The age of the Lower Paleolithic site of Kefar Menachem West, Israel—Another facet of Acheulian variability

Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 10 (2016) 350–362

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The age of the Lower Paleolithic site of Kefar Menachem West, Israel—Another facet of Acheulian variability☆ Ariel Malinsky-Buller a,b,⁎, Omry Barzilai c, Avner Ayalon d, Mira Bar-Matthews d, Michal Birkenfeld c, Naomi Porat d, Hagai Ron(1944–2012) e, Joel Roskin f,g, Oren Ackermann h,i a

Department of Anthropology, University of Connecticut, 354 Mansfield Road, Storrs, CT 06269, United States Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Mt. Scopus, 91905 Jerusalem, Israel c Israel Antiquities Authority, P.O.B. 586, Jerusalem, Israel d Geological Survey of Israel, 30 Malkhei Israel St., Jerusalem 95501, Israel e The Institute of Earth Sciences, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Givat Ram, Jerusalem 91904, Israel f Department of Maritime Civilizations, Charney School of Marine Studies and the Leon Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies (RIMS), University of Haifa, Mt. Carmel, Haifa 31905, Israel g School of Sciences, Achva Academic College, Israel h The Department of Land of Israel Studies, Ashkelon Academic College, Ashkelon, 78211, Israel i Institute of Archaeology, The Martin (Szusz) Department of Land of Israel Studies and Archaeology, Bar-Ilan University, 5290002 Ramat-Gan, Israel b

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 15 April 2016 Received in revised form 5 October 2016 Accepted 17 October 2016 Available online 8 November 2016 Keywords: Acheulian Dating Middle Pleistocene TT-OSL Paleomagnetism

a b s t r a c t A salvage excavation at the Lower Paleolithic site of Kefar Menahem West in the interior of the Israeli coastal plain yielded a flake industry devoid of handaxes and their byproducts. The archeological finds covering an area exceeding 2000 m2, are found at the contact of two distinct sedimentological units: Quartzic Brown and hamra (red clay loam paleosols). The absence of handaxes hamper placing the site within the relative chronology of the Lower Paleolithic record of the Levant. New paleomagnetic analysis coupled with optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) and thermally transferred optically (TT-OSL) dating yielded a chronological range between 780 and 460 ka for the archeological occupation. The techno-typological similarities with Late Acheulian assemblages together with possible variations in the mode of occupations by early hominids at the site, both suggest that the KMW should be conceived as part of the Late Acheulian variability. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The Lower Paleolithic period and the Acheulian techno-complex in particular have been conceived as a phase of cultural stasis (Isaac, 1972; Isaac, 1976; Lycett and Gowlett, 2008). The research of the Acheulian techno-complex has gravitated toward analysis of handaxes, and cleavers, rather than the flakes, cores, and smaller flaked pieces that numerically dominate most assemblages (e.g., Bordes, 1961; Kleindienst, 1961; Leakey and Roe, 1994). Initially, the Acheulian was defined according the handaxe presence within an assemblage. Handaxes characteristics played a decisive role in the attempts to sub-divide the Acheulian chronologically and culturally (Ashton and White, 2003; Gilead, 1970; Gowlett, 1986; Saragusti, 2003; Sharon, 2007; Bridgland and White, 2015 to name a few). The inner divisions of Lower Paleolithic into taxonomic classificatory units are based on varied criteria, mixing

☆ This paper is dedicated to the memory of Professor Hagai Ron, which this project was one of the last fieldworks he participated in. ⁎ Corresponding author at: Department of Anthropology, University of Connecticut, 354 Mansfield Road, Storrs, CT 06269, United States. E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Malinsky-Buller).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2016.10.010 2352-409X/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

history of research, chronology, geography, and techno-typology or any of their combinations. The Levantine Lower Paleolithic extends over more than million years, spanning from the Early through most of the Middle Pleistocene (Fig. 1; Bar-Yosef and Belmaker, 2011). Gilead (1970), in his seminal work, divided the Levantine Lower Paleolithic record according to the handaxes affinities into three main categories, Early, Middle and Late Acheulian, while the Late was further divided into four cultural units. In the current state of research, integrating sites with flake production with no handaxes into this relative chronology scheme is challenging. It is difficult to create a relative chronology for Lower Paleolithic flake production. Thus, such assemblages, devoid of evidence supporting handaxes production are hard to place chronologically and culturally within the known variability of the Lower Paleolithic. The current paper aims to radiometrically date and articulate such a Lower Paleolithic lithic assemblage within the Lower Paleolithic diachronic variations. The Lower Paleolithic site of Kefar Menahem West (KMW), is located in the interior part of the coastal plain of Israel, at the interface between the Mediterranean and the semi-arid climate zone of the Northern Negev desert fringe (Fig. 2a). The salvage excavation of the

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Fig. 1. Map of the main Lower Paleolithic sites in the Near East 1. Yabrud. 2. El Kowm. 3. Umm El Tlel. 4. Hummal. 5. Tabun cave. 6. Azraq sites. 7. Latamne. 8. Kefar Menachem West. 9. Revadim. 10. Holon. 11. Bizat Ruhama. 12. Nahal Hesi. 13. Kisufim. 14. Evron. 15. Ubediya. 16. Gesher Benot Yaakov. 17. Berekhat Ram. 18. Umm Qatafa. 19. Nahal Zihor. 20. Qesem Cave; Eyal 23. 21. Adlun cave sites: Bezez. Adlun and Abri Zumoffen caves. 22. Dmanisi.

Lower Paleolithic site yielded a flake industry devoid of handaxes and their byproducts (Barzilai et al., 2006). Later in 2011 and 2012 two trench sections (hereafter, T-1 and T-2), dug approximately 30 m west of the original salvage excavation (Figs. 2b, 4b). The exposed sections were studied using sedimentological, pedological, isotopic, and granulometric analyses. Three complementary dating methods (paleomagnetic dating, optically stimulated luminescence [OSL] and thermally transferred OSL [TT-OSL]) were applied. The age estimates helped articulating the KMW site within the regional framework and the Levantine Middle Pleistocene chrono-stratigraphical framework. Moreover, the behavioral inference gained from the study of the lithic assemblage of

the site sheds light on the variability in the behavioral record of the Middle Pleistocene. 1.1. Kefar Menachem West The KMW site, lies 15 km north of the current 350 mm isohyet that comprises a desert fringe with the semi-arid Northern Negev desert. North of the isohyet lies the Mediterranean climate zone where C3 Mediterranean steppe forest gradually changes to a mix of C3 and C4 semi-desert Irano-Turanian vegetation (Vogel et al., 1986; Goodfriend, 1990; Cerling, 1992; Feinbrun-Dothan and Danin, 1998; Goodfriend,

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Fig. 2. A: The Lower Paleolithic sites of the Israeli coastal plain. B. Location map of the excavation and trenches in Kefar Menachem West, the red circle shows the spatial exposure of the lithic artifacts of ca. 2000 m2.

1999). The location of the desert fringe has been suggested to fluctuate along a north-south axis during Quaternary climate changes (Enzel et al., 2008 and references within). Intense surveys in the vicinity of KMW were carried since the 1950s by M. Israel. Thousands of artifacts were collected and mapped including handaxes, choppers and flake tools. A total of 105 handaxes from ca. 9 km2 were collected (11.6 handaxes per sq. km, M. Chazan unpublished report). Another two localities were excavated in the 1970s: Kefar Menahem Lullim (Gilead and Israel, 1975) and Kefar Menahem

Lashon (Goren, 1979). The archeological horizon found in Kefar Menachem Lullim was embedded above an unconformity between hamra1 and layer of dark top paleosol similar to the situation in KMW (Gilead and Israel, 1975). The state of preservation of the lithic material attests that it is most probably derived from secondary deposition (high breakage rate and the lithic artifacts are heavily abraded). Technologically, there is a high representation of the initial stages of knapping (cores, cortical elements and hammerstones). The tool comprises mainly of retouched flakes, side-scrapers and notches while no handaxes were found in context (AMB pers. obs.). Another salvage excavation adjacent to the western edge of Gilead and Israel's excavation at the Lullim. The small excavation (only 5 m2) revealed many flint artifacts in a disturbed clayish soil (Lamdan, 1982). The Lashon locality was found in a conglomerate channel situated on bedrock higher in elevation ca. 120 above sea level (Goren, 1979). The lithic assemblage differs from KMW as it is made on different raw material mainly larger brecciated flint pebbles producing large flake industry with a prominent Levallois component. It appears that the Lashon locality should not be attributed to the Lower Paleolithic but rather to chronologically later time period than that of KMW (AMB and OB pers. obs. for more details see Table 3 and Barzilai et al., 2006). Another locality located approximately 300 m north of KMW, was found, containing handaxes and few fossilized bones. The stratigraphic context from which these finds derived is unknown. Unfortunately, it had been destroyed by construction works (O. Marder, pers. comm.). The 2005 salvage excavation of KMW included three areas; Area A was the densest in finds, while other two areas (B and C) had lowerdensities (Fig. 2b; Table 3; see details in Barzilai et al., 2006). In Area A, most of the artifacts were distributed in two major artifact concentrations (loci 1 and 2, Fig. 3). Locus 2 is larger and sloping toward the north with ca. 30 cm. thickness. Locus 1 is embedded in a shallow depression. Refitting of four flakes into a core derived from Locus 1, (Fig. 7: 3) suggesting that the lithic assemblage was exposed to minimal post-depositional movement. The assemblages include evidence for on-site knapping as there are relatively high frequency of cores as well as primary elements (flakes with N 25% cortical surface) and few hammerstones. The tool component consists of retouched flakes, side scrapers and notches (Barzilai et al., 2006). A few faunal remains were retrieved from Area A. These include—tooth fragments and broken long bones, consistent with the Cervid size order (R. Rabinovich, pers. comm.). The stratigraphy in all three areas was similar with slight lateral variations. The type section containing the main archeological layer is located in Area A, and will be hereafter called KMW-1 (Fig. 4a). The section contains the following stratigraphical units; (Fig. 4): Unit 3 is the lowermost unit and consists of a hamra (Rhodoxeralfs)/husmas (Calcareous Rhodoxeralfs) paleosol. The contact between Unit 3 and Unit 2 is truncated forming an unconformity surface. The archeological horizon was embedded on the unconformity surface between Units 3 and 2. Unit 2 is a sandy clay-loam Quartzic Brown paleosol (as defined Wieder and Gvirtzman, 1999). Unit 1 is composed of a Brown Soil (Haploxeralfs) (Fig. 4b, see below). In the current study, samples for both sedimentological and dating analysis were collected from two probe trenches (T-1 and T-2), dug ca. 30 m. west of the original excavation2 in 2011 and 2012 (Figs. 2b, 3b). In T-1 and T-2 a core and a flake, respectively, were found at the interface between the truncated hamra and the Quartzic Brown paleosol (Fig. 7: 4, 10). In the exposed sections of a current road constructed after the salvage excavation, more lithic artifacts as well as few faunal remains were found in a similar stratigraphic position. The truncation between Unit 2 and Unit 3 can serve as a marker bed, enabling identification of large-scale paleo-surfaces. The area of the exposed 1 Local nomenclature of mature, non-calcareous red Mediterranean soil of sandy clay loam, (Yaalon, 1959). 2 The trenches were excavated by backhoe in 2011 and 2012, as the original sections of the KMW site were not available for dating or any other further study.

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Fig. 3. Artifact density within area A KMW 2005 excavations.

unconformity surface containing lithic and faunal remains is found in at least 2000 m2 (the circle in Fig. 2b). 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Sedimentology Sedimentological and pedological characteristics were studied in the sections of the probe trenches. Each section was described in detail according to structure, texture, sediment compaction unit boundaries, and color. Soil classification was defined after Dan et al. (1972). Particle size distribution of the sediments fine material (grains b2 mm) was measured using a hydrometer (Klute, 1986). Duncan's (1955) multiple range test at α = 0.05 level of significance was applied to the data to determine significant differences in soil textures of units.

2.2. Isotopic analysis Analysis of the carbon isotopic composition (δ13C values) of soils and sediments may provide information on the history of the vegetation type. δ13C values of soil/sediment organic carbon were used in this study as a proxy for past C3–C4 vegetation proportions. The soil CO2 is correlated with the proportion of C3 and C4 vegetation (Amundson et al., 1988; Quade et al., 1989a, 1989b; Alam et al., 1997; Connin et al., 1997). Plants fractionate carbon isotopes along two major distinct metabolic photosynthetic pathways — C3 and C4. Virtually all trees, most shrubs, herbs and cool-season grasses and sedges use the C3 pathway. C4 vegetation, mostly grasses and sedges, is more adapted to warm and dry climates. Lower mean annual temperatures and better soil moisture conditions favor C3 vegetation. C3 vegetation δ13C values range between −34 and −22‰, with an average value of −27 ± 2‰ (e.g., Bender, 1968;

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Fig. 4. A: The section of Kefar MenachemWest 2005 excavation. B: The section of T-1 and T-2.

Deines, 1980; O'Leary, 1995; Smith and Epstein, 1971). C4 vegetation have δ13C values ranging between −18 and −9‰, with an average value of ~ −12‰ (e.g., Bender, 1968; Cai et al., 1988; Cerling, 1984; Deines, 1980; Connin et al., 1997; Ehleringer et al., 1991; Quade et al., 1989a). Thus, lower δ13C values reflect wetter conditions that favor higher distribution of C3 vegetation while higher δ13C values reflect drier conditions. Higher δ13C values may indicate an increasing distribution of C4 vegetation (shrubs and grass) during the dry periods, and/or that C3 vegetation was under stress conditions (dry conditions, high temperatures and CO2 deficiency). δ13C values of soil air generally increase with increasing aridity as a result of high distribution of C4 plants or microbial activity having higher δ13C values (Quade et al., 2007). δ13C and total organic carbon (TOC) were analyzed for section T-2 using a ThermoFinnigan Elemental Analyzer (EA) at the Stable Isotope Laboratory of the Geological Survey of Israel, Jerusalem. Prior to TOC

measurement, the carbonate fraction had to be removed. In this study the fumigation method with 12N-HCl was employed (Harris et al., 2001). The soil samples were fumigated in a desiccator over-night (at least 8 h) in silver capsules. Then the samples were dried and wrapped with tin capsules. The advantage of this procedure is that it avoids direct contact between the sample and the acid, all samples get exactly the same treatment, and the carbonate fraction is totally dissolved. Ten soil samples were measured, each twice. The analytical error is b0.1% for the TOC, and 0.2‰ for the δ13C measurement. 2.3. Paleomagnetism Thirty-eight samples were recovered from the entire sequence of T-1 and the lower part of T-2 (Table 1; Fig. 3b The soft soil material was sampled by carving a cubic pedestal with a stainless steel knife,

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then placing over it a non-magnetic plastic capsule or quartz glass cylinder. The orientation was determined with a Brunton compass before the sample was removed. Paleomagnetic experiments were carried out at the paleomagnetic laboratory of the Institute of Earth Sciences, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, using a 3-axis 2G cryogenic magnetometer with integrated alternating field (AF) demagnetization unit, and ASC-TD-48 thermal demagnetizer oven. Thirty-two samples were stepwise demagnetized by alternating field (AF) to a peak field of 50 mT in steps of 5 mT. In addition, three samples were stepwise thermally demagnetized up to 520 °C.

TT-OSL signal is not thermally stable over long time scales (Adamiec et al., 2010), the ages obtained were corrected for this thermal instability assuming a time-averaged temperature of 15 °C, in the same manner as in Ryb et al. (2012). One OSL sample was taken from each of the three sub-units of Unit 2 in T-2 (Fig. 4b). The corrected ages are listed in Table 2, Fig. 4b and Table 5 in the supplementary material.

2.4. OSL dating

The three main sedimentological units documented in KMW-1 section (Barzilai et al., 2006) were also identified in the probe sections T-1 and T-2 (Table 1 in supplementary material; Fig. 4). Their characteristics are described from bottom to top (Fig. 4a, b; Tables 1–3 in supplementary material).

The OSL method measures the time that passed since minerals such as quartz and feldspar were last exposed to sunlight. This is done by using electrons that accumulate in crystal traps due to natural ionizing radiation and which are de-trapped by exposure to sunlight. After burial, the electrons re-populate traps at a constant rate due to environmental ionizing radiation and can therefore be used to estimate the elapsed time since the mineral underwent transport and burial (e.g., Aitken, 1998; Wintle, 2008). Because the OSL signal is sensitive to sunlight, if the sediment is exposed, any previously acquired OSL signal will be reset to zero (or “bleached”). One sample for luminescence dating was taken from each of the three sub-units of Unit 2 in T-2 (Fig. 4b). To prevent any exposure to light, samples were collected under a lightproof cover and immediately placed in black, light-tight sample bags. Samples were prepared and measured at the Luminescence Laboratory of the Geological Survey of Israel, Jerusalem. Laboratory procedures were carried out under subdued orange light. Quartz in the size range of 125–150 μm was extracted using routine laboratory procedures (Porat, 2007). After wet sieving to the desired grain size, carbonates were dissolved with 10% hydrochloric acid (HCl). The rinsed and dried sample was passed through a Frantz magnetic separator (Porat, 2006) to remove undissolved carbonates, heavy minerals, and most feldspars. A 40-min rinse in hydrofluoric acid (40%) was used to dissolve any remaining feldspars and etch the quartz grains, followed by soaking overnight in 16% HCl to remove any fluorides that may have precipitated. OSL measurements were carried out on a refurbished Risø DA-12 TL/ OSL reader (Bøtter-Jensen et al., 2003), equipped with an integral 90Sr beta source with dose rates of ~2.8 Gy/min. Stimulation was with blue LEDs and detection was through 7-mm U-340 filters. The SAR protocol (Murray and Wintle, 2000) was used to determine the equivalent dose (De) on 11 aliquots (subsamples) from each sample, and aliquot size was usually 2 mm. Preheat and cutheat temperatures of 260° and 200 °C, respectively, were selected after dose recover tests showed that with such preheats known doses can be recovered to within 95%. Each aliquot was irradiated stepwise and normalized until the natural signal was regenerated. Dose response curves were constructed from 5 to 6 dose points, two of which were repeats (a regular recycling point and an IR depletion ratio point), and with two zero-dose points. The most representative De value for each sample was calculated using the central age model (Galbraith et al., 1999). Alpha, beta and gamma dose rates were calculated from the concentrations of the radioactive elements, and cosmic dose was estimated from burial depth. Moisture contents were estimated using sedimentological data. The OSL signal saturates at relatively low doses and often ages beyond 200 ka are underestimated. The thermally transferred OSL (TT-OSL), a relatively new luminescence technique (for review see Duller and Wintle, 2012) extends the age range possible by OSL by at least two-fold (Arnold et al., 2015). This signal is known to increase too much higher doses (Wang et al., 2006), and measuring it could provide a better estimate on the samples' ages. Measurement protocol followed that of Porat et al. (2009), and 8 aliquots were measured for each sample (the small number is due to the antiquity of the samples and the long measurement time). As it has been suggested that the

3. Results 3.1. The stratigraphic context

3.1.1. Unit 3—Sandy clay loam It is 40 cm thick in section T-1 and 145 cm in T-2. None of the sections exposed the lower boundary of Unit 3. At KMW-1, the contact between the hamra/husmas and the overlying unit 2 is sharp and slightly irregular, with an erosional unconformity indicating an unknown time gap. Similarly, in T-2 Unit 2 uncomfortably overlies Unit 3. In section T-1, on the other hand, there is a 20-cm gradual transition between units 3 and 2. The hamra/husmas contains a higher sand content and lower fines (silt and clay, see Table 4 in supplementary material) compared with Unit 2. No artifacts were found in this unit. 3.1.2. Unit 2—Quartzic Brown paleosol A sandy clay loam sediment subdivided into three sub-units. The archeological layer at KMW-1 was found on top of the unconformity between Unit 3 and Unit 2. Few lithic artifacts were found in a similar stratigraphical position both in T-1 and T-2. In T-1 the total thickness of unit 2 is 210 cm, and in T-2 it is 175 cm. The upper part of Unit 2 at KMW-1 was removed by mechanical means prior to the excavation. The separation into sub-units is based upon the decrease in size and abundance of carbonate nodules that mount up within the section. 3.1.3. Unit 1—Brown Soil (or Brown Clay Soil) In T-1 the Brown Soil is 40 cm thick and in T-2 90 cm thick. In KMW1 this Unit was truncated by bulldozer prior to the excavations. There is a sharp increase in clay content (49 and 41% in T-1 and T-2 respectively) compared with Unit 2. The grain size distribution of the three units in each of the sections (KMW-1, T1 and T2) is similar within units but varies among the units (Fig. 5; Table 4 in supplementary material). Unit 1 (Brown Soil) contain a clayey composition (41–49% clay, 30–42% sand); Unit 2 (Quartzic Brown paleosol) is a sandy clay loam (21–37% clay and 48–61% sand); Unit 3 (red paleosol) is a sandy clay loam containing a higher sand content than the Quartzic Brown paleosol (21–27% clay and 66–73% sand). These differences in grain size composition between units throughout the different sections allow their stratigraphic correlation. The few archeological finds and their similar stratigraphic position in T-1 and T-2 strengthen the correlation between the different sections, all found in similar stratigraphic context as the finds from 2005 excavations. Thus, each section (KMW-1, T-1 and T-2) represents a segment of a similar paleolandscape and the variations within it. 3.2. Carbon isotopic composition and total organic carbon (TOC) The carbon isotopic composition of KMW T2 section show that the δ13C values, ranging from − 25.3‰ to − 30.5‰, all fall within the range of C3 vegetation (Mediterranean-vegetation, Fig. 6). The differences between the units represent relative and minor changes in interpreted annual average precipitation. Unit 3 hamra/ husmas, shows higher values (−26.6‰ to −25.7‰) in comparison to

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the values of Unit 2 (− 29.0‰ to − 31.0‰). The total organic carbon (TOC) values are negatively correlated with the δ13C values, i.e., lowest δ13C values are associated with the highest TOC values (Fig. 6). The organic matter at any depth should closely reflect the relative contribution of organic matter from C3 and C4 plants (Kelly et al., 1991). Thus, a negative correlation is expected between the amount of soil organic carbon and its isotopic composition. The results may attest that during the deposition of Unit 3, drier or warmer conditions existed in comparison to Unit 2, reflecting a transition to more humid conditions during the deposition of the Unit 2 sediments. Low TOC values were obtained in Unit 3 (0.11–0.14%). The values increased significantly in the middle of the Quartzic Brown paleosol (0.32%), similar to the wetter conditions indicated by the low peak in the δ13C profile. The lower δ13C values (− 30.5‰) coupled with the highest TOC value (0.32%), indicate that wetter conditions prevailed in the middle of the Quartzic Brown paleosol accumulation above the archeological layer.

3.4. OSL and TT-OSL dating The upper part of Unit 2 was dated by OSL to 133 ± 13 ka. For the upper and lower Unit 2, initial OSL ages of 254 ± 17 ka and 231 ± 17 ka, respectively, were obtained. The De values of ~230 Gy for those samples could be close to saturation with respect to the OSL signal, resulting in minimum ages (Table 2). TT-OSL, which does not suffer from signal saturation in the relevant time frame, reveals older ages, 391 ± 19 ka and 413 ± 25 ka for samples KM 4 and KM 5. Ages corrected for thermal instability yield 442 ± 23 and 468 ± 28 ka respectively, confirming that the OSL dates are minimum ages. The TT-OSL ages could also be somewhat underestimated, as recently demonstrated by Chapot et al. (2016) for TT-OSL ages from China. The over-dispersion (OD) values of the OSL results, which represent the measure of scatter beyond the systematic uncertainties (after Galbraith et al., 1999; Roskin et al., 2013), are between 17 and 25% and are normal for aeolian palaeosols of such ages (Mauz et al., 2009). The OD values for the TT-OSL results are 10–12%, indicating that the samples were well bleached at the time of deposition.

3.3. Dating 3.3.1. Paleomagnetic analyses Samples 1 to 9 from T-1 and samples 20 to 25 from T-2 were measured (Table 1; Fig. 4b). Samples 3–11 display stable magnetization and show a northerly declination and positive inclination, interpreted as normal polarity. Samples 3 from T-1 and 25 from T-2 were taken from above the unconformity between Unit 2 and Unit 3, from similar stratigraphic horizon as the archeological layer; both samples demonstrate a stable normal polarity magnetic signal (Fig. 3b). Sample 24 from T2, was taken from Unit 3 below the unconformity, also resulted a normal signal. Samples 1 and 2 from T-1 have magnetic declination pointing eastward or northeast and have positive inclinations, thus the polarity of these samples cannot be precisely determined. Sample 23 has a clear reversed magnetization with southward declination and negative inclination. Samples 20–23 in T-2 have complex magnetization of reversed magnetization overprinted by normal magnetization. In summary, the paleomagnetic analysis indicates that samples 3–11 in T-1 and 24–25 in T-2 acquired magnetization during Brunhes (C1n) magnetic chron. In T-1 the lower samples 1 and 2 are interpreted as a transition between normal and reverse polarities. Samples 20–23 in T-2 are interpreted as reversed polarity. Those samples were acquired magnetization before the Brunhes–Matuyama reversal, and are older than 780 ka.

Table 1 Paleomagnetic analyses sample's height and results.

Sample

Height below surface (cm)

Unit

Result

11 (T-1) 10 (T-1) 9 (T-1) 8 (T-1) 7 (T-1) 6 (T-1) 5 (T-1) 4 (T-1) 3 (T-1) 2 (T-1) 1 (T-1) 25 (T-2) 24 (T-2) 23 (T-2) 22 (T-2) 21 (T-2) 20 (T-2)

40 80 140 170 200 220 240 280 300 320 340 335 360 390 405 420 430

1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2/3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3

Normal polarity Normal polarity Normal polarity Normal polarity Normal polarity Normal polarity Normal polarity Normal polarity Normal polarity Cannot be precisely determined Cannot be precisely determined Normal polarity Normal polarity Reversed magnetization Reversed polarity Reversed magnetization Reversed polarity

Table 2 Summary of luminescence ages. Depth Sample Unit (m) Method KM-3 KM-4

1 2

1.7 2.05

KM-5

3

2.9

Dose rate (μGy/a)

OSL 1444 ± 49 OSL 873 ± 26 TT-OSL Corrected OSL 997 ± 39 TT-OSL Corrected

De No. of aliquots (Gy) 11/11 11/11 8/8 12/13 8/8

Age (ka)

193 ± 17 133 221 ± 13 254 341 ± 13 391 442 230 ± 12 231 411 ± 18 413 468

± 13 ± 17 ± 19 ± 23 ± 15 ± 24 ± 28

Note: For laboratory data and other details see text and supplementary material Table 5.

4. Conclusions The results of this study suggest an early Middle Pleistocene age (780–460 ka) for the KMW site. The prehistoric remains are found on an unconformity which is located 30 cm above the Brunhes–Matuyama transition and predates 468 ± 28 ka as measured by the TT-OSL sample located above the archeological level. The erosional phase represents an unknown time gap. The prehistoric remains are found upon an unconformity surface. The unconformity surface is located 30 cm above the Brunhes– Matuyama reversal and predates 468 ± 28 ka by TT-OSL sample located above the archeological level. The erosional phase represents an unknown time gap. It is not clear if unconformities in the section are a result of fluvial erosion or aeolian deflation. The eroded unconformity surface also varies laterally as in section T-1 there is a transition zone (Unit 3a) between Unit 3 and Unit 2. Dating of hiatuses within calcareous palaeosol units in the northwestern Negev gave a wide temporal range from ~ 185,000 to 7000 years, mainly depending on (low) sediment supply (Zilberman et al., 2007; Roskin et al., 2013). Possible environmental implications of the transition between Unit 3 and Unit 2 can be deduced from the variations in δ13C values coupled with the higher TOC for Unit 2. These variations suggest a shift from relatively drier conditions during the period of the hamra/husmas development to more humid conditions during the deposition of Unit 2. No evidence for hominin occupation were found in Unit 3 thus far. The only artifacts found thus far coincided with the changes in the degree and type of vegetation cover, less contribution of C4 plants, with amelioration in conditions deposited in Unit 2. Further studies pertaining the erosional mechanisms that truncated the upper part Unit 3 are needed before

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understating their wider paleoenvironmental significance in a regional scale. The lithic and few faunal remains were found upon the unconformity between Unit 3 and Unit 2 and extend over at least 2000 m2. Area A of the 2005 excavation represents two high-densities clusters (Fig. 3). The few faunal remains at the site derived from the higher-density cluster in area A. These high-densities clusters were probably a discrete shortterm activity area (Malinsky-Buller et al., 2011b). Sparser finds were found in areas B and C in the 2005 excavation, as well as the isolated finds in T-1 and T-2. These finds seem to represent background scatters. The KMW lateral distribution of finds exhibit low-density patches vs. higher-density clusters. This uneven distribution over the landscape, does not seem to be a reflection of preservational bias but rather mirroring the repeated visits of past hominids over this stabilized landscape. An interesting comparison of the spatial pattern of Holon (Late Acheulian) to those of KMW reveal commonalties. Both sites distributed similarly to what Isaac et al. (1981) coined “cluster within the patches” (see also discussion in Pope, 2002; De Loecker, 2006). Yet, while in Holon the background landscape did not contain finds; the finds were restricted to a marsh, a temporary resource on the landscape. The higher-density clusters in Holon, are relatively less dense than those found in KMW (see discussion in Malinksy-Buller, 2014). The distribution of finds in KMW as found thus far, as well as those found in the exposed sections of the current road constructed after the salvage excavation suggests that future large scale excavations can further unearth the early Middle Pleistocene mode of exploitation of this given landscape. Studying hominids activities over the paleo-landscapes can provide a unique temporal and spatial scales of inference that are intermediate between geological and anthropological time scales.

5. Discussion Placing KMW lithic assemblage within the existing chrono-cultural framework of the Middle Pleistocene is challenging due to the lack of handaxes and their byproduct. Handaxes are used as a relative chronological marker of the Middle Pleistocene Levantine record (Gilead, 1970; Bar-Yosef, 1994; Goren-Inbar, 1995; Saragusti, 2003; Sharon, 2007). The absence of handaxes limits our ability to posit the KMW lithic assemblage in this relative chronology. However, it enables us to further discuss the role of handaxes within technological organization and the behavioral repertoires inferred from the Middle Pleistocene record. The Lower Paleolithic Middle Pleistocene record in the Levant is comprised of three cultural manifestations. The site of Gesher Benot

Fig. 5. Sand vs. clay particle size distribution in the three pedogenic units.

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Ya'aqov (GBY), located in the Upper Jordan Rift Valley is dated to the Matuyama-Bruhnes Boundary (800–700 ka; (Goren-Inbar et al., 2000; Feibel, 2004). The main characteristic of GBY lithic assemblages is the manufacture of bifaces, both handaxes and cleavers. Those bifaces were produced on flakes larger than 10 cm in maximal dimension, obtained from giant cores (Madsen and Goren-Inbar, 2004; Sharon, 2007; Sharon et al., 2010). At GBY, basalt was the preferred raw material. Another similar site, was excavated in the vicinity of the GBY site, dated by Ar/Ar date of 658 ± 15 ka for a basalt flow immediately below the archeological layer (Sharon et al., 2010). The later phases of the Lower Paleolithic comprised of two technocomplexes: Late Acheulian and the Acheulo-Yabrudian. This taxonomy unifies different perceptions and nomenclatures that accumulated over the past 90 years of research (for historical reviews see Bar-Yosef, 1994; Goren-Inbar, 1995). The stratigraphic relationship between those two techno-complexes, in which the Acheulo-Yabrudian overlay the Late Acheulian, was established in the excavations of the long Paleolithic sequences at Tabun, Zuttiyeh, Umm Qatafa caves and Yabrud rock shelter between the two World Wars (Turville-Petre, 1927; Neuville, 1931; Garrod and Bate, 1937; Rust, 1950; Neuville, 1951). The Late Acheulian and the Acheulo-Yabrudian sites have different geographic distribution. The Acheulo-Yabrudian occupations, limited to the central and northern parts of the Levant are found mostly in caves (except in Nadaouiyeh and Hummal—Le Tensorer et al., 2007). While, the Late Acheulian sites are found across the Near East, seemingly unconstrained environmentally. Only a few Late Acheulian sites occupations are found in caves (e.g. Umm Qatafa, Tabun). Over the last 30 years, the implementation of radiometric dates (Useries, OSL, thermoluminescence {TL}, electron spin resonance {ESR}) changed the perspectives regarding the age range and duration of each of those techno-complexes. The Acheulo-Yabrudian industry was dated with ca. 80 samples, giving a range of ca. 350–250 ka (Mercier et al., 1995; Porat et al., 2002; Barkai et al., 2003; Mercier and Valladas, 2003; Rink et al., 2004; Gopher et al., 2010; Mercier et al., 2013, fig. 5; Valladas et al., 2013; Falguères et al., 2016). The Late Acheulian techno-complex was radiometrically dated in only four sites, yielding a wide age range between 780 and 200 ka (Feraud et al., 1983; Porat et al., 1999, 2002; Mercier et al., 2000; Marder et al., 2011). The younger age estimation (ca. 200 ka) of some of the Late Acheulian techno-

Fig. 6. Total organic carbon and δ13C values measurements for T2.

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complex dates were questioned (Marder, 2009; Gopher et al., 2010; Bar-Yosef and Belmaker, 2011; Malinsky-Buller, 2014). There is discrepancy between the relative chronologies (statigraphies) and numerical dating in regard to the boundary between the Late Acheulian and the Acheulo-Yabrudian techno-complex. While stratigraphically the Acheulo-Yabrudian layers are embedded above the Late Acheulian layers, the radiometric estimations suggest a possible long term co-existence between the two techno-complex. The comparison between stratigraphy and radiometric dating in Tabun cave can exemplify those complexities. Tabun cave contains a lengthy succession of cultural units belonging to the Lower and Middle Paleolithic period. The oldest layers found at the site, layers F and G were attributed to the Upper Acheulian and Tayacian respectively by Garrod (Garrod and Bate, 1937). Jelinek

(1982) during the re-analysis of Layer G, found handaxes, thus he attributed this layer to the Late Acheulian as well. Layer E, an 8 m. thick sequence was attributed to the Acheulo-Yabrudian was subdived to four units (a–d) (Garrod and Bate, 1937). The dating of the upper Achulo-Yabrudian layer Eb by TL gave a range of 350 to 280 ka (Mercier et al., 1995; Mercier and Valladas, 2003); The lower part of the layer (Ed) was dated by ESR to 380 ka (Rink et al., 2004). The attempt to date burnt flint from Late Acheulian Layer (F) by TL yielded younger ages (c. 320 ka) than the overlying layers (Mercier et al., 2000, fig. 2). The lowest layer in Tabun, Layer G, has not been dated by radiometric means thus far. Therefore, at Tabun, the date of the two lower layers, Late Acheulian in their material culture, can be estimated only by stratigraphical considerations, suggesting an age older than 380 ka.

Table 3 Paleolithic sites around Kefar Menachem West and their characteristics.

Name

Excavation area

Stratigraphy

Dating

Assemblage size

KMW—area Aa

27.5 m2

KMW—area Ba KMW—area Ca

3 m2 5m

Embedded above the unconformity between hamra and quartzic brown soil.

Paleomagnetic result: normal polarity. OSL—minimum age of 260 TT-OSL age—minimum age of 468 (this study)

751 artifacts larger than 2 cm 22 73

Kefar Menachem Surveyb Lulimc

c. 9 km2

–

–

?

30 m2

– Embedded above the unconformity between hamra and layer of dark top-soil.

Lulim Lamdand 5 m2 Lashon 9 m2 Quarrye

1987 artifacts larger than 2 cm

Not in situ. Buried channel situated on top of bedrock.

– –

? ?

Characteristics of the lithic industry

A few teeth and long bones—cervid size (this study).

Technology: abundance of cores in initial stages. Typology: retouched flakes, side-scrapers and notches. No bifacial tools were found. – Technology: Levallois technique Typology: side-scrapers, end-scrapers and notches. No bifacial tools. Technology: flaked pieces with two platforms perpendicular to each other with a hierarchy between them and cores-on flake. Typology: retouched flakes, composite tools and side-scrapers. 106 bifaces in all the assemblages.h,i,j –

–

Revadim

170 m2 excavated; 80 m2 trenchesf

–

Paleomagnetic result: normal polarity.g 300–500 ka U-series on coating of carbonate crusts upon flint artifactsf

?

Revadim B2i

92 m2

–

2085 artifacts larger than 2 cm 56 bifaces

Revadim C5i

8 m2

–

686 artifacts larger than 24 cm 8 bifaces

–

Revadim C Eastj

11 m2

Embedded above the unconformity between hamra and quartzic brown soil. Embedded above the unconformity between hamra and quartzic gray-brown paleosol. Quartzic gray-brown paleosol.

–

5581 artifacts larger than 2 cm 3 bifaces

–

a b c d e f g h i j k l

Barzilai et al. (2006). Chazan unpublished report. Gilead and Israel (1975), AMB re-analyzed the material. Lamdan (1982). Goren (1979); AMB and OB personal observation. Marder et al. (2011). Gvirtzman et al. (1999). Marder et al. (2006). Solodenko (2010). Malinsky-Buller et al. (2011a,b). Marder et al. (1998). Rabinovich et al. (2012).

Fauna

Technology: central surface cores/flaked pieces with two platforms perpendicular to each other with a hierarchy between them. Typology: retouched flakes, side scrapers and notches. No bifacial tools were found 105 bifaces assigned to the Lower Paleolithic.

–

– –

Straight-tusked elephant (Palaeloxodon antiquus), bovids (Bos primigenius, Gazella gazella), cervids (Dama mesopotamica, Cervus elaphus, Capreolus cf. capreolus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), equids, and carnivores (Felis silvestris).k – –

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Fig. 7. /δ/ci1–2. Cores with two surfaces perpendicular to each other and hierarchical from Revadim layer C3 (C-East); 3. The refitted core and four flakes from KMW. 4. Polyhedral core found in T-1 KMW. 5–7. Scrapers and retouched tools from KMW. 8. Side scrapers from Revadim layer C3 (C-East) 9. Composite tool—end scraper and side scraper from Revadim layer C3 (C-East). 10. A flake found in T-2 KMW.

A significant source for this lacuna lies in the age limitations of the geochronological methods. The dating methods commonly employed such as OSL, U-series or TL, upon archeological materials cannot be used to date sites from the early Middle Pleistocene (400,000 to 780,000) as this is either close to, or beyond the limits of these methods (Falguères et al., 2011, Fig. 1; Schwarcz and Rink, 2001). Lower Paleolithic assemblages devoid of handaxes component can be interpreted according to three possible scenarios. First, such assemblage can be regarded as Oldowan industry. If considered Oldowan industry, thus putative age would be either earlier or penecontemporaneous with the Early Acheulian assemblages, hence an Early Pleistocene age (2.5 to 0.78 Ma) (Baena et al., 2010; Beyene et al., 2013; De Lumley et al., 2005; Gallotti, 2013; Leakey, 1975; Lepre et al., 2011; de la Torre and Mora, 2013; Zaidner, 2013; Zaidner, 2014). A second proposition stem from cultural choice; the preference of flake tools as the main toolkit rather than handaxes (e.g. Tayacian, Copeland, 2003; Clactonian; Fluck, 2011; Mcnabb, 2007; White, 2000). The third interpretive scenario suggests that the outcome of variations

in landscape exploitation result in differences in the tool repertoire, thus despite the absence of handaxes, such assemblages are part of the Acheulian repertoire (e.g. Bar-Yosef and Goren-Inbar, 1993; Potts et al., 1999). The “Olduwan” hypothesis in regard to KMW can be refuted on both chronological and on lithic characteristics (see below). The two latter propositions can be examined by comparison between the KMW and the nearby Late Acheulian site of Revadim. The Revadim sedimentological/geological sequence (21 m high) is of normal polarity (Gvirtzman et al., 1999) and a U-series on carbonates coating flint artifacts gave a minimum age of 300–500 ka (Marder et al., 2011). The earliest occupation at the site occurs on an unconformity surface truncating hamra/husmas during the deposition of Quartzic Brown paleosols. In Revadim, similar trend in δ13C values to those in KMW through the transition was suggested to reflect a shift in environmental conditions from drier conditions within the hamra/husmas, into more humid conditions during the accumulation of the Quartzic GrayBrown Paleosol (Marder et al., 2011, fig. 4).

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The site is attributed to the Late Acheulian, based on the handaxes characteristics (Marder et al., 1998; Marder et al., 2006). The archeological sequence at Revadim is comprised of seven archeological layers that vary laterally in density and in the state of preservation of fauna and lithic artifacts (Table 3; Solodenko, 2010; Malinsky-Buller et al., 2011a, 2011b; Marder et al., 2011; Rabinovich et al., 2012), as well as in the lithic characteristics (Marder et al., 1998; Malinsky-Buller et al., 2011a; Marder et al., 2006; Solodenko, 2010). The lithic assemblages of Revadim are characterized by several reduction sequences including; cores with two surfaces perpendicular to each other and hierarchical (Fig. 7: 1, 2) termed central cores in KMW (Fig. 7: 3), as well as a high proportion of cores-on flake. At both sites the tool kits are typologically similar and mainly comprised of retouched flakes, with a few scrapers and notches (Fig. 7: 8, 9). The main technological and typological traits in KMW are shared with those of the Revadim assemblages excluding the handaxes component (Malinsky-Buller et al., 2011a; Malinsky-Buller, 2016). No derived features are found in the KMW assemblage to classify it as a unique industry and differentiated its attribution as an independent industry. At Revadim, the composition of the lithic assemblages, their spatial distribution as well as the faunal remains all suggests diverse modes of exploitation of microhabitats within the paleolandscape (Table 3; Marder et al., 2011). For example, the relative proportions of handaxes as well as their metrical and technological characteristics within each of the lithic assemblage in Revadim vary significantly (Table 3; Malinsky-Buller et al., 2011a; Marder et al., 1998; Marder et al., 2006; Marder et al., 2011; Solodenko, 2010). In one area of the site, it was suggested that handaxes were initially shaped outside the locality and then transported into the site, while the final stages of shaping and rejuvenation were executed on-site (Malinsky-Buller et al., 2011a). Similarly, in Holon a microhabitat preference was suggested to be the motivating cause for the observed variations in the technological organization (Malinsky-Buller, 2014). Handaxes represent a mobile tool-kit; they were transported, curated and maintained and as a result their morphometric features are shaped by a wide variety of causes. The range of variation in handaxe morphological and technological characteristics within a constrained context, as in Revadim, can be larger than their diachronic variations. This in turn raises questions about proposed time trajectories of handaxes morphologies traits (see discussion in Malinsky-Buller, 2016). At KMW, the lateral distribution of finds exhibits possible variations in the modes of exploitation of the immediate micro-habitat and specific ecological niches within the Mediterranean coastal plain paleoenvironment. Unraveling Middle Pleistocene hominids technological organizations in which biface are a small part of, in relation to micro-habitats variations allow placing KMW within the Late Acheulian variability. KMW shares most of its lithic characteristics with other Late Acheulian sites in the Levant. The observed variations between KMW and other Middle Pleistocene sites is suggested to be an outcome of differential land use patterns. It was suggested that during the later parts of the Middle Pleistocene a fundamental change in hominids landscape use occurred that transformed their social and behavioral organization (Rolland, 2004; Chazan, 2009). These authors claimed that reorganization of hominin societies around base camps co-occurs with a dietary shift from very large mammal's exploitation to medium-sized prey. Very large mammals were butchered at their death site, while smaller prey provided transportable food and allowed sharing in a home-base context. The use of fire—which is important in creating human habitation— and the shift in hunting strategies, mark a change in the way hominins lived (Rolland, 2004; Chazan, 2009). Yet, earlier indications of systematic butchery, as well as indications for repeated use of fire were found in GBY (Rabinovich et al., 2008; Alperson-Afil and Goren-Inbar, 2010). KMW offer a rare opportunity to explore the land use pattern in the Early Middle Pleistocene from landscape scale perspective. Thus, the

current results open new dimensions for further studies of hominin interactions with their immediate environment in the Middle Pleistocene. Supplementary data to this article can be found online at http://dx. doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2016.10.010. Acknowledgments The Kefar Menachem West dating project was supported by the Ruth Amiran Fund for Archaeological Research in Eretz-Israel, the Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem and Ashkelon Academic College. AMB was supported by Fulbright postdoctoral fellowship award in the University of Connecticut. AMB wish to thank Adler, D., and Hartman, G., for their advice and help in the final stages of this manuscript writing. AMB wishes to thank E. Hovers., Y, Goldsmith., M, Goder-Goldberger., N, Goren-Inbar., O. Marder., M. Ullman, R. Yeshurun and Y. Zaidner for their help during this project. OA wishes to thank H. Zhevelev for conducting statistical analysis. 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