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The role of self-esteem and locus of control in the differential prediction of performance, program satisfaction, and life satisfaction in an educational organization
Journal of Vocational Behavior 13, 317-326 (1978)
The Role of Self-Esteem and Locus of Control in the Differential Prediction of Performance, Program Satisfaction, and Life Satisfaction in an Educational Organization RABI S.BHAGATANDMARILYN
B. CHASSIE
The lJni\lersitv oj‘ Texm nt Dullns The present research was an attempt to examine the role of task-specific self-esteem (Korman, 1966, 1976) and locus of control (Rotter, 1966) in the differential prediction of academic performance, program satisfaction, and personal life satisfaction. Based on earlier research and theory in this area, it was predicted that (1) high task-specific self-esteem individuals would perform better, would be more satisfied with their program of studies and their personal lives compared to low task-specific self-esteem individuals, and (2) individuals with an internal locus of control would also perform better, would be more satisfied with their program of studies and their personal lives compared to individuals with an external locus of control. These hypotheses found strong empirical support in the study. The findings are interpreted as being strongly supportive of Korman’s theory on the role of task specific esteem and Rotter’s theory on the concept of locus of control in the prediction of certain select organizational outcomes.
In a series of papers, Korman (1970, 1971, 1976) has presented a consistency theory of work motivation which argues that an individual’s self-esteem is an important determinant of effective performance and satisfaction. In Korman’s words (1976), individuals will be motivated to perform in a manner consistent with their selfimages. To the extent that their self-concepts concerning the job or task require effective performance in order to result in “consistent” cognitions, then, to that extent they will be motivated to engage in effective performance . , and furthermore . to the extent that one perceives the self as competent and need satisfying, one will choose and find most satisfying those situations which are in balance with these self-perceptions. (p. 51) An earlier version of this paper was prepared for presentation at the Southwest Academy of Management Conference, 1978. Request for further details and reprints should be sent to Rabi S. Bhagat, School of Management and Administration, The University of Texas at Dallas, Box 688, Richardson,
TX 75080. 317 OOOl-8791/78/0133-0317$02.00/O Copyright @ 1978 by Academic Press. Inc. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
318
BHAGAT
AND CHASSIE
Three sources of self-esteem, namely chronic (or generalized) self-esteem, task-specific self-esteem, and socially influenced self-esteem, are conceptualized as relatively independent constructs. Each of the three constructs is hypothesized to be positively related to work performance, all other things being equal. According to Korman (1970), these three relatively distinct sources of self-esteem tend to determine a person’s level of self-perceived competence and ability for the task at hand, which in turn directly affects the level of task performance. In his review of the empirical findings relating to the theory, Korman (1976) concluded that the original hypotheses were generally supported in the area of chronic self-esteem and socially influenced self-esteem. However, in the area of task-specific self-esteem, only two experimental laboratory studies (Greenhaus & Badin, 1974; Cohen & Lefkowitz, 1977) indicated some positive effects. The present study was designed to further investigate the effect of task-specific self-esteem on performance and satisfaction in a field setting. The behavioral setting for examining the role of task-specific self-esteem was extended to an educational organization. Emphasis has also been placed on examining the role of task-specific self-esteem along with the internal-external locus of control attribution of the student participants on program performance, program satisfaction, and life satisfaction. Perception of internal-external locus of control as measured by Rotter’s (1966) Internal-External Locus of Control Scale has been found to predict a wide variety of phenomena in almost all areas of psychology (Throop & MacDonald, 1971; Lefcourt, 1972; Joe, 1971). Organ and Greene (1974), for example, found externality to be positively correlated with role ambiguity and negatively correlated with job satisfaction. Individuals perceiving a link between what they do and what consequently happens to them [i.e., those with an internal locus of control (internals)], tend to have better mental health (in terms of being less likely to exhibit psychoses or neuroses), are achievement oriented, and are generally more satisfied with their work than are externals [i.e., individuals who do not see a link between their overt behavior and its consequences (Lefcourt, 1972; Joe, 1971)]. There are a few studies (Andrisoni & Nestel, 1976; Gilmore & Minton, 1974; Heisler, 1974; Petzel & Gynther, 1970; Kroretz, 1974) that have attempted to test the performance effects of this locus of control variable and found somewhat mixed and contradictory results. However, Broedling (1975) found positive relationships between internality and variables such as job performance, effort-performance instrumentality, and rated work motivation in an expectancy model. The essence of these findings tend to show that because success and competence are central to the ego-functioning of internals, greater task performance is necessary to maintain the strong connection between what they do and the consequences.
SELF-ESTEEM
AND
LOCUS
OF CONTROL
319
In a recent study, Cohen and Lefkowitz (1977) found that this generalized expectation of an internal locus of causality for events (L of C) was a significant predictor of task performance along with task-specific self-esteem (TSSE). Earlier research had indicated that these two variables are significantly and positively correleated (Fish & Karabenick, 1971; Fitch, 1970; Ryckman & Sherman, 1973). That is, the higher the self-esteem, the greater would be one’s perception regarding the internality of locus of control. The objective of the present research was to examine the concept of “self-implementation” (Englander, 1960; Holland, 1963) as reflected in these two broad individual difference measures [i.e., task-specific selfesteem (TSSE) and locus of control (L of C)] as an explanatory variable in the differential prediction of (1) academic performance, (2) satisfaction with the academic program and (3) satisfaction with personal life. The specific hypotheses to be investigated are as follows. (Hypothesis l)Individuals who are high on task-specific self-esteem (TSSE) would report significantly higher levels of (1) academic performance, (2) satisfaction with the academic program, and (3) satisfaction with their personal lives compared to individuals who are low in TSSE. (Hypothesis 2)-In accordance with social learning theory predictions (Rotter, 1966), concerning the role of internal-external L of C, it was predicted that internals would be relatively better performers, would report significantly more satisfaction with both the program of study and with their personal lives compared to externals. Thus, taking the Korman version of self-consistency motivation theory and Rotter’s social learning theory as guiding frameworks, this study sought to examine the role of TSSE and L of C in the differential prediction of academic performance, satisfaction with the academic program of studies, and personal life satisfaction. METHOD
Subjects Data reported in the present study is part of a larger study on the determinants of academic performance and satisfaction in nonindustrial organizational settings. Data was collected from a sample of 137 undergraduate students enrolled in an introductory course in organizational behavior in a suburban state university located in the southwest. Seventy-seven subjects were male and 60 were female. The average age was between 21 and 30 with a possible range of ages from under 20 to over 51. Students voluntarily and anonymously responded to a questionnaire containing the necessary scales. Measuring Instruments Task-Specific Self-Esteem. TSSE was assessed on a 7-point scale by asking subjects to report their perception in the evaluation of their past
320
BHAGAT
AND
CHASSIE
academic achievement by persons who knew the records of their academic performance well. Following Korman (1966, 1970, 1976), it was assumed that individuals high in TSSE would report higher evaluations of their past academic achievement on this item compared to individuals low on TSSE. Correlation of this scale with another global measure of generalized self-esteem pertaining to whether or not the subjects believed they would be successful in life was 54 (p < .OOl). I-E Locus of Control. L of C was assessed by Rotter’s forced choice (1966) Internal-External Locus of Control Scale. The scale is scored such that a low score would indicate an internal orientation. Split-half reliability of the scale for the present research was .67 corrected by the Spearman-Brown prophesy formula. Measure of academic performance: The grade point average of the students was taken as the measure of academic performance. Satisfaction with the academic program. The degree of student satisfaction with the program itself was assessed by the job itself factor of the Job Descriptive Index (JDI). The JDI is an extensively validated and widely used instrument for measuring satisfaction with five job facets (Smith, Kendall, & Hulin, 1969; Locke, 1976). In the present study the job itself factor of the JDI was selected to measure satisfaction with the program. Obviously, some specific job related items were reconstructed to match the exact description of the relevant aspects of the program. The originators of the JDI have recommended the use of this instrument in nonindustrial settings. Furthermore, two earlier extensive scale validation studies carried out by Dickinson (Note 1) and Bhagat (1975) confirmed that the JDI was a valid instrument for measuring program satisfaction. Program satisfaction was also assessed by the use of a nonreactive, projective measure of satisfaction (i.e., by Kunin’s faces scale, 1955). Validity intercorrelation between the program itself scale and the more general faces scale was .68. Satisfaction with personal life. Personal life satisfaction was assessed by means of a modified version of Kornhauser’s life satisfaction scale (see Kornhauser, 1965, p. 313). Validity intercorrelation between the Kornhauser scale and a more global measure of personal life satisfaction was .43 and the reliability of the Kornhauser scale for the present study was .73 after correction by the Spearman-Brown prophesy formula. RESULTS
Preliminary Statistical Tests Results are reported in two sections. First, the means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations among all the variables are reported (see Table 1).
SELF-ESTEEM
321
AND LOCUS OF CONTROL
TABLE 1 Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations Among All Variables Variable 1. Locus of control 2. Task-specific self-esteem 3. Performance 4. Satisfaction with the program 5. Satisfaction with the personal life
M
SD
9.07
4.46
1
2
3
4
5
1.00
5.16 3.94 35.14
1.19 - .24** .63 - .18* 9.95 - .20*
1.00 .52*** .22**
1.00 .14
1.00
51.44
8.44 - .24**
.18*
.13
.17*
1.00
Note. N = 136. *p <.05. **p <.Ol. *** p <.ool. Negative correlations are due to the original reverse scoring procedure adopted by Rotter (1966). A high score reflects external-orientation.
As shown in Table 1, internal locus of control and task-specific selfesteem are significantly related to one another and also with the criteria of program performance, program satisfaction, and life satisfaction. To discover any conjoint moderating influences of these two variables, the moderated regression technique was used next. The moderated regression procedure has been recommended by Saunders (1956) and Zedeck (1971) and the statistical tests employed to test the significance of incremental increase in the multiple correlation coefficient is discussed by Guilford and Fruchter (1973). In view of the positive interrelationships between self-esteem and locus of control variables (Fish & Karabenick, 1971), consideration was given to the possibility of a potential conjoint effect accounting for a significant portion of the variance in the outcome variables. The locus of control variable was recoded for use in the moderated regression technique. The moderated regression terms for testing the conjoint effects of these two variables in increasing the predictability of any of the three outcome variables were not significant. The increases in multiple R’s by adding the interactive term into the linear regression equation was .Ol (F,, 133= 1.60, ns) for the prediction of performance, .OO(F,, ,33 = 0.00, ns) for the prediction of program satisfaction, and .02 (F,, 133= 1.43, ns) for the prediction of personal life satisfaction respectively. Hence, for the purposes of the present study, the conjoint effect of these two variables in significantly increasing the predictability of the outcome variables was ruled out. Using an ANOVA procedure, Cohen and Lefkowitz (1977) also found no significant two-way interactions between locus of control and chronic self-esteem in the prediction of anagram task performance scores.
322
BHAGAT
AND CHASSIE
The thrust of the evidence indicates that even though the variables may be intercorrelated, the possibility of either one of them acting as a potential moderator of the other in the differential prediction of any of the three outcome variables does not exist. Given this conclusion, we proceeded with the testing of the hypotheses. Hypotheses Testing (I) Test of the effect of task-speciJic self-esteem on performance, program satisfaction, and life satisfaction. The nature of the effect of selfesteem on performance, program satisfaction, and life satisfaction has already been mentioned. To test these predictions, individuals in the top and bottom one-thirds of the distribution of the task-specific self-esteem variable were identified, and separate tests were computed between pairs of these outcome measures for these groups. For each relationship tested, it was predicted that the group high on task-specific self-esteem (TSSE) would report significantly higher levels of academic performance, satisfaction with the program and satisfaction with personal life. Table 2 shows the results of the tests of this hypothesis. As is shown in Table 2, the results provide strong support for this hypothesis. All differences between means of the three outcome variables are significant and in the predicted direction. And, in accordance with Korman’s (1970, 1976) theory, the differential prediction of performance was best explained by high vs low task-specific self-esteem. Differential prediction of satisfaction with the program and with one’s personal life were predicted next and in that order (see Table 2). (2) Test of the effect of internal-external locus of control on academic performance, program satisfaction and life satisfaction. It was predicted that the internals would report significantly higher levels of academic performance, satisfaction with the academic program, and satisfaction with their personal life than externals. To test this prediction, the subjects falling in the upper one-third and bottom one-third of this locus of control variable were identified. For each relationship tested, it was predicted that the mean of the outcome variable would be significantly higher for individuals high on locus of control than for those who were low on this personality variable. Table 2 depicts the results of the tests of this hypothesis. The group scoring high on the locus of control variable (i.e., the internal group) reported significantly higher levels of academic performance, satisfaction with the academic program as well as satisfaction with their personal lives. The difference, however, was strongest in the area of satisfaction with personal life (t = 3.31,~ < .OOl). This finding is in line with earlier work by Collins (1974), Joe (1971), and in particular by Organ and Greene (1974) who report that internals tend to experience less role ambiguity and higher levels of job satisfaction. It seems reasonable to argue that internals experience less role ambiguity which in turn affects
* p 1.05, two-tailed test. **p 1.01, two-tailed test. *** p <.OOl, two-tailed test.
Performance Satisfaction with the program Satisfaction with the personal life
Outcome measure 4.30 37.44 53.17
M
.57 8.90 8.91
SD
Task-specific self-esteem (high) N = 54
3.60 31.70 49.38
M
SO 9.94 7.63
SD
Task-specific self-esteem (low) N = 43
6.29*** 3.00** 2.20*
f
3.98 36.86 53.32
M
.63 11.28 8.59
SD
Locus of control (internal group) N = 44
TABLE 2 Tests of Difference between Means of Each Pair of Hypothesized Relationships Involving Task-Specific Self-Esteem (TSSE) and I-E Locus of Control
3.76 32.54 41.41
M
.67 9.61 8.25
SD
Locus of control (external group) N = 46
1.58* I .96** 3.31***
t
324
BHAGAT
AND
CHASSIE
affective outcomes associated with both job as well as one’s personal life. Based on cross-sectional data on these variables, causal relationships between these variables cannot be established. Future longitudinal research is called for to further explore the possibility of causal relationships. DISCUSSION
The pattern of findings in the present study strongly suggests that performance, as well as other attitudinal outcomes such as satisfaction with the program and with one’s personal life, is a function of the potential influences of both task-specific self-esteem and locus of control. Furthermore, task-specific self-esteem seems to be a relatively better predictor of performance compared to locus of control from the results of the analyses. All in all, the hypotheses relating to the role of these two individual difference variables in the differential predictions of performance, program satisfaction, and life satisfaction found strong empirical support. The findings on the task-specific self-esteem variable tend to further strengthen Korman’s theory of self-consistency motivation by supporting the hypothesized nature of performance effects of this situationally determined self-esteem variable in a field setting. Support was also found concerning the effect of this variable on satisfaction with the task-role and satisfaction with personal life. The findings on the effects of the locus of control variable are strongly supportive of an earlier study carried out by Broedling (1975) which showed that people’s perception of their environmental influence had effects on their attitudes and their behaviors. Individuals who perceive themselves to be in reasonable control of their environment (i.e., the internals) tend to be relatively better performers, report greater task-role satisfaction and are generally more well-adjusted with their lives compared to those who perceive themselves to be in poor control of their environment. Thus, the findings are in accordance with social learning theory predictions (Rotter, 1966). The overall pattern of findings is in accordance with earlier work in this area (Broedling, 1975; Korman, 1976; Greenhaus & Badin, 1974) and also suggests the utility of these two variables in the differential prediction of certain important organizational outcomes. In conclusion, it may be said that Korman’s (1970, 1976) cognitive balance theory of work behavior seems to be an accurate predictor of effective performance and satisfaction. Strong support was also found in extending the theory to predict personal life satisfaction. In spite of some correlation with Rotter’s locus of control variable, these two constructs are relatively independent of each other, at least in relation to their possible covariance effect on certain select outcome measures.
SELF-ESTEEM
AND LOCUS OF CONTROL
325
The implications of the findings for the study of vocational behavior are straightforward. Assuming that the possession of relevant abilities is at least moderately related to task-specific self-esteem, vocational guidance practitioners should carefully implement effective selection, classification, and training systems to generate individuals with a relatively higher degree of both self-perceived competence and on internally controlled explanation of the causality of events. Also, experiences designed to foster such cognitive abilities would enable individuals to experience higher levels of satisfaction with their program of studies we well as with their personal lives. REFERENCES Andrisoni, P. J., & Nestel, G. Internal-external control as contributor to and outcome of work experience. Journnl of Applied Psychology, 1976, 51, 156-165. Bhagat, R. S. Satisfaction-performance relationship in an innovative organizational setting: A longitudinal analysis. In J. G. Hunt (Ed.), Proceedings of the Academy of Mnnctge-nzent (Midwest Division), 1975, 116-127. Broedling, L. A. Relationship of internal-external locus of control to work motivation and performance in an expectancy model. Journal ofApplied Psychology, 1975,60,65-70. Cohen, R. S., & Lefkowitz, I. Self-esteem, locus of control and task difficulty as determinants of task performance. Journal of Vocntional Behavior, 1977, 11, 314-321. Collins, B. E. Four components of the Rotter internal-external scale: Belief in a difficult world, a just world, a predictive world, a politically responsive world. Journnl of Personulity and Social Psychology, 1974, 29, 381-391. Englander, M. E. A psychological analysis of vocational choice: Teaching. Journnl of Counseling Psychology, 1960, 7, 257-264. Fish, B., & Karabenick, S. A. Relationship between self-esteem and locus of control. Psychological Reports, 1971, 29, 784. Fitch, G. Effects of self-esteem, perceived performance, and choice on causal attributions. Journul of Personality and Social Psychology, 1970, 16, 311-315. Gilmore, T. M., & Minton, H. L. Internal versus external attribution of task performance as a function of locus of control, initial confidence, and success-failure outcome. Journal 1974, 42, 159-174. of Personality, Greenhaus, J. H., & Badin, I. J. Self-esteem, performance and satisfaction: Some tests of a theory. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1974, 59, 722-726. Guilford, J. P., & Fruchter, B. Fundamental statistics in psychology and education. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973. Heisler, W. J. A performance correlate of personal control beliefs in an organizational context. Journul of Applied Psychology, 1974, 59, 504-506. Holland, J. L. Explorations of a theory of vocational choice and achievement: A four year prediction study. Psychological Reports, 1963, 12, 547-594. Joe, V. C. Review of internal-external control construct as a personality variable. Psychological Reports, 1971, 28, 619-640. Korman, A. K. Hypothesis of work behavior revisited and an extension. Academy of Manugement Review, 1976, 1, 50-63. Korman, A. K. Industrial and organizational psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1971. Korman, A. K. Toward an hypothesis of work behavior. Journal of Applied Psycho/ogy, 1970, 54, 3141.
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Korman, A. K. Self-esteem variable in vocational choice. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1966, 50, 479-486. Kornhauser, A. Mental health of the industrial worker: A Detroit study. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1965. Kroretz, M. L. Explaining success or failure as a function of one’s locus of control. Journal of Personality, 1974, 42, 175-189. Kunin, T. The construction of a new type of attitude measure. Personnel Psychology, 1955, 8, 75-78. Lefcourt, H. M. Recent developments in the study of locus ofcontrol. In B. A. Maher (Ed.), Progress in experimental personality research. New York: Academic Press, 1972. Locke, E. The nature and consequences of job satisfaction. In M. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1976. Organ, D. W., & Greene, C. N. Role ambiguity, locus of control and work satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1974, 59, 101-102. Petzel, T. P., & Gynther, M. D. Effects of internal-external locus of control and skill or chance instructional sets on task performance. The Journal of General Psychology, 1970, 82, 87-93. Rotter, J. B. Generalized expectancies for internal versus external locus of control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 1%6, 80, (1, Whole NO. 609). Ryckman, R. M., & Sherman, M. F. Relationship between self-esteem and internal-ext&nal control for men and women. Psychological Reports, 1973, 32, 1106. Saunders, D. R. Moderator variables in predictors. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 1956, 16, 209-222. Smith, P. C., Kendall, L. M., & Hulin, C. L. The measurement of satisfaction in work and retirement. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969. Throop, W. F., & MacDonald, A. P. Internal-external locus of control: A bibliography. Psychological Reports, 1971, 28, 175-190. Zedeck, S. Problems with the use of moderator variables. Psychological Bulletin. 1971, 76, 295-310.
REFERENCE 1. Dickinson, R. 0. Reliability, measures
on medical
NOTE
validity, and scale characteristics of selected satisfaction students: Something old, something new. Unpublished paper,
University of Illinois, Urbana, 1973. RECEIVED: February 9, 1978.
The Role of Self-Esteem and Locus of Control in the Differential Prediction of Performance, Program Satisfaction, and Life Satisfaction in an Educational Organization RABI S.BHAGATANDMARILYN
B. CHASSIE
The lJni\lersitv oj‘ Texm nt Dullns The present research was an attempt to examine the role of task-specific self-esteem (Korman, 1966, 1976) and locus of control (Rotter, 1966) in the differential prediction of academic performance, program satisfaction, and personal life satisfaction. Based on earlier research and theory in this area, it was predicted that (1) high task-specific self-esteem individuals would perform better, would be more satisfied with their program of studies and their personal lives compared to low task-specific self-esteem individuals, and (2) individuals with an internal locus of control would also perform better, would be more satisfied with their program of studies and their personal lives compared to individuals with an external locus of control. These hypotheses found strong empirical support in the study. The findings are interpreted as being strongly supportive of Korman’s theory on the role of task specific esteem and Rotter’s theory on the concept of locus of control in the prediction of certain select organizational outcomes.
In a series of papers, Korman (1970, 1971, 1976) has presented a consistency theory of work motivation which argues that an individual’s self-esteem is an important determinant of effective performance and satisfaction. In Korman’s words (1976), individuals will be motivated to perform in a manner consistent with their selfimages. To the extent that their self-concepts concerning the job or task require effective performance in order to result in “consistent” cognitions, then, to that extent they will be motivated to engage in effective performance . , and furthermore . to the extent that one perceives the self as competent and need satisfying, one will choose and find most satisfying those situations which are in balance with these self-perceptions. (p. 51) An earlier version of this paper was prepared for presentation at the Southwest Academy of Management Conference, 1978. Request for further details and reprints should be sent to Rabi S. Bhagat, School of Management and Administration, The University of Texas at Dallas, Box 688, Richardson,
TX 75080. 317 OOOl-8791/78/0133-0317$02.00/O Copyright @ 1978 by Academic Press. Inc. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
318
BHAGAT
AND CHASSIE
Three sources of self-esteem, namely chronic (or generalized) self-esteem, task-specific self-esteem, and socially influenced self-esteem, are conceptualized as relatively independent constructs. Each of the three constructs is hypothesized to be positively related to work performance, all other things being equal. According to Korman (1970), these three relatively distinct sources of self-esteem tend to determine a person’s level of self-perceived competence and ability for the task at hand, which in turn directly affects the level of task performance. In his review of the empirical findings relating to the theory, Korman (1976) concluded that the original hypotheses were generally supported in the area of chronic self-esteem and socially influenced self-esteem. However, in the area of task-specific self-esteem, only two experimental laboratory studies (Greenhaus & Badin, 1974; Cohen & Lefkowitz, 1977) indicated some positive effects. The present study was designed to further investigate the effect of task-specific self-esteem on performance and satisfaction in a field setting. The behavioral setting for examining the role of task-specific self-esteem was extended to an educational organization. Emphasis has also been placed on examining the role of task-specific self-esteem along with the internal-external locus of control attribution of the student participants on program performance, program satisfaction, and life satisfaction. Perception of internal-external locus of control as measured by Rotter’s (1966) Internal-External Locus of Control Scale has been found to predict a wide variety of phenomena in almost all areas of psychology (Throop & MacDonald, 1971; Lefcourt, 1972; Joe, 1971). Organ and Greene (1974), for example, found externality to be positively correlated with role ambiguity and negatively correlated with job satisfaction. Individuals perceiving a link between what they do and what consequently happens to them [i.e., those with an internal locus of control (internals)], tend to have better mental health (in terms of being less likely to exhibit psychoses or neuroses), are achievement oriented, and are generally more satisfied with their work than are externals [i.e., individuals who do not see a link between their overt behavior and its consequences (Lefcourt, 1972; Joe, 1971)]. There are a few studies (Andrisoni & Nestel, 1976; Gilmore & Minton, 1974; Heisler, 1974; Petzel & Gynther, 1970; Kroretz, 1974) that have attempted to test the performance effects of this locus of control variable and found somewhat mixed and contradictory results. However, Broedling (1975) found positive relationships between internality and variables such as job performance, effort-performance instrumentality, and rated work motivation in an expectancy model. The essence of these findings tend to show that because success and competence are central to the ego-functioning of internals, greater task performance is necessary to maintain the strong connection between what they do and the consequences.
SELF-ESTEEM
AND
LOCUS
OF CONTROL
319
In a recent study, Cohen and Lefkowitz (1977) found that this generalized expectation of an internal locus of causality for events (L of C) was a significant predictor of task performance along with task-specific self-esteem (TSSE). Earlier research had indicated that these two variables are significantly and positively correleated (Fish & Karabenick, 1971; Fitch, 1970; Ryckman & Sherman, 1973). That is, the higher the self-esteem, the greater would be one’s perception regarding the internality of locus of control. The objective of the present research was to examine the concept of “self-implementation” (Englander, 1960; Holland, 1963) as reflected in these two broad individual difference measures [i.e., task-specific selfesteem (TSSE) and locus of control (L of C)] as an explanatory variable in the differential prediction of (1) academic performance, (2) satisfaction with the academic program and (3) satisfaction with personal life. The specific hypotheses to be investigated are as follows. (Hypothesis l)Individuals who are high on task-specific self-esteem (TSSE) would report significantly higher levels of (1) academic performance, (2) satisfaction with the academic program, and (3) satisfaction with their personal lives compared to individuals who are low in TSSE. (Hypothesis 2)-In accordance with social learning theory predictions (Rotter, 1966), concerning the role of internal-external L of C, it was predicted that internals would be relatively better performers, would report significantly more satisfaction with both the program of study and with their personal lives compared to externals. Thus, taking the Korman version of self-consistency motivation theory and Rotter’s social learning theory as guiding frameworks, this study sought to examine the role of TSSE and L of C in the differential prediction of academic performance, satisfaction with the academic program of studies, and personal life satisfaction. METHOD
Subjects Data reported in the present study is part of a larger study on the determinants of academic performance and satisfaction in nonindustrial organizational settings. Data was collected from a sample of 137 undergraduate students enrolled in an introductory course in organizational behavior in a suburban state university located in the southwest. Seventy-seven subjects were male and 60 were female. The average age was between 21 and 30 with a possible range of ages from under 20 to over 51. Students voluntarily and anonymously responded to a questionnaire containing the necessary scales. Measuring Instruments Task-Specific Self-Esteem. TSSE was assessed on a 7-point scale by asking subjects to report their perception in the evaluation of their past
320
BHAGAT
AND
CHASSIE
academic achievement by persons who knew the records of their academic performance well. Following Korman (1966, 1970, 1976), it was assumed that individuals high in TSSE would report higher evaluations of their past academic achievement on this item compared to individuals low on TSSE. Correlation of this scale with another global measure of generalized self-esteem pertaining to whether or not the subjects believed they would be successful in life was 54 (p < .OOl). I-E Locus of Control. L of C was assessed by Rotter’s forced choice (1966) Internal-External Locus of Control Scale. The scale is scored such that a low score would indicate an internal orientation. Split-half reliability of the scale for the present research was .67 corrected by the Spearman-Brown prophesy formula. Measure of academic performance: The grade point average of the students was taken as the measure of academic performance. Satisfaction with the academic program. The degree of student satisfaction with the program itself was assessed by the job itself factor of the Job Descriptive Index (JDI). The JDI is an extensively validated and widely used instrument for measuring satisfaction with five job facets (Smith, Kendall, & Hulin, 1969; Locke, 1976). In the present study the job itself factor of the JDI was selected to measure satisfaction with the program. Obviously, some specific job related items were reconstructed to match the exact description of the relevant aspects of the program. The originators of the JDI have recommended the use of this instrument in nonindustrial settings. Furthermore, two earlier extensive scale validation studies carried out by Dickinson (Note 1) and Bhagat (1975) confirmed that the JDI was a valid instrument for measuring program satisfaction. Program satisfaction was also assessed by the use of a nonreactive, projective measure of satisfaction (i.e., by Kunin’s faces scale, 1955). Validity intercorrelation between the program itself scale and the more general faces scale was .68. Satisfaction with personal life. Personal life satisfaction was assessed by means of a modified version of Kornhauser’s life satisfaction scale (see Kornhauser, 1965, p. 313). Validity intercorrelation between the Kornhauser scale and a more global measure of personal life satisfaction was .43 and the reliability of the Kornhauser scale for the present study was .73 after correction by the Spearman-Brown prophesy formula. RESULTS
Preliminary Statistical Tests Results are reported in two sections. First, the means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations among all the variables are reported (see Table 1).
SELF-ESTEEM
321
AND LOCUS OF CONTROL
TABLE 1 Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations Among All Variables Variable 1. Locus of control 2. Task-specific self-esteem 3. Performance 4. Satisfaction with the program 5. Satisfaction with the personal life
M
SD
9.07
4.46
1
2
3
4
5
1.00
5.16 3.94 35.14
1.19 - .24** .63 - .18* 9.95 - .20*
1.00 .52*** .22**
1.00 .14
1.00
51.44
8.44 - .24**
.18*
.13
.17*
1.00
Note. N = 136. *p <.05. **p <.Ol. *** p <.ool. Negative correlations are due to the original reverse scoring procedure adopted by Rotter (1966). A high score reflects external-orientation.
As shown in Table 1, internal locus of control and task-specific selfesteem are significantly related to one another and also with the criteria of program performance, program satisfaction, and life satisfaction. To discover any conjoint moderating influences of these two variables, the moderated regression technique was used next. The moderated regression procedure has been recommended by Saunders (1956) and Zedeck (1971) and the statistical tests employed to test the significance of incremental increase in the multiple correlation coefficient is discussed by Guilford and Fruchter (1973). In view of the positive interrelationships between self-esteem and locus of control variables (Fish & Karabenick, 1971), consideration was given to the possibility of a potential conjoint effect accounting for a significant portion of the variance in the outcome variables. The locus of control variable was recoded for use in the moderated regression technique. The moderated regression terms for testing the conjoint effects of these two variables in increasing the predictability of any of the three outcome variables were not significant. The increases in multiple R’s by adding the interactive term into the linear regression equation was .Ol (F,, 133= 1.60, ns) for the prediction of performance, .OO(F,, ,33 = 0.00, ns) for the prediction of program satisfaction, and .02 (F,, 133= 1.43, ns) for the prediction of personal life satisfaction respectively. Hence, for the purposes of the present study, the conjoint effect of these two variables in significantly increasing the predictability of the outcome variables was ruled out. Using an ANOVA procedure, Cohen and Lefkowitz (1977) also found no significant two-way interactions between locus of control and chronic self-esteem in the prediction of anagram task performance scores.
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The thrust of the evidence indicates that even though the variables may be intercorrelated, the possibility of either one of them acting as a potential moderator of the other in the differential prediction of any of the three outcome variables does not exist. Given this conclusion, we proceeded with the testing of the hypotheses. Hypotheses Testing (I) Test of the effect of task-speciJic self-esteem on performance, program satisfaction, and life satisfaction. The nature of the effect of selfesteem on performance, program satisfaction, and life satisfaction has already been mentioned. To test these predictions, individuals in the top and bottom one-thirds of the distribution of the task-specific self-esteem variable were identified, and separate tests were computed between pairs of these outcome measures for these groups. For each relationship tested, it was predicted that the group high on task-specific self-esteem (TSSE) would report significantly higher levels of academic performance, satisfaction with the program and satisfaction with personal life. Table 2 shows the results of the tests of this hypothesis. As is shown in Table 2, the results provide strong support for this hypothesis. All differences between means of the three outcome variables are significant and in the predicted direction. And, in accordance with Korman’s (1970, 1976) theory, the differential prediction of performance was best explained by high vs low task-specific self-esteem. Differential prediction of satisfaction with the program and with one’s personal life were predicted next and in that order (see Table 2). (2) Test of the effect of internal-external locus of control on academic performance, program satisfaction and life satisfaction. It was predicted that the internals would report significantly higher levels of academic performance, satisfaction with the academic program, and satisfaction with their personal life than externals. To test this prediction, the subjects falling in the upper one-third and bottom one-third of this locus of control variable were identified. For each relationship tested, it was predicted that the mean of the outcome variable would be significantly higher for individuals high on locus of control than for those who were low on this personality variable. Table 2 depicts the results of the tests of this hypothesis. The group scoring high on the locus of control variable (i.e., the internal group) reported significantly higher levels of academic performance, satisfaction with the academic program as well as satisfaction with their personal lives. The difference, however, was strongest in the area of satisfaction with personal life (t = 3.31,~ < .OOl). This finding is in line with earlier work by Collins (1974), Joe (1971), and in particular by Organ and Greene (1974) who report that internals tend to experience less role ambiguity and higher levels of job satisfaction. It seems reasonable to argue that internals experience less role ambiguity which in turn affects
* p 1.05, two-tailed test. **p 1.01, two-tailed test. *** p <.OOl, two-tailed test.
Performance Satisfaction with the program Satisfaction with the personal life
Outcome measure 4.30 37.44 53.17
M
.57 8.90 8.91
SD
Task-specific self-esteem (high) N = 54
3.60 31.70 49.38
M
SO 9.94 7.63
SD
Task-specific self-esteem (low) N = 43
6.29*** 3.00** 2.20*
f
3.98 36.86 53.32
M
.63 11.28 8.59
SD
Locus of control (internal group) N = 44
TABLE 2 Tests of Difference between Means of Each Pair of Hypothesized Relationships Involving Task-Specific Self-Esteem (TSSE) and I-E Locus of Control
3.76 32.54 41.41
M
.67 9.61 8.25
SD
Locus of control (external group) N = 46
1.58* I .96** 3.31***
t
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CHASSIE
affective outcomes associated with both job as well as one’s personal life. Based on cross-sectional data on these variables, causal relationships between these variables cannot be established. Future longitudinal research is called for to further explore the possibility of causal relationships. DISCUSSION
The pattern of findings in the present study strongly suggests that performance, as well as other attitudinal outcomes such as satisfaction with the program and with one’s personal life, is a function of the potential influences of both task-specific self-esteem and locus of control. Furthermore, task-specific self-esteem seems to be a relatively better predictor of performance compared to locus of control from the results of the analyses. All in all, the hypotheses relating to the role of these two individual difference variables in the differential predictions of performance, program satisfaction, and life satisfaction found strong empirical support. The findings on the task-specific self-esteem variable tend to further strengthen Korman’s theory of self-consistency motivation by supporting the hypothesized nature of performance effects of this situationally determined self-esteem variable in a field setting. Support was also found concerning the effect of this variable on satisfaction with the task-role and satisfaction with personal life. The findings on the effects of the locus of control variable are strongly supportive of an earlier study carried out by Broedling (1975) which showed that people’s perception of their environmental influence had effects on their attitudes and their behaviors. Individuals who perceive themselves to be in reasonable control of their environment (i.e., the internals) tend to be relatively better performers, report greater task-role satisfaction and are generally more well-adjusted with their lives compared to those who perceive themselves to be in poor control of their environment. Thus, the findings are in accordance with social learning theory predictions (Rotter, 1966). The overall pattern of findings is in accordance with earlier work in this area (Broedling, 1975; Korman, 1976; Greenhaus & Badin, 1974) and also suggests the utility of these two variables in the differential prediction of certain important organizational outcomes. In conclusion, it may be said that Korman’s (1970, 1976) cognitive balance theory of work behavior seems to be an accurate predictor of effective performance and satisfaction. Strong support was also found in extending the theory to predict personal life satisfaction. In spite of some correlation with Rotter’s locus of control variable, these two constructs are relatively independent of each other, at least in relation to their possible covariance effect on certain select outcome measures.
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AND LOCUS OF CONTROL
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The implications of the findings for the study of vocational behavior are straightforward. Assuming that the possession of relevant abilities is at least moderately related to task-specific self-esteem, vocational guidance practitioners should carefully implement effective selection, classification, and training systems to generate individuals with a relatively higher degree of both self-perceived competence and on internally controlled explanation of the causality of events. Also, experiences designed to foster such cognitive abilities would enable individuals to experience higher levels of satisfaction with their program of studies we well as with their personal lives. REFERENCES Andrisoni, P. J., & Nestel, G. Internal-external control as contributor to and outcome of work experience. Journnl of Applied Psychology, 1976, 51, 156-165. Bhagat, R. S. Satisfaction-performance relationship in an innovative organizational setting: A longitudinal analysis. In J. G. Hunt (Ed.), Proceedings of the Academy of Mnnctge-nzent (Midwest Division), 1975, 116-127. Broedling, L. A. Relationship of internal-external locus of control to work motivation and performance in an expectancy model. Journal ofApplied Psychology, 1975,60,65-70. Cohen, R. S., & Lefkowitz, I. Self-esteem, locus of control and task difficulty as determinants of task performance. Journal of Vocntional Behavior, 1977, 11, 314-321. Collins, B. E. Four components of the Rotter internal-external scale: Belief in a difficult world, a just world, a predictive world, a politically responsive world. Journnl of Personulity and Social Psychology, 1974, 29, 381-391. Englander, M. E. A psychological analysis of vocational choice: Teaching. Journnl of Counseling Psychology, 1960, 7, 257-264. Fish, B., & Karabenick, S. A. Relationship between self-esteem and locus of control. Psychological Reports, 1971, 29, 784. Fitch, G. Effects of self-esteem, perceived performance, and choice on causal attributions. Journul of Personality and Social Psychology, 1970, 16, 311-315. Gilmore, T. M., & Minton, H. L. Internal versus external attribution of task performance as a function of locus of control, initial confidence, and success-failure outcome. Journal 1974, 42, 159-174. of Personality, Greenhaus, J. H., & Badin, I. J. Self-esteem, performance and satisfaction: Some tests of a theory. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1974, 59, 722-726. Guilford, J. P., & Fruchter, B. Fundamental statistics in psychology and education. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973. Heisler, W. J. A performance correlate of personal control beliefs in an organizational context. Journul of Applied Psychology, 1974, 59, 504-506. Holland, J. L. Explorations of a theory of vocational choice and achievement: A four year prediction study. Psychological Reports, 1963, 12, 547-594. Joe, V. C. Review of internal-external control construct as a personality variable. Psychological Reports, 1971, 28, 619-640. Korman, A. K. Hypothesis of work behavior revisited and an extension. Academy of Manugement Review, 1976, 1, 50-63. Korman, A. K. Industrial and organizational psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1971. Korman, A. K. Toward an hypothesis of work behavior. Journal of Applied Psycho/ogy, 1970, 54, 3141.
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Korman, A. K. Self-esteem variable in vocational choice. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1966, 50, 479-486. Kornhauser, A. Mental health of the industrial worker: A Detroit study. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1965. Kroretz, M. L. Explaining success or failure as a function of one’s locus of control. Journal of Personality, 1974, 42, 175-189. Kunin, T. The construction of a new type of attitude measure. Personnel Psychology, 1955, 8, 75-78. Lefcourt, H. M. Recent developments in the study of locus ofcontrol. In B. A. Maher (Ed.), Progress in experimental personality research. New York: Academic Press, 1972. Locke, E. The nature and consequences of job satisfaction. In M. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1976. Organ, D. W., & Greene, C. N. Role ambiguity, locus of control and work satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1974, 59, 101-102. Petzel, T. P., & Gynther, M. D. Effects of internal-external locus of control and skill or chance instructional sets on task performance. The Journal of General Psychology, 1970, 82, 87-93. Rotter, J. B. Generalized expectancies for internal versus external locus of control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 1%6, 80, (1, Whole NO. 609). Ryckman, R. M., & Sherman, M. F. Relationship between self-esteem and internal-ext&nal control for men and women. Psychological Reports, 1973, 32, 1106. Saunders, D. R. Moderator variables in predictors. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 1956, 16, 209-222. Smith, P. C., Kendall, L. M., & Hulin, C. L. The measurement of satisfaction in work and retirement. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969. Throop, W. F., & MacDonald, A. P. Internal-external locus of control: A bibliography. Psychological Reports, 1971, 28, 175-190. Zedeck, S. Problems with the use of moderator variables. Psychological Bulletin. 1971, 76, 295-310.
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NOTE
validity, and scale characteristics of selected satisfaction students: Something old, something new. Unpublished paper,
University of Illinois, Urbana, 1973. RECEIVED: February 9, 1978.