Tuba, a Fermented and Refreshing Beverage From Coconut Palm Sap

TUBA, A FERMENTED AND REFRESHING BEVERAGE FROM COCONUT PALM SAP

6

A.C. Flores-Gallegos⁎, O.F. Vázquez-Vuelvas†, L.L. López-López⁎, A. Sainz-Galindo⁎, J.A. Ascacio-Valdes⁎, Cristóbal N. Aguilar⁎, R. Rodriguez-Herrera⁎ *

School of Chemistry, Autonomous University of Coahuila, Saltillo, México Autonomous University of Coahuila, Colima, México

†

6.1 Introduction Specifically, in Mexico, the tradition of producing and ingesting tuba comes from Asia, from the Philippines. According to Abelardo Ahumada González, chronicler of Colima, Mexico, he considers that the coconut was brought from the Philippines in 1568 by the navigator Álvaro de Mendaña, after having traveled through the Solomon Islands of that region. Generally, the tuba is obtained from dripping of sap from the stem or from inflorescences of coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) (Godoy et al., 2003). To obtain tuba, a cut is made in the upper part of the coconut tree just where it would flower, leaving a gap that will serve as a filter in the coconut tree stem (Cabezas Elizondo, 2016). Through this filter, the sap drips throughout the night. The next morning, this sap that accumulated due to the dripping is collected, and a cut is made at the stem tip so that new sap can drip during the day, while it is washed and tipped to prevent sap from being contaminated by environmental microorganisms. The collected sap is known as “Tuba” in Colima, México, which is also known as “Nectar” or “Honey water” (Granados and López 2002) or “Neera” in India (Borse et  al. 2006). However, in the Philippines “Tuba” refers to the alcoholic beverage obtained by fermenting the fresh sap and is also referred to as “Toddy” in Sri Lanka or “Tuak” in Indonesia, being a popular beverage in most Southeastern Asian countries. The procedure for collecting the tuba is carried out twice during the day, in the morning (6–7 a.m.) and during the afternoon. The tuba that is collected in the morning is called the sweet tuba. It is of viscous color, thick, transparent, and extremely sweet. On the contrary, the tuba that Non-alcoholic Beverages. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815270-6.00006-2 © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

163

164  Chapter 6  Tuba, a Fermented and Refreshing Beverage From Coconut Palm Sap

is collected during the afternoon (which drips all day and under high temperatures), is less viscous and less sweet. In general, fresh sap is sweet, oyster-white, and translucent, with a neutral pH (Gupta et al., 1980). However, its composition and quality varies with the place, time, and duration of tapping. Its high sugar content (10%–15%) makes it susceptible to spontaneous fermentation, which consists initially of a lactic acid fermentation, followed by an alcoholic fermentation where 5%–8% of sugar is converted and finally, acidic fermentation occurs to produce “coconut vinegar” containing 4%–7% acetic acid (Iwuoha and Eke, 1996; Odunfa, 1985; Purnomo and Suryoesputro, 2001; Purnomo, 1992; Gupta et  al., 1980; Onyekwere and Koleoso, 1978). The whole process may involve as many as 166 isolates of yeasts and 39 isolates of bacteria (Atputharajah et al., 1986). It has been reported that addition of sodium metabisulphite to coconut inflorescence sap can suppress the nonethanol-producing microorganisms and permit purely ethanol production (Samaraieewa et  al., 1985). In addition, coconut sugar is widely consumed directly, or is used as an ingredient in traditional foods and beverages, being prized for its specific taste and flavor (Purnomo and Suryoesputro, 2001; Purnomo, 1992). To preserve its natural flavor, a fermentation and cooking process is applied, obtaining a natural, refreshing, sweet, nutritious, and energetic drink (Velázquez-Monreal et  al., 2011). In order to improve the taste and smell of tuba, it is not marketed in a pure or sweet way. Cabezas Elizondo (2016) points out that fruits or other vegetal ingredients can be added, so that they will ferment after adding ingredients such as lemon, celery, onion, strawberries, apples, cinnamon, and chili. According to local tuba producers, this beverage is well accepted in Colima, Mexico, where different fruits and seeds are added such as strawberries, apples, cucumber, and peanut seeds. Due to the viscosity, whitish color, smell, and taste, the fermented tuba is similar to pulque (Cabezas Elizondo, 2016). The production of this drink is only done by hand, in order to obtain a refreshing drink. This same behavior is observed in other parts of the Mexican Republic, such as Michoacán and Guerrero, coastal areas with coconut production (Velázquez-Monreal et al., 2011). The exception is Cihuatlán, Jalisco, where there are 300,000 coconut trees destined for sap or palm juice called from coconut. In Campeche and in the rest of the Gulf Coast, the procedure to obtain the sap it is not well known (Granados and López, 2002).

6.2 Production In Mexico, there are lots of fermented drinks, some of them dating from the pre-Hispanic period. Currently, some of them are still consumed. Tuba is one of those drinks, refreshing, and nonalcoholic,

Chapter 6  Tuba, a Fermented and Refreshing Beverage From Coconut Palm Sap   165

Fig. 6.1  Mexican areas where tuba is produced from coconut (Cocus nucifera) sap.

which is obtained through fermentation of Cocos nucifera sap. This beverage is consumed frequently in the coastal regions of Colima, Michoacán, and Guerrero Mexico (Cabezas Elizondo, 2016; Salgado Delgado et al., 2016) (Fig. 6.1). Usually, tuba is consumed frequently mixed with nuts (De la Fuente-Salcido et al., 2015). The fermentation process is very useful today; fermentation is an ancient form of food and drinks preservation, which also improves their nutritional content. Currently, in many regions of the world, fermented beverages have become known for their health-promoting attributes and properties against pathogens, where it is important to highlight the beneficial Lactobacillus and yeasts found in this beverage. There are several fermentation substrates such as: milk, cereals, and others to produce beverages with health-promoting properties; fermented beverages are indigenous to many regions of Asia, Africa, Europe, the Middle East, South America, and México (Marsh et al., 2014). The tuba drink is prepared using the sap (nectar or honey water) collected from the inflorescence of coconut palms (VelázquezMonreal et  al., 2011; Chandrasekhar et  al., 2012). Tuba is obtained from the exudate of the tapped unopened spathe of coconut. Its production is through spontaneous fermentation with different types of microorganisms, such as lactic acid bacteria (LAB) capable of ­ producing bacteriocins, mesophilic aerobic bacteria, and yeast (Singhal et  al., 2008). There is little information about the

166  Chapter 6  Tuba, a Fermented and Refreshing Beverage From Coconut Palm Sap

­microbial diversity in tuba. However, the presence of Lactobacillus ­lactis and E. facium, bacterial species with antimicrobial activity, has been reported because of bacteriocin production (De la FuenteSalcido et  al., 2015). Other investigations reported the presence of L. ­plantarum and L. brevis in tuba (Fossi et al., 2015; Romero-Luna et al., 2017). Some pathogenic microorganisms such as Bacillus subtilis, Listeria monocytogenes, Listeria innocua, Streptococcus agalactiae, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella typhimurium, and Salmonella spp. have been reported as the most susceptible to metabolites produced by LAB isolates (De la Fuente-Salcido et al., 2015). Obtaining tuba takes advantage of inflorescences, when these vegetal organs are tender and still covered by a spathe. The process starts by bending the axis so that sap flows freely from the incision or cut that is made, but this folding must be done with precaution, avoiding breaking the floral bunch. The inflorescence is usually chosen when it is 45–75 cm long. The process is characterized by being slow, 3–4 days. The cutting of the end of the cluster is aimed to cause sap flow; so, the operation is repeated two or three times so that runoff is not suspended; the sap starts to flow in 3 or 4  days after having made the cut. The product obtained from one palm on average is 0.65 L per day with an annual output of 208 L approximately (Sánchez and López Ríos, 2002). Tuba color may change because of microorganisms' action; fermentation may start after 5 h of tuba being harvested. When tuba is placed at rest for 8 days approximately, it becomes very useful vinegar for domestic use. It is reported that tuba contains sugars at levels up to 90 g/L, which are fermented by microorganisms, and also vitamin C, phosphorus, amino acids, and minerals (Velázquez-Monreal et al., 2011).

6.3  Chemical and Physical Properties Tuba has high total sugar, ascorbic acid, and phosphorus, and is rich in amino acids, vitamins, and minerals. Naka (1996) mentioned the average compositional value of tuba, where he reported that tuba has a pH of 5.75; total sugar is 18.09 g/100 g, where the main sugar is sucrose; the calories count is 48.0 joule; carbohydrates are 11.4 g/100 g; protein 0.22 g/100 g; and fat 0.40 g/100 g. Different chemical elements have been reported in tuba: calcium 0.40 mg/100 g, phosphorus 20.0 mg/100 g, and iron 0.18 mg /100 g, and some vitamins such as thiamine 0.016 mg/100 g, riboflavin 0.006 mg/100 g, niacin 0.48 mg/100 g, and ascorbic acid 20.6 mg/100 g. In addition, the vitamin value (mg/dL) in tuba was reported by Magat (1996); in this case were mentioned thiamine with 77.0, riboflavin 12.20, pyridoxine

Chapter 6  Tuba, a Fermented and Refreshing Beverage From Coconut Palm Sap   167

38.40, para-aminobenzoic acid 47.10, pyridoxal 38.40, pantothenic acid 5.20, nicotinic acid 40.60, biotin 0.17, folic acid 0.24, inositol 127.70, choline 9.00, and vitamin B12 trace. In addition, in tuba the amino acid value (g/100 g) has been reported; in this case was mentioned the following amounts for each amino acid: trytophan 1.27, lysine 0.32, histidine 1.19, arginine 0.35, aspartic acid 11.22, threonine 15.36, serine 8.24, glutamic acid 34.20, proline 3.52, glycine 0.47, alanine 2.56, valine 2.11, isoleucine 0.38, leucine 0.48, tyrosine 0.31, and phenyalanine 0.78 (Magat, 1996). Borse et al. (2007) using GC-MS analysis, were able to identify 21 volatile compounds in tuba; typical major flavor compounds found in fresh tuba were ethyl lactate, 3-hydroxy-2-pentanone, phenyl ethyl alcohol, 2-methyl tetrahydrofuran, tetradecanone, and farnesol, while, fermented tuba contained a greater quantity of volatiles, the most important being: ethyl lactate, farnesol, and phenyl ethyl alcohol. Besides, these authors mentioned that the astringency and harsh note of fermented tuba could be due to increased amounts of acids, such as dodecanoic acid and palmitoleic acid, along with higher concentrations of ethyl esters and ethyl alcohol.

6.4  Bioactive Compounds 6.4.1 Bioactive Peptides Different LAB have been reported in tuba. An important ­attribute of LAB is its ability to produce antimicrobial compounds called bac­ teriocins, which are antimicrobial agents of protein origin produced by ribosomal synthesis. Currently, the bacteriocins produced by LAB are the ones that hold the greatest industrial interest as they have the status of QPS (qualified presumption of safety); that is to say, LAB are considered as microorganisms safe for health, as both LAB and their metabolites have been consumed in foods fermented by innumerable generations without presenting adverse effects to the human population. LAB are considered probiotic microorganisms because of their ability to inhibit or destroy pathogenic microorganisms, use of probiotics that protect against a host of various diseases and gastrointestinal disorders by increasing the beneficial bacteria and achieving a stable balance of the intestinal flora. The LABs are considered as food-grade microorganisms, being ideal for use as bio-preservatives or microbial bio-controllers, according to Todorov (2010). So, the analyses of microbial communities using molecular tools complement traditional methods to obtain information on ­important aspects of the microbial ecology of fermented foods: diversity, structure, and function. The appropriate selection of starter cultures, in cases considered convenient, as well as

168  Chapter 6  Tuba, a Fermented and Refreshing Beverage From Coconut Palm Sap

the monitoring and control of fermentation, will ensure higher quality products. The application of biological products such as bacteriocins to inhibit or destroy pathogenic microorganisms is a method of great interest in the food industry with the ultimate goal of obtaining safer food for consumers.

6.4.2 Phenols Polyphenols or phenolic compounds are compounds of various molecular weights (between 300 and 3000 Da); they are distributed in the plant kingdom and because their chemistry changes according to their origin, these compounds can be found in many plant families. Polyphenols are found in high concentrations in almost the whole plant in root, bark, wood, leaves, fruits, and seeds (Herderich and Smith, 2005; Mingshu et al., 2006). These compounds are considered secondary metabolites of plants as they do not play a major role in metabolism (Aguilar et  al., 2007), have low biodegradation, and are one of the most important natural antimicrobials in plants. The role of polyphenols in plants is as defense agents against microorganisms’ attacks (Aguilera-Carbo et al., 2008). These compounds have the ability to form complexes with proteins and other macromolecules; because of these characteristics phenolics possess bactericidal properties (Sepúlveda et al., 2011). After cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, phenolics are the fourth most abundant component in the general composition of plants. An important characteristic of polyphenols is that they possess important biological properties, which makes them high value-added compounds of great interest in different fields of industry. Among the most important biological properties of these compounds are the antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticancer, antihemorrhagic, and other properties (Ascacio-Valdés et al., 2016).

6.4.2.1  Phenolics in Tuba Beverage This section will describe the presence of different phenolic compounds in the beverage known as tuba, which is a fermented drink obtained from coconut palm sap. It is known that this beverage contains compounds that function as nutraceutical agents and phenolics have this function. The content of phenols present in coconut palm sap has been determined using the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent; this study was carried out in China and a polyphenolic content of 0.33 g/L was determined. The main phenolic compounds identified were gallic acid, protocatechuic acid, galangin, and caffeic acid (Xia et al., 2011). The presence of compounds such as flavonoids, polyphenols, and terpenes in coconut palm sap has also been described using a phytochemical screening test (Saranya and Vijayakumar, 2016) based on

Chapter 6  Tuba, a Fermented and Refreshing Beverage From Coconut Palm Sap   169

colorimetric reactions. Other studies have reported phenols content in coconut palm sap. In 2015, a phenolic content of 1.24 g/L (mainly hydrolysable polyphenols) was reported and its antioxidant capacity was demonstrated (Syamala Devi et al., 2015). The antioxidant capacity of phenolics is one of the most important properties that they have, because of positive impact in the field of food, mainly for beverages. Phenolic compounds are susceptible to some physicochemical processes, for example, high temperatures, oxidation by solar radiation, etc.; however, it has been shown that interesting processes such as vacuum drying do not alter the physicochemical and biological properties of phenolics from coconut palm sap. It has been reported that polyphenols present in coconut palm sap extracts can maintain their stability at temperatures of 40°C and that up to 35.68% of total phenols can be recovered (Aeimsard et al., 2015). As can be appreciated, extracts of coconut palm sap have an important content of phenols and these have important biological properties as antioxidants. Samples of coconut palm sap extracts have yielded phenols between 1.35 and 2.21 mg/g (Kongkaew et al., 2014). Phenolic compounds determination in beverages made from coconut palm sap has become a field of great interest because of the biological properties and benefits that these compounds can bring after consumption. Below are some biological properties that have been described for phenolics, and are relevant in the food field, mainly in the fermented beverages from extracts rich in nutraceuticals.

6.4.2.2  Antilipoxidation Property (Reduction of LDL Levels) The antioxidant property of phenolics prevents formation of bad cholesterol also called low-density lipoproteins (LDLs). Studies have been carried out on this property, where phenolics have been shown to act synergistically to reduce LDL levels, forming complexes bound by highly resistant covalent bonds that precipitate lipoproteins (Anderson et al., 2001), preventing risks of heart problems and vein blockage.

6.4.2.3  Antihemorrhagic Property It has been reported that phenolics have a role as accelerators of the coagulation process and have been used to control hemorrhages, functioning as hemostatics (Clifford and Scalbert, 2000; Huang, 2004). This property is relevant because it prevents cardiac diseases such as atherosclerosis, avoiding oxidation of cells in the endothelium in arteries, which are responsible for maintaining the balance between thrombosis-fibrosis and vessel dilation constriction.

6.4.2.4  Reduction of Glucose Levels Some phenolic compounds have shown ability to control diabetes mellitus. In rats, these compounds, when isolated and applied,

170  Chapter 6  Tuba, a Fermented and Refreshing Beverage From Coconut Palm Sap

increase the transport of glucose in adipocytes by reducing blood glucose levels; however, a detailed study of this phenomenon is necessary because the stimulation mechanism of glucose transport by these molecules is not clear (Hayashi et  al., 2002). Other researchers reported that they are activated by insulin receptors (Hattori et al., 2003).

6.4.2.5  Antiparasitic Property Phenolic compounds and their derivatives have been reported as inhibitors of hematophagous parasites like Babesia gibsoni, which hemolyze red cells. Polyphenols such as ellagic acid and their derivatives have activity against Babesia gibsoni with an IC50 between 28.5 and 52.1 μg/mL (Elkhateeb et al., 2005). Other research based on the antiparasitic potential of polyphenols refers to the activity against Leishmania parasites, which cause a disease that infects blood cells, and also form nodules in muscles, and it has been shown that an IC50 of 25 μg/mL was able to inhibit Leishmania (Kolodziej et  al., 2001). Studies on phenolic content and its biological potentials in the fermented beverages, like tuba, are still scarce; however, this represents a large opportunity field to generate basic knowledge and then technological development on this traditional beverage.

6.4.3 Exopolysaccharides The chemical composition of the sweet flavor of coconut sap is constituted by carbohydrates, mainly sucrose, glucose, and fructose (Tomomatsu et al., 1996), among other nutrients. The high content of these simple sugars, which represents a bio-available carbon source, in addition to the nonhermetic state of the coconut sap tapping, signify a good condition for a rapid fermentation by the presence of wild microbiota. The fermentation process is defined by a phase of lactic acid fermentation, followed by an alcoholic stage, finalizing with an acetic fermentation (Tomomatsu et  al., 1996; Xia et  al., 2011; Konan et al., 2015). The saccharide tuba content has been reported because of initial sap characterization from several palm varieties and for different purposes. A series of tuba samples for palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer Linn) obtained in southern Thailand, during a collection period of 12 h, showed a concentration range from 10.36% to 16.94% on a wet basis. The reducing sugars content oscillated around 0.88% to 3.56%, glucose varied in the range from 0.50% to 1.85%, and fructose from 0.50% to 1.81%. Nevertheless, the sucrose content varied over a wide range of concentration, around 9.24% to 17.44% (Naknean et al., 2010). A similar behavior of sucrose, glucose, and fructose content was recently documented for the characterization of pasteurized coconut sap for the same palm type. The saccharide content oscillates in

Chapter 6  Tuba, a Fermented and Refreshing Beverage From Coconut Palm Sap   171

the range of 13.67% to 19.05%, 0.14% to 4.85%, and 0.17% to 4.17% for sucrose, glucose, and fructose, respectively (Naknaen and Meenune, 2016). The study of the glucide content of four hybrid varieties of coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L.) inflorescence sap showed total and reducing sugars ranging between 14.14% and 16.08%, and, 2.41% and 3.73%, respectively. The carbohydrate content reported a concentration of sucrose from 9.40% to 12.24%, glucose from 1.63% to 1.84%, fructose from 1.24% to 1.52%, mannose from 0.008% to 0.019%, and glycerol, with a concentration from 0.048% to 0.094% (Ysidor et  al., 2014). The nypa palm (Nypa fruticans) sap production was evaluated as a potential source for ethanol production, and the primary analysis of raw material indicated a concentration of total sugars, sucrose, glucose, and fructose in the range of 15.9%–18.6%, 9.3%–11.1%, 5.1%– 6.5%, and 1.4%–1.6%, respectively (Tamunaidu et al., 2013). The analysis of the sugar content of palm saps with the objective of evaluating the fermentation process through the determination of total and reducing sugars, including other chemical components, has been recently done by only few authors. The chemical characterization of sap from four different kinds of palm was carried out, with the goal of analyzing the chemical composition. The sugar content was analyzed for sugar palm (Arenga pinnata Merr.), palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer L.), nypa palm sap (Nypa fruticans Wurmb), and coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L.). The sugar content for all the palm types ranges from 10.5% to 13.3%, and the reducing sugars represent specifically for fresh sugar palm saps, 12.5% (reducing sugars: total sugars ratio), which showed an increment to 90.1% after an incubation of 16 h at 30°C. Analysis of fresh sap from palmyra and coconut palm with paper chromatography indicated the presence of sucrose; however, after 12 h at room temperature (25–30°C) part of sucrose was hydrolyzed. Interestingly, one day after collection of palmyra and nypa palm sap, sugars with slightly larger molecular weight than sucrose were detected. TLC paper showed, in addition to sucrose, glucose, and fructose, the possible presence of oligosaccharides of fructose formed by the presence of two reducing sugars. This may coincide with the fact that fructooligosacharides may be produced by the transglycosylation activity of sucrose α-glucosidase (sucrasa) in the presence of microorganisms during the spontaneous fermentation; even though, it is possible presence of tri-saccharides, tetra-saccharides, or others when their presence was reported in the phloem saps of those woody plant families (Tomomatsu et al., 1996). Comparison between fresh and partially fermented saps from palmyra (Borassus flabellifer L.), wild date (Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.), and coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) for potential treatment of anemia showed similar sugar concentration as mentioned above. Fresh sap from the inflorescence of palmyra and coconut palm, and from phloem cutting

172  Chapter 6  Tuba, a Fermented and Refreshing Beverage From Coconut Palm Sap

from wild date palm contained 11.6%, 13.8%, and 9.3% of total sugars; after 24 h of natural fermentation at 25°C, the contents were 8.2%, 7.9%, and 4.5% (Barh and Mazumdar, 2008). In a study about changes in physicochemical properties during five days’ storage at 35°C of sap from four varieties of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), the total sugars found ranged between 16.08% and 12.85% in the first 12 h. After 24 h, the content decreased to around 12.3% and the concentrations decreased to reach a ranged value between 1.26% and 1.82% at the experiment end. On the other hand, reducing sugars presented an opposing behavior. Fresh saps presented mean values between 2.41% and 3.73% for the first 12 h; after 24 h, these values were incremented to 7.2%, but, at the end of fermentation, reducing sugars were lowered to almost zero by the action of the bioprocess (Konan et al., 2015). Similar results were observed for a monitoring study of chemical properties for a 12 days' natural fermentation, involving the determination of ethanol concentration (Xia et al., 2011).

6.4.4 Vitamins Coconut sap like other fermented beverages, contains important nutritional components, including amino acids, proteins, vitamins, and sugars (Okafor, 1972). The palm juice has been reported to be highly nutritious and serves as a good digestive agent (Devadas et al., 1969). Because of the nutritional wealth, it is often proposed to infants whose mothers cannot produce the necessary milk for nursing (Ayernor and Mathews, 1971; Ezeagu and Fafunso, 2003). The presence of different vitamins in the fresh or fermented beverage, principally vitamins of the B group, has been described. Barh and Mazumdar (2008) reported the contents of thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and vitamin A in Coccus nucifera sap before and after fermentation. The levels reported of vitamins were, niacin 0.02/0.03 mg, thiamine 0.02/0.05 mg, riboflavin 0.03/0.04 mg, and Vitamin A 43.0/37.0 IU by 100 mL. All B vitamins help the body to convert food (carbohydrates) into fuel (glucose), which is used to produce energy. Fig. 6.2 shows the principal vitamins reported in the coconut sap.

6.4.4.1 Thiamine Vitamin B1, also known as thiamine, is a water-soluble vitamin found in several sources, both animals and vegetables. Deficiency or low levels of thiamine could produce diverse diseases named “Thiamine Deficiency Syndrome” such as beriberi and inflammation of nerves (neuritis) associated with pellagra or pregnancy. Thiamine is required for the proper use of carbohydrates in human bodies and is also used for digestive problems including poor appetite, ulcerative colitis, and diarrhea. Thiamine is effective for metabolic disorders

Chapter 6  Tuba, a Fermented and Refreshing Beverage From Coconut Palm Sap   173

NH2

O N

+

N

N

S

N

N OH

Tiamine

O NH

N O OH

HO

OH N Niacine

OH OH

Riboflavin

Fig. 6.2  Structure of vitamins found in coconut sap.

a­ ssociated with genetic diseases (Leigh's disease), maple syrup urine disease, and others like brain disorder due to thiamine deficiency (Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome). This brain disorder is related to low levels of thiamine (thiamine deficiency) and is often seen in alcoholics. Between 30% and 80% of alcoholics are believed to have thiamine deficiency. Thiamine helps decrease the risk and symptoms of this disorder during alcohol withdrawal (Medlineplus, 2017).

6.4.4.2 Riboflavin Riboflavin or Vitamin B2 is, like other B-vitamins, necessary for the correct use and conversion of carbohydrates to glucose. This vitamin is an essential component of two major coenzymes, flavin mononucleotide (FMN, riboflavin-5′-phosphate) and flavin adenine dinucleotide. These coenzymes play major roles in energy production; cellular function, growth, and development; and metabolism of fats, drugs, and steroids. More than 90% of dietary riboflavin is in the form of FAD or FMN; the remaining 10% is composed of the free form and glycosides or esters. These coenzymes are of vital importance in normal tissue respiration, pyridoxine activation, tryptophan to niacin conversion, fat, carbohydrate, and protein metabolism, and glutathione reductase-mediated detoxification. Riboflavin may also be involved in maintaining erythrocyte integrity. This vitamin is essential for healthy skin, nails, and hair. Moreover, vitamin B2 has an important role as an antioxidant (Rivlin, 2010; Said and Ross, 2014; Institute of Medicine, 1998).

6.4.4.3 Niacin Niacin (vitamin B3) is a water-soluble vitamin found in yeast, milk, meat, tortillas, and cereal grains. Niacin is also produced in the body from tryptophan, which is found in protein-containing food. When taken as a supplement, niacin is often found in combination with other B vitamins. People use prescription niacin (Niacor, Niaspan)

174  Chapter 6  Tuba, a Fermented and Refreshing Beverage From Coconut Palm Sap

to help control their cholesterol. The recommended daily amount of niacin for adult males is 16 mg (mg) and for adult women who are not pregnant, 14 mg (Shi et al., 2017).

6.5  Health Benefits Regarding the medicinal properties attributed to tuba, Cabezas Elizondo (2016) states that it has a greater amount of vitamin C than colonche (a sweet, soft drink, with a pleasant taste consumed by some indigenous groups from the arid regions of northwestern Mexico, as the Chihuahuas, Tarahumaras, and Yaquis), and presents a chemical composition similar to that of pulque. In addition to sugars and vitamin C, other nutrients such as phosphorus, minerals, amino acids, and essential vitamins appear in tuba (Uzcanga Perez et al., 2010). Chen et al. (2011) studied the health benefits of coconut sap, specifically the scavenging activities of fresh and fermented coconut sap on reactive oxygen species (ROS) and DNA-protecting effects. ROS are highly reactive small molecules and ions with unpaired valence shell electrons that damage cell structures. In this study, fresh coconut sap had much greater ability to scavenge hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), hydroxyl radical (OH−), and superoxide anion (O2−) than the natural fermented sap. They observed that the fermented sap had more powerful ability to prevent damage to DNA than fresh sap, possibly due to the higher polyphenol content. With these results, the antioxidant activity and health benefits of coconut sap were demonstrated. In addition, coconut sap has been reported to be highly nutritive and a good digestive agent (Devadas et al., 1969).

6.6  Microbial Population Changes During the Fermentation Process Tuba (coconut sap) is obtained from a spontaneous fermentation by native microorganisms from different environments (palm stalk, inflorescence, insects attracted by the sweet smell, collection materials, collector, etc.). In the fermentation process, the yeast and bacteria consortium performs complex biochemical processes (Torija, 2002), which confer the typical organoleptic characteristics of the beverage. In tuba yeasts and LAB were found, which indicated that the beginning of the fermentation occurs by a mixed culture (Stringini et al., 2009). Different microorganisms have been mentioned to be present in the cut inflorescence sap of Cocus nucifera. Among them were Kloeckera apiculata, Candida glabrata, and Schizosaccharomyces pombe while Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Candida glabrata, and

Chapter 6  Tuba, a Fermented and Refreshing Beverage From Coconut Palm Sap   175

Kloeckera apiculata were present in fermented sap (Kalaiyarasi et al., 2013). In the fermentation of palm sap, high levels of LAB and acetic acid bacteria (AAB) have been found, whereas the dominant yeast species are S. cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe (Odunfa and Oyewole, 1998); however, Candida krusei, Kloeckera apiculata, Pichia spp., and Candida ssp. have been also recorded (AtacadorRamos, 1996; Amoa-Awua et al., 2006). Both yeast and LAB take as substrates the sugars from coconut sap to produce alcohol (yeast and LAB), and lactic acid (LAB); in turn, the alcohol produced will serve as a substrate for BAA to generate acetaldehyde and acetic acid this being the major volatile acid in palm wine (Kadere et  al., 2008). Karamoko et  al. (2012) demonstrated the presence of lactic acid (LAB) and AAB in palm (E. guineensis) sap by decreasing pH and increasing lactic acid and acetic acid generated from fructose in the medium. The presence of acetic acid has been considered as part of the aroma of palm wine and LAB and AAB are considered responsible for rapid product acidification (Amoa-Awua et al., 2006). Atputharajah et  al. (1986) mentioned that natural fermentation of coconut sap has three steps: initial lactic acid fermentation, a middle alcoholic fermentation, and final acetic acid fermentation. Recently, the initial predominance of LAB was found in the fermentation of coconut sap; after that was observed the dominance of yeasts. In addition, it was reported that the hydrolysis of nonreducing sugar occurred between 3 and 9 h of fermentation and the multiplication of yeasts reached its peak at 11 h of fermentation (Shetty et al., 2017). The presence of yeast in coconut sap fermentation has been mentioned; some of them are Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Saccharomycodes ludwigii. During fermentation of coconut sap, 17 species of yeasts belonging to 8 genera were reported. Most of the yeast species belonged to Candida, Pichia, and Saccharomyces genera. Saccharomyces chevalieri was the most dominant yeast specie (Atputharajah et al., 1986). Other yeast species also mentioned to be present during fermentation of palm sap are Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Kluveromyces marxianus, Zygosaccharomyces fermentati, Kloechera apiculata, Candida glabrata, Pichia anghophorae, and Candida fermentati (Amoa-Awua et al., 2006; Nwachukwu et al., 2006; Stringini et  al., 2009; Kalaiyarasi et  al., 2013). In the early stages of coconut sap fermentation, Schizosaccharomyces pombe ferments sucrose and glucose, but in the later stages Pichia angophorae ferments sucrose, and Kloeckera apiculata, and Candida glabrata ferment fructose and galactose (Kalaiyarasi et al., 2013). Stringini et al. (2009) reported the presence of S. cerevisiae from the start of fermentation to end in palm (E. guineensis) wine in Cameroon, and was considered the dominant specie. On the other hand, S. ludwigii has the capacity to produce isobutanol, isoamyl alcohol, ethyl

176  Chapter 6  Tuba, a Fermented and Refreshing Beverage From Coconut Palm Sap

acetate, and acetic acid (Romano et  al., 2003). This yeast predominates in the initial stages of fermentation and because of its sensitivity to alcohol (5%–6%), its growth decreases and it dies; S. cerevisiae, which is more resistant to alcohol, takes control of fermentation (Fleet and Heard, 1993). Kalaiyarasi et al. (2013) mentioned that during fermentation of coconut sap, Candida glabrata was replaced by Pichia anghophorae and Bacillus firmus. Non-Saccharomyces species convert sugars into ethanol, carbon dioxide, and volatile and nonvolatile compounds that contribute to the chemical and sensory composition of fermenting beverages (Lambrechts and Pretorius, 2000; Jolly et al., 2006). The presence of P. kudriavzevii (Issatchenkia orientalis) has been reported in the fermentation of palm sap (Acrocomia aculeata) (Santiago-Urbina et al., 2014). This microorganism is also reported as producing high concentrations of esters, higher alcohols, and succinic acids, moderate concentrations of acetic acid and acetaldehyde; this microorganism in sequential fermentation with S. cerevisiae produces acidity, very low volatile acidity, and a fruity ester, which is desirable in some wines (Kim et al., 2008). Lachancea thermotolerans (Kluyveromyces thermotolerans) acts as an acidifying agent (lactic acid producer), useful for increasing the acidity in wines. In association with S. cerevisiae it showed interesting results, such as reductions in pH and volatile acidity and increase in total acidity, glycerol, and 2-phenylethanol (Comitini et al., 2011). There are also reports of the presence of several yeast genera such as: Saccharomyces, Candida, Endomycopsis, Hansenula, Kleoclera, Pichia, Saccharomycoides, and Schizosacchromyces in oil palm and raffia wine (Enwefa et al., 1992). Saccharomyces cerevisiae is the most reported yeast in traditional fermented beverages. However, in traditional fermentations S. cerevisiae coexists with other microorganisms such as LAB (Amoa-Awua et  al., 2006), which have an important role in the fermentation and preservation of a wide variety of foods, whereas acetic bacteria (AAB) have a role in the development of vinegar taste. Some LAB have been mentioned to be present in tuba. Atputharajah et  al. (1986) found seven genera of bacteria in coconut sap fermentation. The predominant genus was Bacillus, though other genera such as Enterobacter, Leuconostoc, Micrococcus, and Lactobacillus were also found. Other authors indicated that bacteria present during fermentation of the palm sap belong to Lactobacillus and Leuconostoc genera (Nwachukwu et al., 2006). LAB species mentioned to be part of the palm sap fermen­ tation are: Fuctobacillus fructosus, F. durionis, Lactobacillus plantarum, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, and Pediococcus (Amoa-Awua et al., 2006). The most important genera are the Lactobacillus and Leuconostoc fermentation processes (Nwachukwu et al., 2006). L. plantarum and L. mesenteroides are attributed to the rapid acidification of the palm

Chapter 6  Tuba, a Fermented and Refreshing Beverage From Coconut Palm Sap   177

Elaeis guineensis sap (Amoa-Awua et al., 2006). Rapid acidification of palm sap is attributed to L. plantarum and L. mesenteroides (AmoaAwua et al., 2006). In addition, L. mesenteroides is reported as a producer of dextran from sucrose, increasing the viscosity of the beverage (Shamala and Prasad, 1995). F. fructosus has been also mentioned in fermentation of coconut sap; this genus derives from the reclassification of Leuconostoc spp. based on phylogenetics and biochemical and morphological characteristics. This bacteria specie is able to grow on d-fructose and d-glucose in the presence of acceptors of external electrons, but cannot grow in d-glucose without electron acceptors (Endo and Okada, 2008). Considering this bacteria's habitat, that it is found in flowers and fruits, it is considered as LAB fructofílicas; there are few published works on it (Endo et al., 2009). F. fructosus is found only at the beginning of fermentation and decreases as the fermentation process progresses. Alcántara-Hernández et al. (2010) report the presence of this bacterial specie in the beverage named “tavern”, which is made from the palm (Acrocomia aculeate) sap. Ruiz et al. (2000) consider that AAB are divided into Acetobacter, Acidomonas, Gluconobacter, and Gluconacteobacter genera. Acetobacter pasteurianus was found during spontaneous fermentation of palm A. aculeate sap (Alcántara-Hernández et  al., 2010). Acetobacter species prefer alcohol as a carbon source (De Ley et al., 1984). On the other hand, Kadere et  al. (2008) reported Acetobacter and Gluconobacter species in the fermented “mnazi” drink produced from Raphia vinifera sap, while Amoa-Awua et  al. (2006) also mentioned the presence of Acetobacter and Gluconobacter species in palm (E. guineensis). Gluconobacter oxidizes ethanol to acetic acid, also ferments arabinose, xylose, ribose, glucose, galactose, mannose, and melibiosa but does not ferment sucrose (Kadere et  al., 2008). Generally, these species are dominant during the final stages of fermentation (Du Toit and Lambrechts, 2002).

6.7  Product Quality and Regulation There is little information about tuba quality and only few works have been published on tuba composition. Regarding the quality of fresh and naturally fermented sap, Apriyantono et al. (2002) studied the browning reaction of fresh sap during preparation of palm and coconut sugars. Borse et al. (2006) studied the chemical composition of volatiles from fresh and fermented coconut sap and the effects of processing on these compositions. The fresh sap possesses a tolerable odor, which turns harsh on fermentation and makes it unpalatable. With the aim to determine the components responsible for the astringency and harsh odor, the isolation and characterization of the

178  Chapter 6  Tuba, a Fermented and Refreshing Beverage From Coconut Palm Sap

chemical composition of volatiles from fresh, clarified, and fermented sap was carried out. To this, volatile compounds were extracted using the simultaneous distillation and solvent extraction (SDE) method. Then, they were subjected to GC-MS analysis for the identification of chemical constituents. The authors report 23 compounds, which constitute more than 98% of volatiles from fresh sap and 12 compounds representing more than 95% of volatiles in fermented sap. These volatile compounds in fresh sap can be classified as ester (1), aromatic hydrocarbons (3), aliphatic ketones (5), alcohols (4), fatty acids (7), aliphatic hydrocarbons (3), and a heterocyclic compound. Acids were the major compounds (3.3 mg/L), which may not contribute toward aroma, followed by ethyl lactate, which could be a flavor characteristic compound of tuba. The four alcohols found were phenyl ethyl alcohol, 1-hexanol, farnesol, and nerolidol while ketones were 3hydroxy-2-pentanone, 2-hydroxy-3-pentanone, tetradecanone, and hexadecanone and could contribute to the overall flavor of fresh sap. Finally, palmitic acid and palmitoleic acid were the major fatty acids. On the other hand, of these volatile compounds only eight were also present in fermented saps. It is thought that ethyl lactate, phenyl ethyl alcohol, and farnesol were important aroma-contributing compounds. In the case of ethyl lactate and phenyl ethyl alcohol, they were improved several-fold. The other compounds were fatty acids (decanoic acid, dodecanoic acid, tetradecanoic acid, palmitoleic acid, and palmitic acid). Compounds that were present only in fermented sap were ethyl esters of fatty acids, isoamyl alcohol (which could be responsible for fermented odor) and an increased content of ethanol (2.56%). The harsh note and astringency could be the result of increased amounts of acids, along with the produced ethyl alcohol and ethyl esters. Raghavan et al. (2003) also reported that the composition and quality of tuba vary with the place, time, and duration of tapping, which could lead to a preservation problem, leading to harsh aroma and taste, because of the high fermentable nature of the sap. In this sense, clarification of tuba has been proposed.

6.8  Potential Applications Modern fermentation technology has been based on spontaneous developed foods around the world and uses natural products to produce the required food materials, taking into account the charac­ teristic taste and aroma of each artisanal food. In addition, because consumer perception of beverages has changed through history, fermentation technology needs to be adapted to social demands. Actually, consumers demand personal and health benefits; thus, fermentation technology finds new challenges in the market. Many of the traditional fermented foods are receiving new attention for their

Chapter 6  Tuba, a Fermented and Refreshing Beverage From Coconut Palm Sap   179

health-promoting or disease-preventing/curing effects. Scientific evidences for their physiological functions are accumulating and new technologies enhancing the beneficial effects of some foods are developing rapidly; among these new technologies are modern biotechnological and genetic engineering techniques. Some of the recent developments and future prospects are needed to know to define the potential applications of these kinds of beverages. As fermentation makes raw food materials edible without cooking, the risks of hazardous microbial contamination always exist in fermented food, especially naturally fermented traditional foods. On the other hand, most of the traditional fermentation methods have their own inbuilt safeguard mechanisms. Infectious and poisoning microorganisms contaminating vegetal and other raw materials are killed within 1 week of the fermentation period, mainly because of acid formation and bacteriocin production by fermenting microorganisms. In addition, large amounts of nitrate and secondary amines in vegetal products are reduced by fermentation. The importance of fermentation technology for the improvement of the hygienic situation of the needed region, where cold-chain system is not well established, was discussed at the FAO/WHO Workshop on the Assessment of Fermentation as a Household Technology for Improving Food Safety held in December 11–15, 1995, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa (Motarjemi and Nout, 1996).

6.9 Conclusions In general, production of tuba is an economical but slow process; nevertheless, it is a traditional beverage made using artisanal procedures in Mexico, which makes it special because it has specific taste and flavor, and is a sugar-rich beverage. In addition, it is not an alcoholic drink. However, more research on tuba fermentation is needed. Fermentation technology has confronted new challenges in the era of functional food with its efficient biosynthesis potential. Research for identification of useful microbial strains from traditional fermented foods such as tuba continues worldwide and relevant information is accumulating. Exchange of knowledge and skills of fermentation technology of the West and the East will accelerate the technology innovation and new product development. Considering the importance of fermentation technology in the era of functional food, the public sector and international agencies should pay attention to the relevant research and development (R&D) efforts of academic institutions and industrial research groups. The R&D support of national and international funding organizations should include research priorities on fermented beverages such as tuba.

180  Chapter 6  Tuba, a Fermented and Refreshing Beverage From Coconut Palm Sap

Acknowledgments This study had financial support from the Autonomous University of Coahuila.

Conflict of interest The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References Aeimsard, R., Thumthanaruk, B., Jumnongpon, R., Lekhavat, S., 2015. Effect of drying on total phenolic compounds, antioxidant activities and physical of palm sugar. J. Food Sci. Agric. Technol. 1, 126–130. Aguilar, C.N., Rodríguez, R., Gutiírrez-Sánchez, G., Augur, C., Favela-Torres, E., PradoBarragán, L.A., Contreras-Esquivel, J., 2007. Microbial tannases: Advances and perspectives. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 76, 47–59. Aguilera-Carbo, A., Augur, C., Prado-Barragan, L.A., Favela-Torres, E., Aguilar, C., 2008. Microbial production of ellagic acid and biodegradation of ellagitannins. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 78, 189–199. Alcántara-Hernández, R.J., Rodríguez-Álvarez, J.A., Valenzuela-Encinas, C., GutiérrezMiceli, F.A., Castañón-González, H., Marsch, R., Ayora-Talavera, T., Dendooven, L., 2010. The bacterial community in ‘taberna’ a traditional beverage of Southern Mexico. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 51, 558–563. Amoa-Awua, W.K., Sampson, E., Tano-Debrah, K., 2006. Growth of yeasts, lactic and acetic bacteria in palm wine during tapping and fermentation from felled oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) in Ghana. J. Appl. Microbiol. 47, 1–8. Anderson, K., Tuber, S., Gobeille, A., Cremin, P., Waterhouse, A., Steinberg, F., 2001. Walnut polyphenolics inhibit in  vitro human plasma and LDL oxidation. J. Nutr. 131, 2837–2842. Apriyantono, A., et al., 2002. Rate of browning reaction during preparation of coconut and palm sugar. Int. Congr. Ser. 1245, 275–278. Ascacio-Valdés, J., Aguilera-Carbó, A., Buenrostro, J., Prado-Barragán, A., RodríguezHerrera, R., Aguilar, C., 2016. The complete biodegradation pathway of ellagitannins by Aspergillus niger in solid-state fermentation. J. Basic Microbiol. 56, 329–336. Atacador-Ramos, M., 1996. Indigenous fermented foods in which ethanol in a major product. In: Handbook of Indigenous Fermented Food. second ed. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, pp. 363–508. Atputharajah, J.D., Widanapathiranat, S., Samarajeewa, U., 1986. Microbiology and biochemistry of natural fermentation of coconut palm sap. Food Microbiol. 3 (4), 273–280. Ayernor, G.K.S., Mathews, J.S., 1971. The sap of the palm Elaeis guineensis Jacq as raw material for alcoholic fermentation in Ghana. Trop. Sci. 13, 71–83. Barh, D., Mazumdar, B.C., 2008. Comparative nutritive values of palm saps before and after their partial fermentation and effective use of wild date (Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.) sap in treatment of anemia. Res. J. Med. Med. Sci. 3 (2), 173–176. Borse, B.B., et al., 2006. Chemical composition of volatiles from coconut sap (neera) and effect of processing. Food Chem. 101 (3), 877–880. Borse, B.B., Rao, L.J.M., Ramalakshmi, K., Raghavan, B., 2007. Chemical composition of volatiles from coconut sap (neera) and effect of processing. Food Chem. 101 (3), 877–880. Cabezas Elizondo, D.A., 2016. Tejuino, tuba and bate refreshing beverages: symbols that endure from generation to generation 92 prácticas alimentarias desde una

Chapter 6  Tuba, a Fermented and Refreshing Beverage From Coconut Palm Sap   181

perspectiva sistémica completa in the State of Colima. RAZÓN Y PALABRA 20 (3), 92–105. Chandrasekhar, K., Sreevani, S., Seshapani, P., Pramodhakumari, J., 2012. A review on palm wine. Int. J. Res. Biol. Sci. 2, 33–38. Chen, W., et  al., 2011. Reactive oxygen species scavenging activity and DNA protecting effect of fresh and naturally fermented coconut sap. J. Food Biochem. 35 (5), 1381–1388. Clifford, M., Scalbert, A., 2000. Review: ellagitannins-nature, occurrence and dietary burden. J. Sci. Food Agric. 80, 1118–1125. Comitini, F., Gobbi, M., Domizio, P., Romani, C., Lencioni, L., Mannazzu, I., Ciani, M., 2011. Selected non-Saccharomyces wine yeasts in controlled multi-starter fermentations with S. cerevisiae. Food Microbiol. 28, 873–882. De la Fuente-Salcido, N., Castañeda-Ramírez, J.C., García-Almendárez, B.E., Bideshi, D.K., Salcedo-Hernández, R., Barboza-Corona, J.E., 2015. Isolation and characterization of bacteriocinogenic lactic bacteria from M-tuba and tepache, two traditional fermented beverages in México. Food Sci. Nutr. 3, 434–442. De Ley, J., Gillis, M., Swings, J., 1984. Family VI. Acetobactaceae. In: Bergey’s Manual of Sytematic Bacteriology, 19th ed. Vol. 1. Williams and Wilkens, MD, USA, pp. 267–274. Devadas, R.P., Sundari, K., Susheela, A., 1969. Effects of supplementation of two school lunch programmes with neera on the nutritional status of children. Indian J. Nutr. Diet. 6, 29–36. Du Toit, W.J., Lambrechts, M.G., 2002. The enumeration and identification of acetic acid bacteria from South African red wine fermentations. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 74, 57–64. Elkhateeb, A., Takahashi, K., Matsuura, H., Yamasaki, M., Yamato, O., Maede, Y., Katakura, K., Yoshihara, T., Nabeta, K., 2005. Anti-babesial ellagic acid rhamnosides from the bark of Elaeocarpus parvifilius. Phytochemistry 66, 2577–2580. Endo, A., Futagawa-Endo, Y., Dicks, L.M.T., 2009. Isolation and characterization of fructophilic lactic acid bacteria from fructose-rich niches. Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 32, 593–600. Endo, A., Okada, S., 2008. Reclassification of the genus Leuconostoc, and proposals of Fructobacillus fructosus gen. nov., comb. nov., Fructobacillus durionis comb. nov., Fructobacillus ficulneus comb. nov.and Fructobacillus pseudoficulneus comb. nov. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 58, 2195–2205. Enwefa, R., Uwajeh, M., Oduh, M., 1992. Some studies on Nigerian palm wine with special reference to yeasts. Acta Biotechnol. 12, 117–125. Ezeagu, I.E., Fafunso, M.A., 2003. Biochemical constituents of palm wine. Ecol. Food Nutr. 42, 213–222. Fleet, G.H., Heard, G.M., 1993. Yeasts-growth during fermentation. In: Fleet, G.H. (Ed.), Wine Microbiology and Biotechnology. Harwood Academic Publishers, Switzerland, pp. 27–54. Fossi, B.T., Ekue, N.B., Nchanji, G.T., Ngah, B., Anyangwe, I.A., Wanji, S., 2015. Probiotic properties of lactic acid bacteria isolated from fermented sap of palm tree (Elaeis guineensis). J. Microbiol. Antimicrob. 7 (5), 42–52. Godoy, A., Herrera, T., Ulloa, M., 2003. In: Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas (Ed.), Más allá del pulque y el tepache: las bebidas alcohólicas no destiladas indígenas de México 2003 México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. SIBE, Campeche. Granados, D., López, G., 2002. Manejo de la palma de coco (Cocos nucifera L.) en Mexico. Chapingo Serie Ciencias Forestales y del Ambiente 8 (1), 39–48. Available at: https:// chapingo.mx/revistas/phpscript/download.php?file=completo&id=MTE0NQ. Gupta, R.C., Jain, V.K., Shanker, G., 1980. Palm sap as a potential starting material for vinegar production. Res. Ind. 25, 5–7.

182  Chapter 6  Tuba, a Fermented and Refreshing Beverage From Coconut Palm Sap

Hattori, K., Sukenobu, N., Sasaki, T., Takasuga, S., Hayashi, T., Kasai, R., Yamasaki, K., Hazeki, O., 2003. Activation of insulin receptors by lagerstroemin. J. Pharmacol. Sci. 93, 69–73. Hayashi, T., Maruyama, H., Kasai, R., Hattori, K., Takasuga, S., Hazeki, O., Yamasaki, K., Tanaka, T., 2002. Ellagitannins from Lagerstroemia speciosa as activators of glucose transport in fat cells. Planta Med. 68, 173–175. Herderich, M., Smith, P., 2005. Analysis of grape and wine tannins: methods, applications and challenges. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 11, 205–214. Huang, W., 2004. Biosynthesis of tannin hidrolasa and hydrolysis of valonia tannin to ellagic acid by Aspergillus SHL 6. Process Biochem. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. procbio.2004.05.004. Institute of Medicine; Food and Nutrition Board, 1998. Dietary Reference Intakes: Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline. National Academy Press, Washington, DC. Iwuoha, C.I., Eke, O.S., 1996. Nigerian indigenous foods: their food traditional ­operation-inherent problems, improvements and current status. Food Res. Int. 29, 527–540. Jolly, N.P., Augustyn, O.P.H., Pretorius, I.S., 2006. The role and use of non-Saccharomyces yeasts in wine production. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 27 (1), 15–39. Kadere, T.T., Miyamoto, T., Oniango, R.K., Kutima, P.M., Njoroge, S.M., 2008. Isolation and identification of the genera Acetobacter and Gluconobacter in coconut toddy (mnazi). Afr. J. Biotechnol. 7 (16), 2963–2971. Kalaiyarasi, K., Sangeetha, K., Rajarajan, S., 2013. A comparative study on the microbial flora of the fresh sap from cut inflorescence and fermented sap (toddy) of Borrassus flabellifer Linn (Palmyrah tree) and of Cocos nucifera Linn (coconut tree) to identify the microbial fermenters. Int. J. Res. Pure Appl. Microbiol. 3 (3), 43–47. Karamoko, D., Djeni, N.T., N’guessan, K.F., Bouatenin, K.M.J.P., Dje, K.M., 2012. The biochemical and microbiological quality of palm wine samples produced at different periods during tapping and changes which occurred during their storage. Food Control 26, 504–511. Kim, D.H., Hong, Y.A., Park, H.D., 2008. Co-fermentation of grape must by Issatchenkia orientalis and Saccharomyces cerevisiae reduces the malic acid content in wine. Biotechnol. Lett. 30 (9), 1633–1638. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10529-008-9726-1. Kolodziej, H., Kayser, O., Kiderlen, A., Ito, H., Hatano, T., Yoshida, T., Foo, L., 2001. Antilesishmanial activity of hydrolizable tannins and their modulatory effects on nitric oxide and tumor necrosis factor-α release in macrophages in  vitro. Planta Med. 67, 825–832. Kongkaew, S., Chaijan, M., Riebroy, S., 2014. Some characteristics and antioxidant activity of commercial sugar produced in Thailand. KMITL Sci. Technol. J. 1, 1–9. Konan, Y., Konan, J.L., Konan, R., Assa, R., Okoma, J., Issali, E., Biego, M., 2015. Changes in physicochemical parameters during storage of the inflorescence sap derived from four coconut (Cocus nucifera L.) varieties in Côte D’ Ivoire. Am. J. Exp. Agric. 5, 352–365. Lambrechts, M.G., Pretorius, I.S., 2000. Yeast and its importance to wine aroma – a review. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 21, 97–129. Magat, S.S., 1996. In: Search for a better understanding of the mineral nutrition and fertilizer needs of coconuts in the Philippines – towards a reliable nutrition management and fertilizer recommendation: from 1964 to 1996 and beyond. Coconut R & D Symposium, 30 Years Founding Anniversary of the PCA-Davao Research Center H 8.1.3.1 #4012. Bog-Oshiro, Davao City, 6 February 1996. Marsh, A.J., Colin, H.C., Ross, R.P., Cotter, P.D., 2014. Fermented beverages with health-promoting potential: past and future perspectives. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 38, 113–124. Medlineplus, 2017. Thiamin: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. https://medlineplus. gov, Medical Encyclopedia. Consulted on August 28th, 2018.

Chapter 6  Tuba, a Fermented and Refreshing Beverage From Coconut Palm Sap   183

Mingshu, L., Kai, Y., Qiang, H., Dongying, J., 2006. Biodegradation of gallotannins and ellagitannins. J. Basic Microbiol. 46 (1), 68–84. Motarjemi, Y., Nout, M.J.R., 1996. Food fermentation: a safety and nutritional assessment/Y. Motarjemi & M. J. R. Nout on behalf of the Joint FAO/WHO Workshop on Assessment of Fermentation as a Household Technology for Improving Food Safety. Bull. World Health Organ. 74 (6), 553–559. http://www.who.int/iris/ handle/10665/54322. Naka, P., 1996. In: Potential of producing sugar from coconut. Promoting MultiPurpose Uses & Competitiveness of the Coconut. Proceedings 26–29 September 1996 IPGRI. Naknaen, P., Meenune, M., 2016. Quality profiles of pasteurized palm sap (Borassus flabellifer Linn.) collected from different regions in Thailand. Walailak J. Sci. Technol. 13, 165–176. Naknean, P., Meenune, M., Roudaut, G., 2010. Characterization of palm sap harvested in Songkhla province, southern Thailand. Int. Food Res. J. 17, 977–986. Nwachukwu, I.N., Ibekwe, V.I., Anyanwu, B.N., 2006. Investigation of some physicochemical and microbial succession parameters of palm wine. J. Food Technol. 4 (4), 308–312. Odunfa, S., 1985. African fermented foods. In: Wood, B.J.B. (Ed.), Microbiology of Fermented Foods. London, UK, Elsevier Applied Science. Odunfa, S.A., Oyewole, O.B., 1998. African fermented foods. Microbiol. Fermen. Foods 2, 713–752. Okafor, N., 1972. Palm wine yeasts from parts of Nigeria. J. Sci. Food Agric. 23, 1399–1407. Onyekwere, O.O., Koleoso, A.O., 1978. In: Some quality control parameters in bottled palmwine technology. Proceedings of the Nigerian Institute of Food Science and Technology, Lagos, Nigeria. Purnomo, H., 1992. Sugar components of coconut sugar in Indonesia. ASEAN Food J. 7, 200–2001. Purnomo, H., Suryoesputro, S., 2001. In: Traditional coconut sugar production in Indonesia. A comparative study on the technology and physico-chemical properties of coconut sugar from four villages in East Java and Bali. 11th Biennial International Congress of Asian Regional Associations for Home Economics (ARAHE), pp. 1–6. Raghavan, B., et al., 2003. A Process for Deodourisation and Preservation of Coconut Sap (Neera). Rivlin, R.S., 2010. Riboflavin. In: Coates, P.M., Betz, J.M., Blackman, M.R., et al. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Dietary Supplements, second ed. London and New York, Informa Healthcare, pp. 691–699. Romano, P., Fiore, C., Paraggio, M., Caruso, M., Cepece, A., 2003. Function of yeast species and strains in wine flavour. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 86, 169–180. Romero-Luna, H.E., Hernández-Sánchez, H., Dávila-Ortiz, G., 2017. Traditional fermented beverages from Mexico as a potential probiotic source. Ann. Microbiol. 67, 577–586. Ruiz, A., Poblet, M., Mas, A., Guillamon, J.M., 2000. Identification of acetic acid bacteria by RFLP of PCR-amplified 16S rDNA and 16S-23S rDNA intergenic spacer. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 50, 1981–1987. Said, H.M., Ross, A.C., 2014. Riboflavin. In: Ross, A.C., Caballero, B., Cousins, R.J., Tucker, K.L., Ziegler, T.R. (Eds.), Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease, 11th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, pp. 325–330. Salgado Delgado, J.A., Fransico Morales, J.Y., Martínez Ayala, I.G., Navez González, D., Huerta Beristain, G., 2016. Diversidad bacteriana durante la fermentaión de la tuba. Foro de Estudio sobre Guerrero 2, 65–68. Samaraieewa, U., et al., 1985. Effect of sodium metabisulphide on ethanol production in coconut inflorescence sap. Food Microbiol. 2 (1), 11–17. Sánchez, D.G., López Ríos, G.F., 2002. Manejo de la palma de coco (Cocus nucifera L.) en México. Revista Chapingo. Serie Ciencias Forestales y del Ambiente 8, 39–48.

184  Chapter 6  Tuba, a Fermented and Refreshing Beverage From Coconut Palm Sap

Santiago-Urbina, J.A., Arias-García, J.A., Ruiz-Terán, F., 2014. Yeast species associated with spontaneous fermentation of taberna, a traditional palm wine from the southeast of Mexico. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 51, 558–563. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s13213-014-0861-8. Saranya, P., Vijayakumar, T., 2016. Preliminary phytochemical screening of raw and thermally processed Palmira palm (Borassus flabellifer) fruit pulp. JIPBS 3, 186–193. Sepúlveda, L., Ascacio, A., Rodríguez-Herrera, R., Aguilera-Carbó, A., Aguilar, C., 2011. Ellagic acid: biological properties and biotechnological development for production processes. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 10, 4518–4523. Shamala, T.R., Prasad, M.S., 1995. Preliminary studies on the production of high and low viscosity dextran by Leuconostoc spp. Process Biochem. 30 (3), 237–241. Shetty, P., D’Souza, A., Poojari, S., Narayana, J., Rajeeva, P., 2017. Study of fermentation kinetics of palm sap from Cocos nucifera Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. 5 (3), 375–381. Shi, H., Enriquez, A., Rapadas, M., Martin, E.M.M.A., Wang, R., Moreau, J., Lim, K., Szot, J.O., et al., 2017. NAD deficiency, congenital malformations and niacin supplementation. N. Engl. J. Med. 377, 544–552. Singhal, R., Kennedy, J., Gopalakrishnan, S.M., Kaczmarek, A., Knill, C., Akmar, P.F., 2008. Industrial production, processing, and utilization of sago palm-derived products. Carbohydr. Polym. 72, 1–20. Stringini, M., Comitini, F., Taccari, M., Cini, M., 2009. Yeast diversity during tapping and fermentation of palm wine from Cameroon. Food Microbiol. 26, 415–420. Syamala Devi, N., HariPrasad, T., Ramesh, K., Merugu, R., 2015. Antioxidant properties of coconut sap and its sugars. Int. J. Pharm. Tech. Res. 8 (1), 160–162. Tamunaidu, P., Matsui, N., Okimori, Y., Saka, S., 2013. Nipa (Nypa fruticans) sap as a potential feedstock for ethanol production. Biomass Bioenergy 52, 96–102. Todorov, S.D., 2010. Diversity of bacteriocinogenic lactic acid bacteria isolated from boza, a cereal‐based fermented beverage from Bulgaria. Food Control 21, 1011–1021. Tomomatsu, A., Itoh, T., Wijaya, C.H., Nasution, Z., Kumendong, J., Matsuyama, A., 1996. Chemical and constituents brown sugar of sugar-containing from palm in Indonesia. Japanese J. Trop. Agric. 40, 175–181. Torija, M.J., 2002. Ecología de levaduras selección y adaptación a fermentaciones vínicas. Tesis de doctorado, Universitat Rovira I Virgili. Departament de Bioquímica I Biotecnología. Facultad de Enologia. Uzcanga Perez, N.G., et al., 2010. Preferencias de consumo por productos derivados del cocotero en la Península de Yucatán, México. Revista mexicana de ciencias agrícolas 6 (1), 45–57. Velázquez-Monreal, J., Meléndez-Rentería, N.P., Rodríguez Herrera, R., Aguilar González, C.N., 2011. Tuba: una bebida fermentada tradicional de Colima. Cienciacierta 25, 11–14. Xia, Q., Li, R., Zhao, S., Chen, W., Chen, H., Xin, B., Tang, M., 2011. Chemical composition changes post-harvest coconut inflorescence sap during natural fermentation. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 10, 14999–15005. Ysidor, K.N., Rachel, A.R., Jean-Louis, K.K., Muriel, O.D., Prades, A., Kouassi, A., Godi, B., Marius, H., 2014. Glucide factors of the inflorescence sap of four coconut (Cocus nucifera L.) cultivars from Côte D’ ivoire. Int. J. Biochem. Res. Rev. 4, 116–127.

Further Reading https://medlineplus.gov/druginfo/natural/965.html n.d. (Accessed 10 October 2017). https://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements-niacin/art-20364984 n.d. (Accessed 10 October 2017).