- Email: [email protected]
The Coconut Palm
The Coconut Palm X Arulandoo, K Sritharan, and M Subramaniam, United Plantations Berhad, Perak, Malaysia Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Botany The coconut palm, legendarily known as the tree of life, belongs to the family Arecaceae and subfamily Cocoidea, which includes 27 genera and 600 species. Genetically it is a diploid with 32 chromosomes (2n ¼ 32). It is classified as a monocotyledon supported by an adventitious root system with an unbranched trunk potentially even exceeding 30 m in height. The crown is composed of rosette leaves fitting a five spiral frond phyllotaxis. The palm has a single terminal growing point contributing to stem elongation, leaf production, flower, and nut formation. Under ideal conditions, a palm can produce up to 17 fronds per year. These fronds can remain on the palm for up to 3 years following which they shed naturally leaving a permanent scar on the trunk. The inflorescence of the palm (spadix) develops in leaf axils and corresponds to the number of fronds produced per year. Coconut palms are generalized into two broad categories, namely Dwarfs and Tall varieties. The Tall varieties are scientifically referred to as var. typica (Nar) and the Dwarfs are referred to as var. nana (Griff). Coconut palms, in general, have long lifespans that may vary with location and health. The Talls in general have a long economic life span of up to 70 years with an average nut yield ranging from 100 to 140 nuts per palm per year. They are naturally cross-pollinating palms leading to higher heterozygosity and segregation. The Dwarf varieties on the other hand have a shorter economic life span averaging 30–40 years with average nut yields ranging from 100 to 151 nuts per palm per year. Unlike the Tall varieties, Dwarfs are capable of self-pollination and have thus evolved to be more homozygous palms. The coconut fruits can be described as a single-seeded drupe that varies in size depending on the source and breeding strategy (Figure 1(a)). In general, the fruit is spherical to oval in shape with a rough outer husk made of tough fiber (Figure 1(b)). The color of the young fruit varies between cultivars and is highly heritable. However, all ripe or dry nuts are (a)
brown in color. Beneath the layer of husk exists a woody shell enclosing inner edible albumen. The albumen embodies a mildly sweet water renowned for its health benefits.
Origin Worldwide, the coconut palm can be found naturally occurring in the forests of many tropical and subtropical islands and coastal ecosystems in about 86 countries, frequently dominating the low-lying tropical atolls of the Pacific. The exact origin, however, is still debatable. Studies on fossil and molecular data conducted indicate with high probability that these palms originated and slowly dispersed from Southeast Asia. Harries and Clement (2013) hypothesized that “the coconut palm originated, evolved, and dispersed by floating in the coral atoll ecosystem, but as this ecosystem is widespread and constantly changing its form, a geographical location for a center of origin for the coconut will probably never be found.” Arunachalam and Rajesh (2008) mentions though fossil evidence have been reported from South Asia and Australia, the diversity remains highest in the Melanesian region. The domestication of coconut palms first arose when people came to the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Nuts were collected and transported for drinking and planting purposes from island to island without realization of the indigenous wild coconut varieties present. This led to intensification of crosspollinated palms where ancestral characteristic were inherited through introgressive hybridization. To date, over 98 countries grow coconuts for commercial exploitation because of its multivariate use.
Coconut Cultivation Worldwide Currently, there are five major coconut-growing regions that contribute to the world production of coconut (Table 1).
(b)
Endocarp
Liquid endosperm
Embryo
Solid endosperm
Exocarp Mesocarp
Calyx Figure 1
426
(a) Single-seeded drupe and (b) Cross-section of coconut.
Encyclopedia of Applied Plant Sciences, 2nd edition, Volume 3
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394807-6.00237-9
Tropical Agriculture j The Coconut Palm Five major coconut-growing regions of the world
South East and East Asia South Asia China Indonesia Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Thailand Vietnam
Africa and South Pacific Indian Ocean
Bangladesh Cook India Islands Pakistan Fiji Sri Lanka Kiribati Papua New Guinea Solomon Islands Tonga Vanuatu Samoa
Benin Cote d’ Ivoire Ghana Kenya Madagascar Mozambique Nigeria Seychelles Tanzania
Latin America and Caribbean Brazil Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Trinidad and Tobago
Data obtained from Food and Agriculture Organization Statistics (online), 2015.
They are a part of the Coconut Genetic Resources Network (COGENT), which was established in 1992 by the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) with the support of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). Globally, coconuts are cultivated in more than 98 countries. Total world cultivated area for coconuts is 12 073 771 ha. According to 2013 statistics, Philippines has the largest land area planted with coconuts totaling to 3 550 491 ha followed by Indonesia and India with 3 000 000 and 2 159 000 ha respectively. These three countries together account for estimated 72% of the world’s coconut planted hectarage. Tanzania, Sri Lanka, Brazil, Papua New Guinea, Thailand, Mexico, and Vietnam trail in to form the top 10 coconut-cultivating countries. Table 2 summarizes the coconut cultivation area in the top 10 countries. In earlier times, coconut had a predominant role in the vegetable oil industry till about the mid-1920s when other oil crops emerged into the edible oil market. In some countries such as Malaysia, there was a massive crop conversion from coconut to oil palm with the advent of declining copra prices worldwide. However, over the past decade, increase in coconut oil exports due to greater global requirement for the essential characteristics of coconut oil has increased trading prices and promoted the cultivation of coconuts. Table 3 depicts the hectarages of oil crops harvested worldwide in 2013. World coconut-harvested area has increased, though little, from 10 781 000 ha in 2000 to 12 074 000 ha in 2013 (Figure 2). Table 2
Area cultivated with coconuts in top 10 countries
No.
Country
Area harvested (2013)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Philippines Indonesia India Tanzania Sri Lanka Brazil Papua New Guinea Thailand Mexico Vietnam
3 550 491 3 000 000 2 159 000 680 000 394 840 257 462 220 000 208 640 165 000 136 206
Data obtained from Food and Agriculture Organization Statistics (online), 2015.
Table 3
Hectarages of oil crops harvested worldwide in 2013
Rank
Oil crop
Area harvested (hectares)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Soybeans Rapeseed Seed cotton Sunflower seed Groundnuts, with shell Oil, palm fruit Coconuts Olives Sesame seed Linseed Oilseeds Castor oil seed Melonseed Safflower seed Mustard seed Karite nuts (shea nuts) Tallow tree seed Kapok fruit Tung nuts Poppy seed Hempseed Jojoba seed
111 544 703 36 498 656 32 168 292 25 453 575 25 417 816 18 053 325 12 073 771 10 309 275 9 416 369 2 252 104 1 642 807 1 518 427 891 855 816 588 703 119 512 100 405 000 185 300 172 685 92 265 21 767 300
Data obtained from Food and Agriculture Organization Statistics (online), 2015.
70000 Hectares/tonnes ('000)
Table 1
427
60000 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0
20002001200220032004200520062007200820092010201120122013 Year World production World area harvested
Figure 2 World coconut area harvested and coconut production by year. Data obtained from Food and Agriculture Organization Statistics (online), 2015.
Products and Uses Dating back to 4000 years ago, the coconut palm has been recognized and recited for its many uses. The first known utilization of coconuts dates to the migratory era where young nuts were used for drinking and ripe/dry nuts were used as floatation devices. From there on, the functionality of the coconut fruit as well as the palm has increased exponentially. Below are some of the more common products and uses of the coconut: l
Kernel B Fresh nuts for drinking B Coconut oil B Coconut milk and cream B Vinegar
428 l
l
l
l l
Tropical Agriculture j The Coconut Palm
Shell B Charcoal B Handicrafts B Activated carbon Husks B Fuel B Mulch B Coir and peat Trunk B Piling B Bridges B Timber for construction and furniture Inflorescence B Production of toddy (alcoholic drink) Leaves B Thatching material B Midribs used as broom bristles B Roofing
Commercial Cultivation Coconut is still a smallholder’s crop in many countries including Malaysia. However, it has been utilized as an integral component of the farming system for economic viability. In general, coconut-integrated farming system including crops such as corn, banana, cocoa, leguminous plants, fruits namely papaya and pineapple, coffee, and tuber crops. The implementation of integrated farming system with coconut is necessary in order to maximize the income. Commercial cultivation of coconut as a monocrop is increasing in some countries, and their management practices can be emulated by progressive smallholders.
Soil Coconuts are capable of growing on almost all soil types. However, ideal soil conditions for maximizing palm growth and yields are deep sandy loam soil, high in organic matter content, pH 5.5–7.5, good water-holding capacity, and well drained.
Climate All year round warm and humid climate with average temperature of 27 C, 1500–2500 mm rainfall spread uniformly throughout the year and altitudes of below 1000 feet are ideal for commercial cultivation of coconuts.
Nursery Site selection for setting up a coconut nursery is of utmost importance. A nursery site has to be well drained, level ground, easily accessible, and possess a reliable supply of clean water. Only the best germinated seed nuts are purchased from reliable suppliers for sowing in nursery polybags. Seed nuts should be sown at least 10 months before scheduled field planting to ensure ideal growth before transplant. Sown seed nuts are watered twice daily, applied with sufficient fertilizer, and
maintained for 10 months before being subjected to a round of culling where severely abnormal seedlings are discarded.
Field Planting and Management Prior to field planting, seedlings in polybags are subjected to root pruning and heavy watering in order to reduce the chances of transplanting shock. A suitable area for planting is selected based on multiple factors including terrain, water source, soil type, and infrastructural amenities. Timing of planting is crucial for proper establishment of seedlings. Where possible, planting should coincide with adequate rainfall (wet seasons) and availability of labor and machineries. The following are general steps involved in the commercial planting of coconut palms: l
Land Preparations Proper land preparation is essential to good establishment of coconut plantings. Standard land preparation practices would include the following steps: B Main lining – to identify planting rows and field drains. Distance between field drains are based on intended stand per hectare. B Felling/clearing – pushing and shredding of crop/growth on land area if zero-burn policy is adopted. B Construction of field drains – field drains are dug out using excavators to form parallel rows. Two field drains per four rows of palms is optimal (depending on the availability of water, soil condition, terrain, elevation, climate patterns, and so on). B Plowing and harrowing – to help turn over top layer of soil and improve soil structure. B Density lining – as a general guideline, Dwarfs are planted at 250 palms/ha, Talls at 150 palms/ha and Dwarf Tall hybrids at 180 palms/ha. However, exact density used differs with location, soil type, and terrain. l Planting Holing is done using a mechanical auger or manually to form a planting hole about 5 cm wider than the polybags used in the nursery. Nursery seedlings are removed from the polybags and carefully placed into planting hole upright. Soil is filled into the cavities and compacted layer by layer. Thereafter, basal fertilizer is applied according to agronomic recommendations. l Upkeep Immature Depending on the variety planted, coconut palms can take between 2 and 7 years to reach maturity. During this time, basic maintenance operations are carried out to ensure optimal growth of palms: B Weeding – keep palm circles and interlines weed free through regular herbicide spraying. Safe herbicides are used to reduce the chances of phytotoxicity on palms. B Frond pruning – desiccated or damaged fronds are to be pruned at least once in every 6 months. B Manuring – fertilizer application programs can be calculated by in-house research teams or by consultants based on leaf and soil nutrient content. Programs set should be adhered strictly to ensure optimal palm growth. B Pest and disease – coconut palms are prone to attacks from an array of pests and diseases. It is crucial that palms be protected especially at immature stage, as damage can be lethal. Regular census rounds should be conducted on
Tropical Agriculture j The Coconut Palm Common pest and diseases and corrective measures
Table 4
Common name
Scientific name
Corrective measures
Gray leaf spot (fungal)
Pestalotiopsis palmarum Oryctes rhinoceros Setora nitens Rhynchophorus schach
Fungicide spraying (Mancozeb, etc.) Cypermethrin drenching Cyoermethrin spraying Pheromone traps
Rhinoceros beetle Nettle caterpillar Red stripe weevil
every palm (recommended once every month) to assess any signs of damage. Following the census, immediate remedial action should be taken if damages are beyond threshold levels. Table 4 summarizes the most common coconut pests and diseases with corrective remedies. B Supplying – semi-sterile, runts, and dead seedlings are replaced when permissible. Supplying of palms should be an ongoing process at fixed intervals to maintain a maximum stand. l Upkeep Mature Maintenance of mature palms involves the same operations as that of immature. In mature fields, however, operations can be mechanized with tractor-mounted equipment such as avenue spraying and slashing.
Harvesting Dry or ripe nuts are harvested only when the husks begin to turn brown. Although these nuts will eventually drop, harvesting would be recommended where possible to enable better selection of nuts. Tender nuts for drinking are best when harvested at 7 months old.
Productivity As stated in preceding sections, coconuts are cultivated in more than 98 countries worldwide over an estimated 12.1 million hectares. Productivity of coconuts is generally quantified in terms of coconut production in weight due to the impracticality of nut counts. World productions for the
year 2013 are estimated at 62.45 million tonnes with an average of 5.17 tonnes coconut per hectare. The top 10 producers in the world are Indonesia, Philippines, India, Brazil, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Papua New Guinea, Mexico, Thailand, and Malaysia. These countries together are responsible for 90% of the world’s production of coconuts. In terms of yield per hectare, Brazil is the world’s leader with an average of 11.22 tonnes per hectare, followed by Vietnam and Malaysia with an average of 9.57 and 6.57 tonnes per hectare, respectively. World production in the past few years have been stable with annual yields fluctuating around 60 million tonnes of coconuts. In Malaysia, progress has been made in the past 10 years in terms of yield improvements. In the year 2003, Malaysia cultivated a total of 179 000 ha of land to produce 580 000 tonnes of coconuts averaging to 3.24 tonnes per hectare. Ten years later in 2013, Malaysia managed to produce 646 932 tonnes of coconuts over only 98 533 ha averaging to 6.57 tonnes per hectare. This increase of 102% can be attributed to better agronomic practices, newer planting material and lower average age of palms. Figure 3 summarizes the area harvested and production of coconut in Malaysia. The Department of Agriculture (DoA), Malaysian Agriculture Research and Development Institute (MARDI) along with United Plantations Berhad (UPB) have been pioneers in coconut breeding in Malaysia. Since the beginning of research and development on coconuts in the early 1910s, UPB has managed to gather a vast collection of coconut germplasm from various countries. The research department has subsequently initiated the utilization of the cultivars through conventional breeding techniques in the creation of commercial planting material. At present, tissue culture and molecular marker technology has also been adopted to aid in the breeding program. UPB’s current Tall and Dwarf coconut pure line cultivars is given in Table 5. A milestone was reached by UPB and Malaysia in terms of yield potential with the creation of the MAWA (Malayan Dwarf West African Tall) and MATAG (Malayan Dwarf Tagnanan Tall). These hybrids have been planted throughout Malaysia since the 1980s and have slowly replaced the older generation of Malayan Tall. Yield of up to 30 000 nuts per hectare (equivalent to about 9.6 tonnes coconut) have been achieved in UPB under good agronomic practices.
1,000.00 Hectares/tonnes ('000)
900.00 800.00 700.00 600.00 500.00 400.00 300.00 200.00 100.00 0.00 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Year Producon (tonnes)
Figure 3
Malaysian harvested area and coconut production over 14 years.
429
Area harvested (hectares)
430
Tropical Agriculture j The Coconut Palm Table 5
Coconut cultivars in UPB
No.
Variety
Coconut cultivar
Abbreviation
Year of introduction
1 2 3 4 5 6
Tall
Malayan Tall West African Tall Rennel Island Tall Tahiti Tall Tagnanan Tall Laguna Tall
MLT WAT RLT THT TGT LGT
1912 1972 1974 1976 1979 1980
7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Dwarf
Malayan Red Dwarf Malayan Yellow Dwarf Malayan Green Dwarf Catigan Dwarf Tacunan Dwarf Cameroon Red Dwarf Aromatic Green Dwarf or ‘Pandan’
MRD MYD MGD CAD TAD CRD AGD
1931 1931 1931 1980 1980 1980 1991–2000
UPB is currently aiding in the nationwide replanting with the provision of the MATAG planting material. It is speculated that with more aggressive replants of older stands with the MATAG hybrid, national yields will continue to grow up to 886 000 tonnes coconuts if planted hectarage is not increased. Besides copra production, coconuts are currently being selected and bred for versatility. With an increasing market for fresh nuts in Malaysia, breeding programs have been modified to include other coconut characteristics such as water content, sucrose levels, aroma, easy of dehusking/carving, and overall aesthetic value. Research in most if not all coconut-growing countries is ongoing for selections of improved parental palms for production of hybrids with yield potentials exceeding 30 000 nuts per hectare along with superior nut characteristics.
See also: Arable Crops: Agricultural Crops; Multicropping; The Domestication of Crop Plants. Crop Diseases and Pests: Integrated Pest Management: Practice; Integrated Pest Management: Principles. Plant Breeding and Genetics: Plant Breeding, Principles. Plants and the Environment: Organic Farming. Reproduction and Biodiversity: Germplasm Conservation. Tropical Agriculture: Oil Palm.
Source Indigenous IRHO, Port Bouet, Ivory Coast IRHO, Port Bouet, Ivory Coast IRHO, Port Bouet, Ivory Coast Tagnanan Estate, Davao, Philippines Philippine Coconut Authority, Davao, Philippines Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Philippine Coconut Authority Davao IRHO, Port Bouet, Ivory Coast DOA & commercial Nurseries, Malaysia
References Anonymous, Mike, A.F., Yohannes, M.S.S., 2006. In: Proceedings of the International Coconut Forum Held in Cairns, Australia, 22–24 November 2005: Coconut Revival: New Possibilities for the ‘Tree of Life’. Arunachalam, V., Rajesh, M.K., 2008. Breeding of coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera L.). CAB Rev. Perspect. Agric. Vet. Sci. Nutr. Nat. Res. 3 (053), 1–12. Batugal, P., Bourdeix, R., 2005. Conventional coconut breeding. In: Batugal, P., Ramanatha Rao, V., Oliver, J. (Eds.), Coconut Genetic Resources, pp. 251–267. FAO Statistics, 2013 (online). Harries, H.C., Baudouin, L., Cardena, R., 2004. Floating, boating, and introgression: molecular techniques and the ancestry of coconut palm populations on Pacific Islands. Ethnobotany Res. Appl. 2, 37–53. Harries, H.C., Clement, C.R., 2013. Long-distance dispersal of the coconut palm by migration within the coral atoll ecosystem. Ann. Bot. 112 (9), 1–6. Maloney, B.K., 1993. Palaeoecology and the origin of the coconut. GeoJournal 31, 355–362. Shukla, A., Mehrotra, R.C., Guleria, J.S., 2012. Cocos sahnii Kaul: a Cocos nucifera L.-like fruit from the Early Eocene rainforest of Rajasthan, western India. J. Biosci. 37 (4), 769–776. Sharma, M., 2005. Results of coconut hybrid trials by United Plantations Berhad, Malaysia. In: 4th National Seed Symposium at IOI Palm Garden Hotel, Putrajaya. Xaviar, A., Kandha, S., Mohan, S., 2014. Performance of coconut hybrids in United Plantations Berhad and commercial production of seed nuts. Cord 30 (2), 41–50.
Botany The coconut palm, legendarily known as the tree of life, belongs to the family Arecaceae and subfamily Cocoidea, which includes 27 genera and 600 species. Genetically it is a diploid with 32 chromosomes (2n ¼ 32). It is classified as a monocotyledon supported by an adventitious root system with an unbranched trunk potentially even exceeding 30 m in height. The crown is composed of rosette leaves fitting a five spiral frond phyllotaxis. The palm has a single terminal growing point contributing to stem elongation, leaf production, flower, and nut formation. Under ideal conditions, a palm can produce up to 17 fronds per year. These fronds can remain on the palm for up to 3 years following which they shed naturally leaving a permanent scar on the trunk. The inflorescence of the palm (spadix) develops in leaf axils and corresponds to the number of fronds produced per year. Coconut palms are generalized into two broad categories, namely Dwarfs and Tall varieties. The Tall varieties are scientifically referred to as var. typica (Nar) and the Dwarfs are referred to as var. nana (Griff). Coconut palms, in general, have long lifespans that may vary with location and health. The Talls in general have a long economic life span of up to 70 years with an average nut yield ranging from 100 to 140 nuts per palm per year. They are naturally cross-pollinating palms leading to higher heterozygosity and segregation. The Dwarf varieties on the other hand have a shorter economic life span averaging 30–40 years with average nut yields ranging from 100 to 151 nuts per palm per year. Unlike the Tall varieties, Dwarfs are capable of self-pollination and have thus evolved to be more homozygous palms. The coconut fruits can be described as a single-seeded drupe that varies in size depending on the source and breeding strategy (Figure 1(a)). In general, the fruit is spherical to oval in shape with a rough outer husk made of tough fiber (Figure 1(b)). The color of the young fruit varies between cultivars and is highly heritable. However, all ripe or dry nuts are (a)
brown in color. Beneath the layer of husk exists a woody shell enclosing inner edible albumen. The albumen embodies a mildly sweet water renowned for its health benefits.
Origin Worldwide, the coconut palm can be found naturally occurring in the forests of many tropical and subtropical islands and coastal ecosystems in about 86 countries, frequently dominating the low-lying tropical atolls of the Pacific. The exact origin, however, is still debatable. Studies on fossil and molecular data conducted indicate with high probability that these palms originated and slowly dispersed from Southeast Asia. Harries and Clement (2013) hypothesized that “the coconut palm originated, evolved, and dispersed by floating in the coral atoll ecosystem, but as this ecosystem is widespread and constantly changing its form, a geographical location for a center of origin for the coconut will probably never be found.” Arunachalam and Rajesh (2008) mentions though fossil evidence have been reported from South Asia and Australia, the diversity remains highest in the Melanesian region. The domestication of coconut palms first arose when people came to the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Nuts were collected and transported for drinking and planting purposes from island to island without realization of the indigenous wild coconut varieties present. This led to intensification of crosspollinated palms where ancestral characteristic were inherited through introgressive hybridization. To date, over 98 countries grow coconuts for commercial exploitation because of its multivariate use.
Coconut Cultivation Worldwide Currently, there are five major coconut-growing regions that contribute to the world production of coconut (Table 1).
(b)
Endocarp
Liquid endosperm
Embryo
Solid endosperm
Exocarp Mesocarp
Calyx Figure 1
426
(a) Single-seeded drupe and (b) Cross-section of coconut.
Encyclopedia of Applied Plant Sciences, 2nd edition, Volume 3
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394807-6.00237-9
Tropical Agriculture j The Coconut Palm Five major coconut-growing regions of the world
South East and East Asia South Asia China Indonesia Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Thailand Vietnam
Africa and South Pacific Indian Ocean
Bangladesh Cook India Islands Pakistan Fiji Sri Lanka Kiribati Papua New Guinea Solomon Islands Tonga Vanuatu Samoa
Benin Cote d’ Ivoire Ghana Kenya Madagascar Mozambique Nigeria Seychelles Tanzania
Latin America and Caribbean Brazil Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Trinidad and Tobago
Data obtained from Food and Agriculture Organization Statistics (online), 2015.
They are a part of the Coconut Genetic Resources Network (COGENT), which was established in 1992 by the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) with the support of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). Globally, coconuts are cultivated in more than 98 countries. Total world cultivated area for coconuts is 12 073 771 ha. According to 2013 statistics, Philippines has the largest land area planted with coconuts totaling to 3 550 491 ha followed by Indonesia and India with 3 000 000 and 2 159 000 ha respectively. These three countries together account for estimated 72% of the world’s coconut planted hectarage. Tanzania, Sri Lanka, Brazil, Papua New Guinea, Thailand, Mexico, and Vietnam trail in to form the top 10 coconut-cultivating countries. Table 2 summarizes the coconut cultivation area in the top 10 countries. In earlier times, coconut had a predominant role in the vegetable oil industry till about the mid-1920s when other oil crops emerged into the edible oil market. In some countries such as Malaysia, there was a massive crop conversion from coconut to oil palm with the advent of declining copra prices worldwide. However, over the past decade, increase in coconut oil exports due to greater global requirement for the essential characteristics of coconut oil has increased trading prices and promoted the cultivation of coconuts. Table 3 depicts the hectarages of oil crops harvested worldwide in 2013. World coconut-harvested area has increased, though little, from 10 781 000 ha in 2000 to 12 074 000 ha in 2013 (Figure 2). Table 2
Area cultivated with coconuts in top 10 countries
No.
Country
Area harvested (2013)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Philippines Indonesia India Tanzania Sri Lanka Brazil Papua New Guinea Thailand Mexico Vietnam
3 550 491 3 000 000 2 159 000 680 000 394 840 257 462 220 000 208 640 165 000 136 206
Data obtained from Food and Agriculture Organization Statistics (online), 2015.
Table 3
Hectarages of oil crops harvested worldwide in 2013
Rank
Oil crop
Area harvested (hectares)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Soybeans Rapeseed Seed cotton Sunflower seed Groundnuts, with shell Oil, palm fruit Coconuts Olives Sesame seed Linseed Oilseeds Castor oil seed Melonseed Safflower seed Mustard seed Karite nuts (shea nuts) Tallow tree seed Kapok fruit Tung nuts Poppy seed Hempseed Jojoba seed
111 544 703 36 498 656 32 168 292 25 453 575 25 417 816 18 053 325 12 073 771 10 309 275 9 416 369 2 252 104 1 642 807 1 518 427 891 855 816 588 703 119 512 100 405 000 185 300 172 685 92 265 21 767 300
Data obtained from Food and Agriculture Organization Statistics (online), 2015.
70000 Hectares/tonnes ('000)
Table 1
427
60000 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0
20002001200220032004200520062007200820092010201120122013 Year World production World area harvested
Figure 2 World coconut area harvested and coconut production by year. Data obtained from Food and Agriculture Organization Statistics (online), 2015.
Products and Uses Dating back to 4000 years ago, the coconut palm has been recognized and recited for its many uses. The first known utilization of coconuts dates to the migratory era where young nuts were used for drinking and ripe/dry nuts were used as floatation devices. From there on, the functionality of the coconut fruit as well as the palm has increased exponentially. Below are some of the more common products and uses of the coconut: l
Kernel B Fresh nuts for drinking B Coconut oil B Coconut milk and cream B Vinegar
428 l
l
l
l l
Tropical Agriculture j The Coconut Palm
Shell B Charcoal B Handicrafts B Activated carbon Husks B Fuel B Mulch B Coir and peat Trunk B Piling B Bridges B Timber for construction and furniture Inflorescence B Production of toddy (alcoholic drink) Leaves B Thatching material B Midribs used as broom bristles B Roofing
Commercial Cultivation Coconut is still a smallholder’s crop in many countries including Malaysia. However, it has been utilized as an integral component of the farming system for economic viability. In general, coconut-integrated farming system including crops such as corn, banana, cocoa, leguminous plants, fruits namely papaya and pineapple, coffee, and tuber crops. The implementation of integrated farming system with coconut is necessary in order to maximize the income. Commercial cultivation of coconut as a monocrop is increasing in some countries, and their management practices can be emulated by progressive smallholders.
Soil Coconuts are capable of growing on almost all soil types. However, ideal soil conditions for maximizing palm growth and yields are deep sandy loam soil, high in organic matter content, pH 5.5–7.5, good water-holding capacity, and well drained.
Climate All year round warm and humid climate with average temperature of 27 C, 1500–2500 mm rainfall spread uniformly throughout the year and altitudes of below 1000 feet are ideal for commercial cultivation of coconuts.
Nursery Site selection for setting up a coconut nursery is of utmost importance. A nursery site has to be well drained, level ground, easily accessible, and possess a reliable supply of clean water. Only the best germinated seed nuts are purchased from reliable suppliers for sowing in nursery polybags. Seed nuts should be sown at least 10 months before scheduled field planting to ensure ideal growth before transplant. Sown seed nuts are watered twice daily, applied with sufficient fertilizer, and
maintained for 10 months before being subjected to a round of culling where severely abnormal seedlings are discarded.
Field Planting and Management Prior to field planting, seedlings in polybags are subjected to root pruning and heavy watering in order to reduce the chances of transplanting shock. A suitable area for planting is selected based on multiple factors including terrain, water source, soil type, and infrastructural amenities. Timing of planting is crucial for proper establishment of seedlings. Where possible, planting should coincide with adequate rainfall (wet seasons) and availability of labor and machineries. The following are general steps involved in the commercial planting of coconut palms: l
Land Preparations Proper land preparation is essential to good establishment of coconut plantings. Standard land preparation practices would include the following steps: B Main lining – to identify planting rows and field drains. Distance between field drains are based on intended stand per hectare. B Felling/clearing – pushing and shredding of crop/growth on land area if zero-burn policy is adopted. B Construction of field drains – field drains are dug out using excavators to form parallel rows. Two field drains per four rows of palms is optimal (depending on the availability of water, soil condition, terrain, elevation, climate patterns, and so on). B Plowing and harrowing – to help turn over top layer of soil and improve soil structure. B Density lining – as a general guideline, Dwarfs are planted at 250 palms/ha, Talls at 150 palms/ha and Dwarf Tall hybrids at 180 palms/ha. However, exact density used differs with location, soil type, and terrain. l Planting Holing is done using a mechanical auger or manually to form a planting hole about 5 cm wider than the polybags used in the nursery. Nursery seedlings are removed from the polybags and carefully placed into planting hole upright. Soil is filled into the cavities and compacted layer by layer. Thereafter, basal fertilizer is applied according to agronomic recommendations. l Upkeep Immature Depending on the variety planted, coconut palms can take between 2 and 7 years to reach maturity. During this time, basic maintenance operations are carried out to ensure optimal growth of palms: B Weeding – keep palm circles and interlines weed free through regular herbicide spraying. Safe herbicides are used to reduce the chances of phytotoxicity on palms. B Frond pruning – desiccated or damaged fronds are to be pruned at least once in every 6 months. B Manuring – fertilizer application programs can be calculated by in-house research teams or by consultants based on leaf and soil nutrient content. Programs set should be adhered strictly to ensure optimal palm growth. B Pest and disease – coconut palms are prone to attacks from an array of pests and diseases. It is crucial that palms be protected especially at immature stage, as damage can be lethal. Regular census rounds should be conducted on
Tropical Agriculture j The Coconut Palm Common pest and diseases and corrective measures
Table 4
Common name
Scientific name
Corrective measures
Gray leaf spot (fungal)
Pestalotiopsis palmarum Oryctes rhinoceros Setora nitens Rhynchophorus schach
Fungicide spraying (Mancozeb, etc.) Cypermethrin drenching Cyoermethrin spraying Pheromone traps
Rhinoceros beetle Nettle caterpillar Red stripe weevil
every palm (recommended once every month) to assess any signs of damage. Following the census, immediate remedial action should be taken if damages are beyond threshold levels. Table 4 summarizes the most common coconut pests and diseases with corrective remedies. B Supplying – semi-sterile, runts, and dead seedlings are replaced when permissible. Supplying of palms should be an ongoing process at fixed intervals to maintain a maximum stand. l Upkeep Mature Maintenance of mature palms involves the same operations as that of immature. In mature fields, however, operations can be mechanized with tractor-mounted equipment such as avenue spraying and slashing.
Harvesting Dry or ripe nuts are harvested only when the husks begin to turn brown. Although these nuts will eventually drop, harvesting would be recommended where possible to enable better selection of nuts. Tender nuts for drinking are best when harvested at 7 months old.
Productivity As stated in preceding sections, coconuts are cultivated in more than 98 countries worldwide over an estimated 12.1 million hectares. Productivity of coconuts is generally quantified in terms of coconut production in weight due to the impracticality of nut counts. World productions for the
year 2013 are estimated at 62.45 million tonnes with an average of 5.17 tonnes coconut per hectare. The top 10 producers in the world are Indonesia, Philippines, India, Brazil, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Papua New Guinea, Mexico, Thailand, and Malaysia. These countries together are responsible for 90% of the world’s production of coconuts. In terms of yield per hectare, Brazil is the world’s leader with an average of 11.22 tonnes per hectare, followed by Vietnam and Malaysia with an average of 9.57 and 6.57 tonnes per hectare, respectively. World production in the past few years have been stable with annual yields fluctuating around 60 million tonnes of coconuts. In Malaysia, progress has been made in the past 10 years in terms of yield improvements. In the year 2003, Malaysia cultivated a total of 179 000 ha of land to produce 580 000 tonnes of coconuts averaging to 3.24 tonnes per hectare. Ten years later in 2013, Malaysia managed to produce 646 932 tonnes of coconuts over only 98 533 ha averaging to 6.57 tonnes per hectare. This increase of 102% can be attributed to better agronomic practices, newer planting material and lower average age of palms. Figure 3 summarizes the area harvested and production of coconut in Malaysia. The Department of Agriculture (DoA), Malaysian Agriculture Research and Development Institute (MARDI) along with United Plantations Berhad (UPB) have been pioneers in coconut breeding in Malaysia. Since the beginning of research and development on coconuts in the early 1910s, UPB has managed to gather a vast collection of coconut germplasm from various countries. The research department has subsequently initiated the utilization of the cultivars through conventional breeding techniques in the creation of commercial planting material. At present, tissue culture and molecular marker technology has also been adopted to aid in the breeding program. UPB’s current Tall and Dwarf coconut pure line cultivars is given in Table 5. A milestone was reached by UPB and Malaysia in terms of yield potential with the creation of the MAWA (Malayan Dwarf West African Tall) and MATAG (Malayan Dwarf Tagnanan Tall). These hybrids have been planted throughout Malaysia since the 1980s and have slowly replaced the older generation of Malayan Tall. Yield of up to 30 000 nuts per hectare (equivalent to about 9.6 tonnes coconut) have been achieved in UPB under good agronomic practices.
1,000.00 Hectares/tonnes ('000)
900.00 800.00 700.00 600.00 500.00 400.00 300.00 200.00 100.00 0.00 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Year Producon (tonnes)
Figure 3
Malaysian harvested area and coconut production over 14 years.
429
Area harvested (hectares)
430
Tropical Agriculture j The Coconut Palm Table 5
Coconut cultivars in UPB
No.
Variety
Coconut cultivar
Abbreviation
Year of introduction
1 2 3 4 5 6
Tall
Malayan Tall West African Tall Rennel Island Tall Tahiti Tall Tagnanan Tall Laguna Tall
MLT WAT RLT THT TGT LGT
1912 1972 1974 1976 1979 1980
7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Dwarf
Malayan Red Dwarf Malayan Yellow Dwarf Malayan Green Dwarf Catigan Dwarf Tacunan Dwarf Cameroon Red Dwarf Aromatic Green Dwarf or ‘Pandan’
MRD MYD MGD CAD TAD CRD AGD
1931 1931 1931 1980 1980 1980 1991–2000
UPB is currently aiding in the nationwide replanting with the provision of the MATAG planting material. It is speculated that with more aggressive replants of older stands with the MATAG hybrid, national yields will continue to grow up to 886 000 tonnes coconuts if planted hectarage is not increased. Besides copra production, coconuts are currently being selected and bred for versatility. With an increasing market for fresh nuts in Malaysia, breeding programs have been modified to include other coconut characteristics such as water content, sucrose levels, aroma, easy of dehusking/carving, and overall aesthetic value. Research in most if not all coconut-growing countries is ongoing for selections of improved parental palms for production of hybrids with yield potentials exceeding 30 000 nuts per hectare along with superior nut characteristics.
See also: Arable Crops: Agricultural Crops; Multicropping; The Domestication of Crop Plants. Crop Diseases and Pests: Integrated Pest Management: Practice; Integrated Pest Management: Principles. Plant Breeding and Genetics: Plant Breeding, Principles. Plants and the Environment: Organic Farming. Reproduction and Biodiversity: Germplasm Conservation. Tropical Agriculture: Oil Palm.
Source Indigenous IRHO, Port Bouet, Ivory Coast IRHO, Port Bouet, Ivory Coast IRHO, Port Bouet, Ivory Coast Tagnanan Estate, Davao, Philippines Philippine Coconut Authority, Davao, Philippines Indigenous Indigenous Indigenous Philippine Coconut Authority Davao IRHO, Port Bouet, Ivory Coast DOA & commercial Nurseries, Malaysia
References Anonymous, Mike, A.F., Yohannes, M.S.S., 2006. In: Proceedings of the International Coconut Forum Held in Cairns, Australia, 22–24 November 2005: Coconut Revival: New Possibilities for the ‘Tree of Life’. Arunachalam, V., Rajesh, M.K., 2008. Breeding of coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera L.). CAB Rev. Perspect. Agric. Vet. Sci. Nutr. Nat. Res. 3 (053), 1–12. Batugal, P., Bourdeix, R., 2005. Conventional coconut breeding. In: Batugal, P., Ramanatha Rao, V., Oliver, J. (Eds.), Coconut Genetic Resources, pp. 251–267. FAO Statistics, 2013 (online). Harries, H.C., Baudouin, L., Cardena, R., 2004. Floating, boating, and introgression: molecular techniques and the ancestry of coconut palm populations on Pacific Islands. Ethnobotany Res. Appl. 2, 37–53. Harries, H.C., Clement, C.R., 2013. Long-distance dispersal of the coconut palm by migration within the coral atoll ecosystem. Ann. Bot. 112 (9), 1–6. Maloney, B.K., 1993. Palaeoecology and the origin of the coconut. GeoJournal 31, 355–362. Shukla, A., Mehrotra, R.C., Guleria, J.S., 2012. Cocos sahnii Kaul: a Cocos nucifera L.-like fruit from the Early Eocene rainforest of Rajasthan, western India. J. Biosci. 37 (4), 769–776. Sharma, M., 2005. Results of coconut hybrid trials by United Plantations Berhad, Malaysia. In: 4th National Seed Symposium at IOI Palm Garden Hotel, Putrajaya. Xaviar, A., Kandha, S., Mohan, S., 2014. Performance of coconut hybrids in United Plantations Berhad and commercial production of seed nuts. Cord 30 (2), 41–50.