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The International Astronomical union
P. Tm OOSTERHOFF
11
tion, the special interests of the people. By the selection of the problems, by the philosophical background on which these are treated, by the special qualities of the nation, it will have a character of its own, even if it is an "exact" science like astronomy. The interaction of the work of all these nations automatically eliminates errors due to preconceived ideas ; refinement of mind is complemented by stubborn labour or by practical common sense. But it is the faith of our life that ultimately there will never be contradictions between the findings of all these scientists, varied in their personalities and nationalities, since Nature is unique and since Truth is unique. And, finally, there emerges, in a purified form, what we may call I n t e r n a t i o n a l Science, which is no more the work of individuals but the work of the community, of humanity as a whole, the noblest expression of the human mind. International scientific co-operation demonstrates to all that there is a way of living together on Earth in peace and mutual aid and happiness; a way of living which has not been found by politicians, but which has developed out of the simple desire for truth, and because we relied upon each other, and because we loved each other. • . . Ye Heavens, whose pure dark regions have no sign Of languor, though so calm, and though so great Are yet untroubled and unpassionate: Who though so noble share in the world's toil, A n d though so task'd keep free from dust and soil . . . ~/IATTIIE~V A R N O L D ,
1852. I
The International Astronomical Union P. Tm
OOSTERHOFF
Sterrewaeht Leiden, Netherlands
co-operation in astronomy as well as international organization of certain specific problems which are too extensive or costly to be undertaken by a single observatory, have a long history• In the previous article Professor MI~NaERT has given a general outline of the historical development of international co-operation in astronomical science. The same topic was treated by Professor STRATTON when he delivered his Presidential Address at a meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society. ~ Nevertheless it was not until 1919 that the many different and separate efforts were combined into a single organization. In common with some other Unions the International Astronomical Union was founded at the Constitutive Assembly of the International Research Council, which was held at Brussels in J u l y 1919. During the thirty-four years which have elapsed since its establishment the Union has developed a great many activities in different fields and it has no doubt become an institution of unique value for astronomical science. Interesting facts about the early history of the I.A.U. can be found in an article by Dr. W. S. ADAMS ( P u b l . A s t r o n . Soc. Pac~ific, 61, 5, 1949). INTERNATIONAL
1 F o r full text see the fascinating collection " D i e h t e r s over S t e r r e n " b y M. MINNAERT ( v a n L o g h u m Slaterus, A r n h e m , 219 Pl)., ] 949).--The Editor. 17. J . M. STR.¢TTON; M.,V. 94, 361-372, 1934.
12
The International AstronomicalUnion
This development however has not always been smooth and in the course of years man y difficult problems had to be solved• Most of these problems paralleled the international political situation. I t is very encouraging t hat the Union despite these political setbacks, is to-day as strong as, and probably even stronger t han it ever was before• This result is not only due to the efforts, the good-will and the wise decisions of the members of the Executive Committee, who had a large share in determining the general policy of the Union, but also to the conviction of all the individual members t h a t a strong international organization like the Union is essential for a sound and fruitful development of science in general and of astronomy in particular. Many astronomers of widely different nationalities have spoken to this effect and have given expression to their belief t hat the international relations between astronomers are too strong to be broken or even affected for long by political forces. We m ay quote here from a message by Sir ARTHUR EDDINGTON which was read at the concluding meeting of the General Assembly of Stockhohn in 1938: "But, if in international politics the sky seems heavy with clouds, such a meeting as this at Stockholm is as when the sun comes forth from behind the clouds• Here we have formed and renewed bands of friendship which will resist the forces of disruption•" This firm belief has never changed and it has succeeded in making the Union the strong organization it is now. Before dealing with the present-day activities and problems of the Union, we shall pay tribute to those astronomers who have given much of their thought and time for the benefit of the Union, and we shall give some numerical data to demonstrate the continuous growth of the Union• The Union is governed by the Executive Committee, consisting of a President, five Vice-Presidents, and a General Secretary who is also the Treasurer• The President stays in office for one term, normally of three years, whereas the other officers are elected for two terms. The Executive Committee is responsible for the administration of the affairs of the Union and acts in accordance with the decisions of the General Assembly. As a rule the General Assembly meets once every three years. For obvious reasons it has not always been possible to keep to this rule and altogether eight General Assemblies have been held so far. Without derogating the great merits of the many Vice-Presidents who have served the Union, we give here a list of the Presidents and General Secretaries who have been in office since the foundation of the Union• General Secretaries
Presidents
Mr. B. BAILLAUD Prof. W. W. CAMPBELL Prof. W. DE SITTER Sir FRANK DYSON Prof. F. SCHLESINGER. Prof. E. ESCLANGON Sir ARTHUR EDDINGTON
1919-1922 1922-1925 1925-1928 1928-1932 1932-1935 1935-1938 1938-1944 Sir HAROLD SPENCER JONEs' 1944-1948 1948-1952 Prof. B. LINDBLAD 1952Prof. O. STROVE
Prof. Prof. Prof. Prof. Prof.
A. F. J. B. P.
FOWLER J. M. STRATTON H. OORT STR6MGaEN Th. OOSTERHOFF
1919-1925 1925-1935 1935-1948 1948-1952 1952-
Among the names on these lists two stand out clearly because of their very long service. They are Prof. F. J. M. STRATTO~,who fulfilled the task of General Secretary
P. T~. OOSTERHOFF
13
for ten years, over three consecutive terms, and Prof. J. H. OORT, who kept the same office for the usual two terms, but on account of the war these terms covered a period of thirteen years. I t can safely be said t h a t these two prominent astronomers, who have sacrificed on behalf of the Union so much time which they might have used for their own research, know the Union and its affairs better than anyone else. Their prudence and careful handling of the Union's affairs have contributed greatly to the continual growth and strength of this organization. For this work alone they have earned lasting gratitude from astronomers all over the world. We shall see later t h a t Professor STRATTON did not discontinue in 1935 his efforts to further international collaboration and international scientific organization. The growth of the Union can be demonstrated by some simple figures.
Year
Number of standing commissions
Number of members
Number of adhering countries
1922 1938 1952
32 31 39
2O7 553 814
19 26 33
The figures indicate the situation just after the first General Assembly at Rome, after the sixth at Stockholm and after the eighth and latest at Rome. The figures in the last column are especially important, showing that the adjective "international" is continually gaining weight. The figures in the third column prove t h a t astronomy is very much alive at present--though they m a y cause some worry to the General Secretary. The table, however, gives a very incomplete picture of the growth of the Union. Although the increase in the number of commissions already indicates an extension of its activities, a number of important developments have taken place especially since the end of the war. Although some of the regular activities of the Union, many of which were started immediately after its foundation, have been enumerated in the preceding article by Professor MINNAERT,they are too important to omit for this reason in an article which should give a description of the I.A.U. Much work has been done by the standing commissions and it is difficult to estimate how many times discussions between members of these commissions have paved the way for international collaboration. In this connection should be mentioned the stimulating influence of the Union on work bearing upon the "Carte du Ciel" and the plan of Selected Areas. The work on nomenclature, the co-ordination of solar research, with publication at regular intervals of solar observations, the work on ephemerides and Minor Planets, the naming and cataloguing of variable stars are only a few of the items which require international collaboration and which therefore have received the full attention, sometimes including financial aid, of the Union. Furthermore the Union is scientifically and financially concerned in a number of permanent services, like the International Latitude Service, the International Time Bureau, and the telegram Bureau at Copenhagen. The first two of these services work under the auspices of the I.A.U. and of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics. The Union also took a very active interest in the International Longitude Campaigns of 1926 and 1933, and it is now engaged with other Unions, trader the auspices of the International Council of Scientific Unions, in the preparations for an International Geophysical Year and another Longitude Campaign.
14
The International Astronomical Union
Of the developments which became important after the end of the last war we should mention first the organization of an increasing number of international symposia, some of them taking place at the occasion of a General Assembly, others in the interval between such meetings. It is not unusual for a considerable part of the meetings of the standing commissions during a General Assembly to be devoted to rather technical matters and the discussions are naturally restricted within the province of the commission. Consequently the introduction of symposia opened new possibilities for an exchange of opinions on more general scientific topics. Since the war the following symposia have been held:
During General Assembly, Ziirich, 1948 Infra-red Spectrophotometry The Spectral Sequence and its Anomalies The Abundances of the Chemical Elements in the Universe
Paris, 1949 Problems of Cosmical Aerodynamics (Organized by the International Union of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics and the I.A.U.)
During General Assembly, Rome, 1952 Stellar Evolution Astrometry of Faint Stars Astronomical Instrumentation Spectra of Variable Stars
Groningen, 1953 Co-ordination of Galactic Research
Cambridge (England), 1953 Gas Dynamics of Interstellar Clouds (Organized by I.A.U. and I.U.T.A.M.) These symposia have proved so successful that it may be assumed t hat the Union will continue to organize them. The other most important development, though of a completely different character, was the establishment of UNESCO, which has taken an active interest in international organization. Since 1947 the Union has received annually considerable sums from this body, which have enabled the Union to increase its activities to a great extent. The grants allotted by UNESCO to the I.A.U. are as follows:
$ 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953
11,740 21,880 14,000 13,105 ~7,900 14,300 13,750
P. T m OOSTERHOFF
15
As the income from the annual dues paid to the Union by the adhering countries amounted to $24,018 in 1951 and to 823,451 in 1952, it is clear t h a t the financial aid from UNESCO plays an essential role in the budget of the Union. The International Latitude Service, le Bureau International de l'Heure, several symposia, many publications and other activities of the Union have profited from this financial aid. This larger budget led also to the formation of Commission 38 for the exchange of astronomers. Under the able presidency of Professor STRATTON this commission has been very active and m a n y young and promising astronomers have obtained through the efforts of Professor STRATTONand his colleagues the opportunity to work for shorter or longer periods at renowned institutes in foreign countries. This form of exchange is so important and has proved so successful that the Union will continue to support Commission 38 financially, even though UNESCO has discontinued its financial aid towards this special purpose. It is realized that this survey of the activities of the Union is very incomplete. The choice of the subjects treated is a personal and rather arbitrary one, but a fuller treatment would go beyond the scope of this article. However, some of the problems which the Union has still to solve should be mentioned. The first of these difficulties is probably met in all international organizations. I t is the problem of languages. The fact that many tongues are spoken by the members of the Union usually does not seriously hamper conversation and the verbal exchange of ideas between them, as often a language can be found which is understood by both parties. But in large meetings, like General Assemblies, meetings of commissions and symposia, long translations are sometimes required which impede an effective and expeditious course of the proceedings. The problem is most urgent however with respect to scientific publications. Here the Union has always stressed the desirability t h a t abstracts in another main language be added to the original articles. It seems impossible t h a t the Union can solve this problem of languages completely. It will be the task of several generations to come to remove the barriers which at the present time impede the free intercourse between the different nationalities. The second problem which m a y be mentioned here is one of an "organizational" character. Since its establishment the Union has divided its scientific task over a number of standing commissions. It is evident that any subdivision of astronomieM science into a number of specialized fields must be arbitrary and artificial. Probably for this reason some other big Unions have followed a less drastic course and work through a small number of large sections. During its early history the number of members of the Union was so smM1 that the standing commissions could be considered as working groups of a relatively small number of experts in the field. At present an astronomer can only be a member of the Union if he is nominated as member of a commission. As a consequence of this rule and of the present growth of astronomy, several commissions have become very large, and it is well known that the efficiency of a comnfission is certainly not proportional to the number of its members. The difficulties indicated here have been studied and discussed more than once by the Executive Committee, but no other form of organization has been suggested so far which would guarantee an improvement over the present system. During the last General Assembly a number of combined commission meetings were arranged which proved to be quite useful and Professor LINDBLADsuggested that in large commissions smM1 working parties should be formed. Although we do not know
16
The International Astronomical News Service
what the future course of the Union will be, it is reasonable to expect that the Union which has already made itself indispensable to astronomy during the few decades of its existence, will succeed in solving such organizational difficulties. This article would be incomplete without a few words about the International Council of Scientific Unions (I.C.S.U.). This body, the central organization of the International Scientific Unions, was established in 1931 as a continuation of the International Research Council, which was founded by the Allies in 1919 after the First World War. At present, eleven Unions adhere to this Council. Space does not permit describing in any detail the structure and the activities of this important organization. Although I.C.S.U. and UNESCO are both completely autonomous organizations, an agreement of mutual recognition was drawn up between them in 1947. As a consequence, the granting of financial support by UNESCO to the International Scientific Unions adhering to I.C.S.U. takes place through the intermediary of I.C.S.U. Furthermore, I.C.S.U. has organized and finances a number of special research stations of which the High Altitude Research Station at the Jungfraujoch has proved to be of great importance for astronomical research. Another form of activity of I.C.S.U. is the formation of Joint Commissions between members of two or more Unions in order to co-ordinate efforts in special fields which fall within the domain of more than one Union. At the moment, members of the I.A.U. are active in four of these Joint Commissions, viz. on High Altitude Research Stations, the Ionosphere, Solar and Terrestrial Relationships, and Spectroscopy. The board of I.C.S.U. consists of a Bureau, an Executive Board, and a General Assembly. No doubt it will interest the reader to know that Professor STRATTON, who has served the I.A.U. for so many years, has also been the General Secretary of I.C.S.U. from 1937 until 1952. Few scientists have taken such a very large share in the efforts to improve international organization and collaboration as has Professor STRATTON.
The International Astronomical News Service JULIE VINTER HANSEN Universitetets Astronomiske Observatorium, Copenhagen SUMMARY This is the story of the development of the International Astronomical News Service from the wishful thinking of TYCHO BRAHE up to the present organized global news service by telegrams and eirculars, under the auspices of the International Astronomical Union. The location of the present International Telegram Bureau is: University Observatory, Copenhagen, Denmark.
THE feeling of the importance of co-operation between scientists has been steadily growing through the years. No doubt most scientists have always felt an urge to contact other learned men to discuss problems, discoveries, and inventions. In ancient times such contacts were not easily made; travelling was hazardous and mail-service non-existent, hence progress was slow. The lack of intercourse between scientists sometimes led to bitter quarrels about the priority of theories, discoveries, or inventions, and it was not easy to pass judgment on the various claims.
11
tion, the special interests of the people. By the selection of the problems, by the philosophical background on which these are treated, by the special qualities of the nation, it will have a character of its own, even if it is an "exact" science like astronomy. The interaction of the work of all these nations automatically eliminates errors due to preconceived ideas ; refinement of mind is complemented by stubborn labour or by practical common sense. But it is the faith of our life that ultimately there will never be contradictions between the findings of all these scientists, varied in their personalities and nationalities, since Nature is unique and since Truth is unique. And, finally, there emerges, in a purified form, what we may call I n t e r n a t i o n a l Science, which is no more the work of individuals but the work of the community, of humanity as a whole, the noblest expression of the human mind. International scientific co-operation demonstrates to all that there is a way of living together on Earth in peace and mutual aid and happiness; a way of living which has not been found by politicians, but which has developed out of the simple desire for truth, and because we relied upon each other, and because we loved each other. • . . Ye Heavens, whose pure dark regions have no sign Of languor, though so calm, and though so great Are yet untroubled and unpassionate: Who though so noble share in the world's toil, A n d though so task'd keep free from dust and soil . . . ~/IATTIIE~V A R N O L D ,
1852. I
The International Astronomical Union P. Tm
OOSTERHOFF
Sterrewaeht Leiden, Netherlands
co-operation in astronomy as well as international organization of certain specific problems which are too extensive or costly to be undertaken by a single observatory, have a long history• In the previous article Professor MI~NaERT has given a general outline of the historical development of international co-operation in astronomical science. The same topic was treated by Professor STRATTON when he delivered his Presidential Address at a meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society. ~ Nevertheless it was not until 1919 that the many different and separate efforts were combined into a single organization. In common with some other Unions the International Astronomical Union was founded at the Constitutive Assembly of the International Research Council, which was held at Brussels in J u l y 1919. During the thirty-four years which have elapsed since its establishment the Union has developed a great many activities in different fields and it has no doubt become an institution of unique value for astronomical science. Interesting facts about the early history of the I.A.U. can be found in an article by Dr. W. S. ADAMS ( P u b l . A s t r o n . Soc. Pac~ific, 61, 5, 1949). INTERNATIONAL
1 F o r full text see the fascinating collection " D i e h t e r s over S t e r r e n " b y M. MINNAERT ( v a n L o g h u m Slaterus, A r n h e m , 219 Pl)., ] 949).--The Editor. 17. J . M. STR.¢TTON; M.,V. 94, 361-372, 1934.
12
The International AstronomicalUnion
This development however has not always been smooth and in the course of years man y difficult problems had to be solved• Most of these problems paralleled the international political situation. I t is very encouraging t hat the Union despite these political setbacks, is to-day as strong as, and probably even stronger t han it ever was before• This result is not only due to the efforts, the good-will and the wise decisions of the members of the Executive Committee, who had a large share in determining the general policy of the Union, but also to the conviction of all the individual members t h a t a strong international organization like the Union is essential for a sound and fruitful development of science in general and of astronomy in particular. Many astronomers of widely different nationalities have spoken to this effect and have given expression to their belief t hat the international relations between astronomers are too strong to be broken or even affected for long by political forces. We m ay quote here from a message by Sir ARTHUR EDDINGTON which was read at the concluding meeting of the General Assembly of Stockhohn in 1938: "But, if in international politics the sky seems heavy with clouds, such a meeting as this at Stockholm is as when the sun comes forth from behind the clouds• Here we have formed and renewed bands of friendship which will resist the forces of disruption•" This firm belief has never changed and it has succeeded in making the Union the strong organization it is now. Before dealing with the present-day activities and problems of the Union, we shall pay tribute to those astronomers who have given much of their thought and time for the benefit of the Union, and we shall give some numerical data to demonstrate the continuous growth of the Union• The Union is governed by the Executive Committee, consisting of a President, five Vice-Presidents, and a General Secretary who is also the Treasurer• The President stays in office for one term, normally of three years, whereas the other officers are elected for two terms. The Executive Committee is responsible for the administration of the affairs of the Union and acts in accordance with the decisions of the General Assembly. As a rule the General Assembly meets once every three years. For obvious reasons it has not always been possible to keep to this rule and altogether eight General Assemblies have been held so far. Without derogating the great merits of the many Vice-Presidents who have served the Union, we give here a list of the Presidents and General Secretaries who have been in office since the foundation of the Union• General Secretaries
Presidents
Mr. B. BAILLAUD Prof. W. W. CAMPBELL Prof. W. DE SITTER Sir FRANK DYSON Prof. F. SCHLESINGER. Prof. E. ESCLANGON Sir ARTHUR EDDINGTON
1919-1922 1922-1925 1925-1928 1928-1932 1932-1935 1935-1938 1938-1944 Sir HAROLD SPENCER JONEs' 1944-1948 1948-1952 Prof. B. LINDBLAD 1952Prof. O. STROVE
Prof. Prof. Prof. Prof. Prof.
A. F. J. B. P.
FOWLER J. M. STRATTON H. OORT STR6MGaEN Th. OOSTERHOFF
1919-1925 1925-1935 1935-1948 1948-1952 1952-
Among the names on these lists two stand out clearly because of their very long service. They are Prof. F. J. M. STRATTO~,who fulfilled the task of General Secretary
P. T~. OOSTERHOFF
13
for ten years, over three consecutive terms, and Prof. J. H. OORT, who kept the same office for the usual two terms, but on account of the war these terms covered a period of thirteen years. I t can safely be said t h a t these two prominent astronomers, who have sacrificed on behalf of the Union so much time which they might have used for their own research, know the Union and its affairs better than anyone else. Their prudence and careful handling of the Union's affairs have contributed greatly to the continual growth and strength of this organization. For this work alone they have earned lasting gratitude from astronomers all over the world. We shall see later t h a t Professor STRATTON did not discontinue in 1935 his efforts to further international collaboration and international scientific organization. The growth of the Union can be demonstrated by some simple figures.
Year
Number of standing commissions
Number of members
Number of adhering countries
1922 1938 1952
32 31 39
2O7 553 814
19 26 33
The figures indicate the situation just after the first General Assembly at Rome, after the sixth at Stockholm and after the eighth and latest at Rome. The figures in the last column are especially important, showing that the adjective "international" is continually gaining weight. The figures in the third column prove t h a t astronomy is very much alive at present--though they m a y cause some worry to the General Secretary. The table, however, gives a very incomplete picture of the growth of the Union. Although the increase in the number of commissions already indicates an extension of its activities, a number of important developments have taken place especially since the end of the war. Although some of the regular activities of the Union, many of which were started immediately after its foundation, have been enumerated in the preceding article by Professor MINNAERT,they are too important to omit for this reason in an article which should give a description of the I.A.U. Much work has been done by the standing commissions and it is difficult to estimate how many times discussions between members of these commissions have paved the way for international collaboration. In this connection should be mentioned the stimulating influence of the Union on work bearing upon the "Carte du Ciel" and the plan of Selected Areas. The work on nomenclature, the co-ordination of solar research, with publication at regular intervals of solar observations, the work on ephemerides and Minor Planets, the naming and cataloguing of variable stars are only a few of the items which require international collaboration and which therefore have received the full attention, sometimes including financial aid, of the Union. Furthermore the Union is scientifically and financially concerned in a number of permanent services, like the International Latitude Service, the International Time Bureau, and the telegram Bureau at Copenhagen. The first two of these services work under the auspices of the I.A.U. and of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics. The Union also took a very active interest in the International Longitude Campaigns of 1926 and 1933, and it is now engaged with other Unions, trader the auspices of the International Council of Scientific Unions, in the preparations for an International Geophysical Year and another Longitude Campaign.
14
The International Astronomical Union
Of the developments which became important after the end of the last war we should mention first the organization of an increasing number of international symposia, some of them taking place at the occasion of a General Assembly, others in the interval between such meetings. It is not unusual for a considerable part of the meetings of the standing commissions during a General Assembly to be devoted to rather technical matters and the discussions are naturally restricted within the province of the commission. Consequently the introduction of symposia opened new possibilities for an exchange of opinions on more general scientific topics. Since the war the following symposia have been held:
During General Assembly, Ziirich, 1948 Infra-red Spectrophotometry The Spectral Sequence and its Anomalies The Abundances of the Chemical Elements in the Universe
Paris, 1949 Problems of Cosmical Aerodynamics (Organized by the International Union of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics and the I.A.U.)
During General Assembly, Rome, 1952 Stellar Evolution Astrometry of Faint Stars Astronomical Instrumentation Spectra of Variable Stars
Groningen, 1953 Co-ordination of Galactic Research
Cambridge (England), 1953 Gas Dynamics of Interstellar Clouds (Organized by I.A.U. and I.U.T.A.M.) These symposia have proved so successful that it may be assumed t hat the Union will continue to organize them. The other most important development, though of a completely different character, was the establishment of UNESCO, which has taken an active interest in international organization. Since 1947 the Union has received annually considerable sums from this body, which have enabled the Union to increase its activities to a great extent. The grants allotted by UNESCO to the I.A.U. are as follows:
$ 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953
11,740 21,880 14,000 13,105 ~7,900 14,300 13,750
P. T m OOSTERHOFF
15
As the income from the annual dues paid to the Union by the adhering countries amounted to $24,018 in 1951 and to 823,451 in 1952, it is clear t h a t the financial aid from UNESCO plays an essential role in the budget of the Union. The International Latitude Service, le Bureau International de l'Heure, several symposia, many publications and other activities of the Union have profited from this financial aid. This larger budget led also to the formation of Commission 38 for the exchange of astronomers. Under the able presidency of Professor STRATTON this commission has been very active and m a n y young and promising astronomers have obtained through the efforts of Professor STRATTONand his colleagues the opportunity to work for shorter or longer periods at renowned institutes in foreign countries. This form of exchange is so important and has proved so successful that the Union will continue to support Commission 38 financially, even though UNESCO has discontinued its financial aid towards this special purpose. It is realized that this survey of the activities of the Union is very incomplete. The choice of the subjects treated is a personal and rather arbitrary one, but a fuller treatment would go beyond the scope of this article. However, some of the problems which the Union has still to solve should be mentioned. The first of these difficulties is probably met in all international organizations. I t is the problem of languages. The fact that many tongues are spoken by the members of the Union usually does not seriously hamper conversation and the verbal exchange of ideas between them, as often a language can be found which is understood by both parties. But in large meetings, like General Assemblies, meetings of commissions and symposia, long translations are sometimes required which impede an effective and expeditious course of the proceedings. The problem is most urgent however with respect to scientific publications. Here the Union has always stressed the desirability t h a t abstracts in another main language be added to the original articles. It seems impossible t h a t the Union can solve this problem of languages completely. It will be the task of several generations to come to remove the barriers which at the present time impede the free intercourse between the different nationalities. The second problem which m a y be mentioned here is one of an "organizational" character. Since its establishment the Union has divided its scientific task over a number of standing commissions. It is evident that any subdivision of astronomieM science into a number of specialized fields must be arbitrary and artificial. Probably for this reason some other big Unions have followed a less drastic course and work through a small number of large sections. During its early history the number of members of the Union was so smM1 that the standing commissions could be considered as working groups of a relatively small number of experts in the field. At present an astronomer can only be a member of the Union if he is nominated as member of a commission. As a consequence of this rule and of the present growth of astronomy, several commissions have become very large, and it is well known that the efficiency of a comnfission is certainly not proportional to the number of its members. The difficulties indicated here have been studied and discussed more than once by the Executive Committee, but no other form of organization has been suggested so far which would guarantee an improvement over the present system. During the last General Assembly a number of combined commission meetings were arranged which proved to be quite useful and Professor LINDBLADsuggested that in large commissions smM1 working parties should be formed. Although we do not know
16
The International Astronomical News Service
what the future course of the Union will be, it is reasonable to expect that the Union which has already made itself indispensable to astronomy during the few decades of its existence, will succeed in solving such organizational difficulties. This article would be incomplete without a few words about the International Council of Scientific Unions (I.C.S.U.). This body, the central organization of the International Scientific Unions, was established in 1931 as a continuation of the International Research Council, which was founded by the Allies in 1919 after the First World War. At present, eleven Unions adhere to this Council. Space does not permit describing in any detail the structure and the activities of this important organization. Although I.C.S.U. and UNESCO are both completely autonomous organizations, an agreement of mutual recognition was drawn up between them in 1947. As a consequence, the granting of financial support by UNESCO to the International Scientific Unions adhering to I.C.S.U. takes place through the intermediary of I.C.S.U. Furthermore, I.C.S.U. has organized and finances a number of special research stations of which the High Altitude Research Station at the Jungfraujoch has proved to be of great importance for astronomical research. Another form of activity of I.C.S.U. is the formation of Joint Commissions between members of two or more Unions in order to co-ordinate efforts in special fields which fall within the domain of more than one Union. At the moment, members of the I.A.U. are active in four of these Joint Commissions, viz. on High Altitude Research Stations, the Ionosphere, Solar and Terrestrial Relationships, and Spectroscopy. The board of I.C.S.U. consists of a Bureau, an Executive Board, and a General Assembly. No doubt it will interest the reader to know that Professor STRATTON, who has served the I.A.U. for so many years, has also been the General Secretary of I.C.S.U. from 1937 until 1952. Few scientists have taken such a very large share in the efforts to improve international organization and collaboration as has Professor STRATTON.
The International Astronomical News Service JULIE VINTER HANSEN Universitetets Astronomiske Observatorium, Copenhagen SUMMARY This is the story of the development of the International Astronomical News Service from the wishful thinking of TYCHO BRAHE up to the present organized global news service by telegrams and eirculars, under the auspices of the International Astronomical Union. The location of the present International Telegram Bureau is: University Observatory, Copenhagen, Denmark.
THE feeling of the importance of co-operation between scientists has been steadily growing through the years. No doubt most scientists have always felt an urge to contact other learned men to discuss problems, discoveries, and inventions. In ancient times such contacts were not easily made; travelling was hazardous and mail-service non-existent, hence progress was slow. The lack of intercourse between scientists sometimes led to bitter quarrels about the priority of theories, discoveries, or inventions, and it was not easy to pass judgment on the various claims.