 23–26. Seemingly, based on our image, the concentration of debris decreased with distance from shore. However, if debris was released from the bays in pulses, we cannot ascertain whether there was more debris farther offshore due to the small aerial coverage of our image. From the images, offshore marine debris was found in the western portion of our study area closer to the Nassau County/New York City border. It was composed of small objects ranging from 1 pixel to 6 pixels (0.5–3 m, 1.5–9.8 ft), with an average size of 3 pixels (1.5 m, 4.9 ft). The heaviest concentration was relatively close to shore.
3.3. Wind and sea level observations In November and December, immediately following Sandy, winds were variable from the south through the west to the northeast but the prevailing winds were offshore from the northerly quadrants (Fig. 27 and Table 2). Constancies were quite high and the wind was capable of transporting floatables seaward and to the south. In January 2013, the winds were north of west while the constancy was 60%. February and March also had strong, persistent northwesterlies. The winds shifted to south-southwesterly in April and May (Fig. 28) but with constancies of only 11 and 28%, respectively. By June through August, the winds were southerly to southwesterly, but the constancies were below 50%
Fig. 21. Several piers damaged on Barnum Island, (40.5973949,−73.64877612).
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Fig. 22. Several damaged piers nearby Anchor Estates, (40.58934291,−73.71557591).
(typically the minimum constancy for a major wash-up on the south shore) and speeds were relatively low as well. Fig. 29 shows the monthly sea level anomalies relative to the record since 1990 for The Battery, NY. With the exception of December 2012 and March 2013, monthly mean sea levels were lower than those around the time of Sandy. In fact, sea level during 2013 was generally lower than that of several previous years. The storm surge in West Bay reached 2.98 m (9.79 ft) relative to NAVD 88 during Sandy (Swanson et al., 2015). The highest recorded water level elevation over the period of November 2012 through September 2013 was 1.42 m (4.65 ft) (NAVD 88), some 1.5 m (5 ft) lower than the maximum elevation during Sandy (USGS, 2015, downloaded August 12, 2015). Sea levels generally didn't reach elevations to refloat much debris stored in wetlands and elsewhere for most of 2013. 4. Discussion A concerted effort was made following Sandy to physically remove debris from the storm that was along the coastline and in the marshes. In fact, Rob Weltner of Operation SPLASH and a frequenter of the south shore lagoons stated that the marshes in Hempstead Bay were “very clean compared to the past” (personal communication, August 12, 2015). While we were able to detect some debris in the water following Sandy, our satellite images didn't detect large quantities. Water levels
throughout much of the year following Sandy never reached elevations that would have refloated stored debris from the surge. The prevailing winds for some months following Sandy were also not conducive to transporting material that escaped into the water back to the south shore of Long Island. Long Island experienced major marine debris wash-ups in the summers of 1976 and 1988. In these instances, the material was largely sewage-related (grease balls, condoms, tampon applicators, plastics). Essentially anything that floated had the potential to wash ashore (Swanson et al., 1978; Swanson and Zimmer, 1990). Besides sewage materials and other waste, medical waste (syringes with and without needles, bandages, pill vials, laboratory gloves, etc.) was a particular concern during the 1988 beach wash-ups (Swanson and Zimmer, 1990). These events occurred because excessive rainfall triggered combined sewer overflows (CSOs) in the New York-New Jersey Harbor Estuary in conjunction with persistent southerly to southwesterly winds for an extended period of time (weeks). Little was known about the behavior of medical waste in water. However, field experiments showed that the speed, direction of travel, and scatter were dependent on windage (Valle-Levinson and Swanson, 1991). For example, the range of scatter (in degrees) was five times greater for large vials relative to drift cards, which had no windage. In June 1976, the mean vector wind speed and direction were 2.8 ms−1 (6.3 mph) and 200°T, respectively (Table 2). Comparable
Fig. 23. Scattered marine debris (~2 m in length), (40.56148412, −73.69729964).
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Fig. 24. Scattered marine debris approximately 3 km south of Atlantic Beach, (40.55561624, −73.69003091).
Fig. 25. A possibly stranded boat or buoy tall enough to cast a shadow, (40.56548775, −73.61336445).
statistics for July 1988 were 2.4 ms−1 (5.4 mph) and 21°T. The constancies were 55% in 1976 and 58% in 1988. As a contrast, the constancy in August 1987 was 13% (Swanson and Zimmer, 1990). In the latter case, New Jersey beaches experienced a major wash-up of debris while Long Island beaches were clean. Also, if the wind is west of southwest,
the Coriolis effect seems to shift floatable debris just enough to the right of the wind so as to avoid a wash up on Long Island, which falls along a roughly east-northeast direction. Larger debris associated with storm events would be subject to not only windage but draft as well. Generally the flow of water through
Fig. 26. Stranded boat, (40.67369757, −73.29899317).
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the New York Bight is from the northeast to the southwest following the contours of bottom topography (Hansen, 1977). However, this flow can be modified considerably by local wind stress (Hansen, 1977; Han et al., 1980). On occasions the flow can be reversed (Han et al., 1980). With the general flow of surface water being from the northeast toward the southwest in the New York Bight, in all likelihood, any material that was in the water was transported offshore by the northwesterly winds and dispersed to the south immediately after Sandy. The winds were not sufficiently strong and persistent to transport debris back to the north the following summer. Additionally, the character of the Sandy-related debris was different than that of the classic sewage derived debris that has been associated with Long Island beach closures. In the case of our study area, where there are no CSOs,
several of the sewage treatment plants (Bay Park, for example) shut down as a consequence of flooding during Sandy (Swanson et al., 2015). They did not bypass unscreened sewage. Sandy debris was generally larger and bulkier so that the draft to windage ratio was larger. Much of the Sandy-related material was prone to the vagaries of ocean currents, not just the influence of the wind at the air–sea interface. 5. Conclusions A concerted effort was made following Sandy to physically remove storm debris along the coastline and in the marshes. The prevailing winds for some months following Sandy were determined not to be
Fig. 27. Wind roses for October 2012 to March 2013 showing strong offshore winds, which kept the debris offshore.
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conducive to transporting material that escaped into the water back to the south shore of Long Island. Long Island's south shore did not experience a major wash-up of Sandy-related debris in the months following the initial event. Many expected that a marine debris wash-up would occur in the summer of 2013 with the summertime high stands of sea level (monthly mean sea level for the New York region fluctuates about 17 cm (6.7 in.) throughout the year; it's highest in summer (Swanson, 1976)) and the prevailing southerly to southwesterly winds. Stored material would be refloated and some that had escaped cleanup would drift shoreward. This was not the case.
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We attribute this to: • the intensive effort to clean up debris immediately following Sandy, • the winds immediately following the storm were strongly offshore dispersing debris broadly to the south with the general flow of water from northeast to southwest, and • debris was not washed from marshes and above the Sandy storm high water mark because mean sea level in the region during 2013 was generally lower than that around the time of Sandy.
Fig. 28. Wind roses for April to September 2013. In spring strong winds were predominantly from the southeast. There were weak winds in May from east-southeast to south-southwest. Summer wind direction was the normal southwesterlies.
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Fig. 29. Five month moving average of monthly mean sea level with seasonal cycle and linear trend removed for The Battery, NY (NOAA, 2015c).
In many ways, it was fortunate that Sandy occurred at the end of October rather than during the height of the beach season. Very likely beaches would have been closed for a considerable period to avoid injuries and to allow clean up. Material that escaped into the ocean would likely have been washed back onto Long Island beaches. It is clear that excessive rainfall can cause CSO events that overwhelm sewage treatment plants causing release of sewage related items and other debris to the marine environment. This then is transported seaward by classic estuarine circulation processes. However, it is interesting to speculate about the physical processes that influence generation and distribution of marine debris from storm surge and tsunami events. The 2011 Japanese tsunami created so much debris that NOAA actually made forecasts of its fate over a five-year time span. Sandy doesn't seem to have contributed that much debris to the open ocean. Cleanup operations didn't begin immediately after the event so seemingly debris could have escaped into the ocean. The difference is based on the fact that the scale of the tsunami crest is much larger than a storm surge. A tsunami hazard is typically quantified by the inundation area, run-up height, and flow depth and speed (Sugawara et al., 2014). The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, ranked as the most devastating on record, causing waves as high as 10 m (32.8 ft) (Wijetunge, 2006), although run-up heights have been reported up to 20 m (66 ft). Storm surge, on the other hand, is usually less than 2 m (2.6 ft); however, there are reports of surges upward of 5 m (16.4 ft) around the Indian coast (Dube et al., 1997). Tsunami by their sheer sizes can be more destructive on land. Crests are capable of carrying a bus or a large yacht 1 km (0.62 mi) inland. As water starts to recede during the trough phase, the debris created by destruction can be carried far to sea with its long wave length. While the meteorological and physical oceanographic forces were not favorable for a wash-up on the south shore of Long Island, the biggest factor reducing a beach debris problem was that of the quick clean-up response of the towns and cities on Long Island. Additionally, the NYSDEC acted responsibly in assuring that emergency and routine permits were issued in a timely manner so that clean up could be undertaken smoothly. It seems that the towns are the appropriate level of government to undertake such an onerous task, as they understand the frustration that exists when waste isn't quickly and effectively removed and they have access to much of the needed equipment. These governmental agencies are close to the people. Certainly there is need to improve coordination among towns in order to reduce competition for resources such as trucks, barges, and waste facilities for ultimate disposal. Working relationships must be
improved between government and private industry for providing hauling and disposal services. In times of emergency, industry cannot exploit the situation for excessive profits. Acknowledgments This work was carried out and funded under the auspices of New York State's Resiliency Institute for Storm Emergencies (award #67784). We would like to acknowledge the assistance of the Towns of Hempstead, Babylon, Islip, and Brookhaven in providing waste load statistics even as debris was being collected. Michael White of Anthony E. Core, P.C. was particularly helpful in giving us insight into the complications that arose as waste was being collected and disposal venues were sought. We also appreciate the assistance of Bonnie Stephens in preparing and editing this manuscript. References Blake, E.S., Kimberlain, T.B., Berg, R.J., Cangialosi, J.P., Beven II, J.L., 2013. Tropical Cyclone Report, Hurricane Sandy (AL 182012) 22–29 October 2012. National Hurricane Center, NOAA, Miami, FL, p. 157 pp. Dube, S.K., Rao, A.D., Sinha, P.C., Murty, T.S., Bahulayan, N., 1997. Storm surge in the bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea: the problem and its prediction. Mausam 48 (2), 283–304. Gregory, M.R., 2009. Environmental implications of plastic debris in marine settings — entanglement, ingestion, smothering, hangers-on, hitch-hiking and alien invasions. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 364, 2013–2025. Han, G., Hansen, D.V., Galt, J.A., 1980. Steady-state model of the New York Bight. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 10, 1998–2020. Hansen, D.V., 1977. Circulation. MESA New York Bight Monograph 3. New York Sea Grant Institute, Albany, NY, p. 23 pp. Kahn, J., Ofiara, D., McCay, B., 1989. Economic measures of beach closures, economic measures of toxic seafood, economic measures of pathogens in shellfish, economic measures of commercial navigation and recreational boating—floatable hazards. WMI. Use Impairments and Ecosystem Impacts of the New York Bight. Waste Management Institute. SUNY, Stony Brook, NY, p. 271. Long Island Traditions, 2015. Bay Houses. Longislandtraditions.org/southshore/ architecture/bayhouses/index.html Downloaded February 9, 2016. Muldoon, K., 2015. After slow, cold trip across Pacific, sea creatures find little warmth. Wall Street J. 10 Vol. CCLXV. January 13. Murray, K., 2013. Murray to mariners: Beware of Sandy debris, Town, County, and SPLASH steer boaters to safe start of season on waterways. http://toh.li/news/894 Downloaded February 8, 2015. NOAA, 2013. Seven Marine Debris Events Report: Superstorm Sandy, Overview and Update to Congress. August 2013 Marinedebris.noaa.gov/report/seven-marine-debrisevent-report-superstorm-Sandy Downloaded February 4, 2016. NOAA, 2015a. March 11, 2011 Japan Earthquake and Tsunami. National Centers for Environmental Information. www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazard/11march2011.html Update March 2015. Downloaded February 8, 2016. 5 pp. NOAA, 2015b. Tides and Currents, Water Levels. http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/ stations.html?type=Water+Levels Downloaded February 29, 2016.
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