- Email: [email protected]
The SPOT system
Techlogy in Society,Vol. 11, pp. 29-39 (1989) Printed in the USA. All tights reserved.
Copyright
0160-791X189 $3.00 + .OO 0 1989 Pergamon Press plc
The SPOT System Commercial Operations in Remote Sensing Pierre Bescond
ABSTRACT. The transhn of tecbno/ogy from the research and development phase, under tbe auspices of government agencies, to the private sector, driven by market forces, is a dymmiG process that can serve the purposes of 1) enhancing the tecbno/ogicd devel’opment; 2) rep/acing pubh funds expended ajier the R&D phase; and 3) making the technology avai&abLe for use by private citizens. The commerch’ization of remote sensing tecbno/ogy by the SPOTprogram pmviah a case study of that process. In marked contrast to the United States’ Lundsat program, tbe commercdization of remote sensing technology by SPOT was not an afterthought. Prom its inception, the commercidpotential of SPOT was a driving force in its development. Indeed, the success of that concept proves that tbe progressive appmacb to marketing sopbdhted technology can have beneficial eflects throughout society. This paper traces the deliberate path taken by tbe French space agency, in cooperation with other European governmental andprivate sector entities, to develop remote sensing tecbno/ogy . It has fuLflh?d tbe initd aim of creating a system that woddpmgress quick/y from the R&D phase to tbe commercd stage, and thereby replace the government as the driving force behind tbe technology.
The Development
of SPOT as a Commercid
Ventwe
On May 2, 1986, an extraordinary image flashed on television screens around the world. A few days before, the Russian nuclear reactor at Chernobyl had burned and blown radioactivity across Europe. The Soviets acknowledged the incident but refused to show images of the burning reactor. However, the recently launched SPOT satellite, orbiting hundreds of miles above the Earth, passed over Eastern Russia and was able to record detailed images of Chernobyl. For the frost time ever, news Pierre Bescond assumed the presidency of SPOT Image Corporation on September 1, 1986. Between 1982 and 1986, be was the Director for Operation of Satellite Systems at Centre Nationd &Etudes Spats&es (CNES), the Prench space agency, in Toulouse, where he was responsible for implementation of the SPOT sateLite system ‘r primary ground receiving stations and the mission controt and image processing centers. He a/so worked on several cooperative safe/life programs with U.S. agencies in&ding NASA and NOAA. Previously, Mr. Bescond served as both Executive Director (1980-1982) and Technicat Director (1977-1980) of the Atine rocket Launch center in Kourou, French Guiana, from which SPOT 1 and many international sate/liter have been Launched. In addition, he has experience with optbat systems, computerizedphotoprocessing, space telemetry and rocket technology. Mr. Bescond’s education includes degrees fbm Eco/e PoLytechnique, and Ecote Nationale Superieure a!r I’Aemnauttque in Prance. He has been a member of severat intemationat committees devoted to developing space technology. 29
30
P. Bescond
organizations had access to detailed SPOT satellite images and used them to illustrate to the world what was happening at Chernobyl on May 2 and during the next harrowing days. The Chernobyl incident was the public debut of images from the SPOT satellite, but it was no accident that the French system was in position to record images from space and convert them expeditiously to marketable pictures. Indeed, it was the fruition of a process begun in the early 1970s. At that time, European space programs were dependent on the United States space program. While the Americans were launching rockets and deploying satellites with regularity, the Europeans were stalled. In 1972, the year that the U.S. Landsat satellite started taking the first images of the Earth from space, the European launcher program Europa was canceled. The French had previously developed weather and telecommunications satellites, but used US launchers. The French Space agency, Centre Nationd d’Etdes Spatiajes (CNES), was not content with its dependency on the US, so by 1973, after the failure of Europa, it had conceived of a two-pronged approach to building Europe’s space capabilities. First, it proposed the development of the Ariane rocket to give Europe its own launching system; second, it proposed the joint development of satellite systems. Thus, during the 1970s and into the 1980s, the Ariane rocket was successfully developed into one of the most dependable launchers in the world. Once Ariane was in hand, CNES set its sights on producing satellite systems, especially an earth observation satellite. CNES names the program Sate&e Pour fobsematioa de l’a Terre, or SPOT. From the outset, the French viewed imaging from space as a technology with commercial potential. Initial market studies showed optimistic numbers. They projected that SPOT had the potential to 1) pay for operation of the satellites; 2) support the operation of a company that would market the images; and 3) finance the development of future satellites. CNES then approached the European Space Agency (ESA) with a proposition for jointly developing an earth observation satellite. ESA turned it down, reasoning that SPOT would be too much like the US Landsat, and that ESA was not focused on technologies that could be commercialized. While ESA sponsored a radar satellite, CNES refused to abandon SPOT and sought other partners. The French government began to support CNES’s SPOT project with appropriations as far back as 1976. CNES wanted the first satellite to be a developmental, noncommercial exercise, but in 1977 and 1978 the government added a key caveat to its SPOT funding: it would support the program only if CNES would agree to start selling data from the first satellite. CNES agreed, and by that time Sweden and Belgium had asked to join the project and to each share 4% of the development costs. Major French aerospace companies later also became partners with the express understanding that SPOT was a commercial venture. Early in the program it was determined that while government coordination and resources were necessary to launch the program and the satellite, CNES was not the proper entity to commercially distribute the SPOT Data. Such commercialization required that a private company, not a public agency, should handle data distribution, and sales and marketing. As a result, in 1982 CNES and its partners created SPOT IMAGE, headquartered in Toulouse, France, to hold and manage worldwide
TheSPOTSystcn
31
data distribution rights. Thus, four years before the SPOT satellite was successfully launched, the private network to distribute its data was already forming. Indeed, the commercial and technical aspects of SPOT progressed hand-in-hand over the next four years. Prior to 1982, a bureau within CNES focused on the commercial side of the program. When SPOT IMAGE came into existence on July 1 of that year, the policy director of SPOT under CNES became chairman of the board of the new, private corporation. CNES was the major shareholder, with 39% of the company. The transition to a commercial venture was made early in the program, quickly and smoothly. The new company’s first marketing studies showed that 25-30% of the world market for satellite images would be in the United States. Therefore, a separate corporation in the United States was established in December, 1982, headquartered in Reston, Virginia, near Washington, DC. Again, it must be stressed that the US Corporation was set up three years prior to the launch of the first SPOT satellite. Now SPOT Data is distributed by SPOT IMAGE in France, SPOT Image Corporation in the US, SATIMAGE in Sweden and over 40 other local distributors around the world. When the SPOT I satellite was successfully launched into earth orbit aboard an Ariane rocket on February 22, 1986, an entire marketing system was in place to realize the commercial potential identified by CNES in 1975. The SPOT System: Designed for Commercial Potential This section describes the technical side of the SPOT system. It will show how the system’s technological innovations were in many cases directed toward serving a potential client base and therefore addressed not only the scientific requirements of a remote sensing system, but also the commercial needs of making the system profitable in the private sector. The SPOT I Satellite The SPOT I satellite launched into sun-synchronous orbit in 1986 is still the only satellite in the system. It orbits at an approximate altitude of 517 miles and covers the globe in 26 days over 369 orbital tracks. Adjustable mirrors allow SPOT to “see” a particular portion of the Earth on an average of once every two and a half days. SPOT I already has surpassed its design life of two years and is expected to perform for at least three years. SPOT II is ready for launch when needed, which is anticipated for mid-1989. SPOT III is under construction. SPOT II and III are identical to the first satellite, but SPOT IV will be an upgraded version with an extended life and an infrared observation band. The continuity of the system is thus assured well beyond the year 2000, allowing commercial users to rely on a consistent product. SPOT I’s platform provides support for the payload, including the power supply, precision orbit and attitude control, three-axis stabilization, and ground control command reception. The payload contains two identical High Resolution Visible, or HRV instruments, consisting of a telescope, an adjustable mirror to control viewing angle, and thou-
32
P. Bescond
sands of individual detectors. Each detector measures light reflected from a 10 by 10 meter area on the Earth’s surface. It converts that measurement to an electronic signal. This signal is then digitized and either recorded by onboard tape recorders or transmitted directly to ground receiving stations. After processing, the data are converted to commercial products in the form of computer compatible tapes or photographic products. With an eye toward commercial applications, the SPOT satellite was endowed with a number of technological advances that would result in better products to fit the needs of the commercial marketplace.
l
l
l
l
The detectors within each HRV are arranged in a multilinear array. Imaging is performed by the pushbroom technique in which the detectors simultaneously collect an entire image scanline of data perpendicular to the satellite’s path. This advanced solid state sensor design is a significant improvement over the mechanical scanning assemblies used on other remote sensing systems. When operated in the panchromatic mode, the HRV acquires a black and white image with a resolution of 10 meters by 10 meters, fine enough to detect objects the size of half a tennis court. This is nine times more detailed than images available from other civilian satellites. In the multispectral mode, incoming light is filtered into three wavelength bands: green, red and near infrared. The readings from each two consecutive detectors are combined to produce an image with a pixel size and ground resolution of 20 meters by 20 meters. The adjustable mirror located at the entrance to the telescope allows each HRV to acquire images from 91 different viewing angles over a range of 27” on each side of the satellite. This significant innovation greatly increases SPOT’s acquisition capability. During vertical viewing, each HRV images an area 60 kilometers wide. Using its mirrors to adjust the viewing angle, SPOT can acquire off-nadir images anywhere within a 950 kilometer swath, and can “see” the same scene from several different orbital paths. This means that SPOT can revisit, or acquire repeat images of the same area on the average of once every two and one half days. In addition to this rapid revisit capability, off-nadir viewing is used to acquire images of the same area from two different angles. Called stereopairs, these images are three-dimensional when viewed through a stereoscope. This unique capability is proving to be a tool of great value for terrain interpretation and topographic mapping in geology, hydrology, cartography and other application areas.
The SPOT Ground Segment The ground segment of the SPOT system consists of a global network of control stations, receiving stations, image processing centers and data distributors. The SPOT Mission and Operations Control Center, located in Toulouse, France, is responsible for satellite orbital control, payload programming for image acquisition, and overall coordination of ground facilities. Receiving stations currently in operation
The SPOT System
33
are located in Toulouse; Kiruna, Sweden; Hyderabad, India; Maspalomas, Canary Islands; Bangkok, Thailand; Cuiaba, Brazil; Hatoyama, Japan; and two in Canada (Prince Albert and Gatineau). Direct receiving stations receive transmissions of image data from the satellite as the data are acquired by the HRVs. The satellite must be within a station’s zone of visibility for this to occur. This zone, roughly 2,500 kilometers in radius around each station, is determined by the satellite’s position relative to the horizon, allowing radiometric reception by the station’s antennae. Plans are underway to expand SPOT ground receiving stations to locations in China, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and Australia, with potential sites under discussion in several other countries.
SPOT Data Distribution The image data are made available on a variety of media, chosen on the basis of existing user needs. These media currently include computer compatible tapes and photographic prints and transparencies. Additional products are being developed in response to advances in the industry and the increasing demands of the user community. SPOT Data distribution is performed according to the United Nations policies referred to as “open skies” and “nondiscriminatory access to data.” Data are made available to users through a worldwide network of disuibutors, each covering a specific geographic area. This system was established to ensure that distributors can tailor their services and products to the specific needs of the users in their region. Worldwide commercial activity is coordinated by the parent company in Toulouse. SPOT Image Corporation in Reston, Virginia is the only subsidiary of SPOT IMAGE, and is the exclusive distributor of SPOT Data to the US market, the largest and most advanced user community in the world. Because of this status and increasing US applications research, it is anticipated that US users may finally constitute 50% of the world market for SPOT products. Activities at the Reston facility include image processing, maintenance of an inhouse archive, filling clients’ orders from that archive, taking clients’ satellite programming requests for specific new images, and scheduling image acquisition by SPOT during passes over the US. SPOT Image Corporation supplies data from anywhere in the world, either from the in-house archive or through connections with SPOT’s worldwide network. The key aspects of SPOT’s technological capabilities that gear it toward serving a commercial client community are: 1) planning for the launch of new satellites to guarantee secure and continuous service for the user; 2) resolutions of lo-meters (panchromatic) and 20-meters (multispectral) for precision images; 3) off-nadir viewing, which provides broader coverage and quick repeat viewing; 4) widespread ground station receivers for broad coverage and images tailored to regional users; and 5) a broad range of products, including an expanding archive, and the capability to expand products to meet consumer needs.
P. Bescond
34
Commercid AppZicution~ of Satellte Imagery New uses for remote sensing images are being discovered on a continuing basis, but SPOT already has been able to exploit the markets described below. Geology Exploration geologists and oil companies frequently use remote sensing to survey large land areas and identify surface indicators of potentially valuable subsurface mineral and oil deposits. By identifying and mapping such indicators as vegetation anomalies and certain geomorphic conditions, these companies can plan for the most efficient use of more expensive ground-based exploration techniques. Remote sensing is common for engineering purposes such as road siting and construction, or dam siting within large drainage basins. Imagery is also used to identify and map faults, fractures and fold systems. These features are often not apparent with the small area coverage provided by aerial photographs, though they are essential to analyzing overall geologic structure. These capabilities also provide a powerful tool for monitoring short-term geologic hazards such as landslides, volcanoes and earthquakes. Agricuhre Remote sensing is useful worldwide for performing up-to-date surveys of existing crops and rangelands, and for estimating yields over large areas. Agribusinesses use satellite images as part of a comprehensive analysis-together with weather data, soil surveys, planting records and on-site studies-for planning and management decisions. US regional, state and federal agencies use remote sensing to monitor the extent and effectiveness of irrigation practices and to assist with determining future allocations of irrigation water resources. Range conditions in the western United States are monitored with regard to surface water availabilitv, carrying capabilities and areas of overgrazing. The US Agency for International Development and the World Bank have used satellite imagery in planning large-scale agricultural development programs in which topography, soil and water conditions must be assessed. In many third world countries no such information exists for these areas, and satellite imagery provides rapid, effective means for preliminary study.
Wuter Resource Studies Satellite imagery is used by federal and regional agencies in the United States for water resource management and control, especially in the mountainous areas of the West, where it provides a convenient method for helping to predict snowmelt runoff and subsequent water yields. This type of information is essential for planning hydropower production and irrigation water allocations. SPOT remote sensing also has been used to monitor characteristics within large
The SPOT System
3s
water bodies to help understand their dynamic nature and to improve water management practices. These include current studies in the Chesapeake and Delaware Bays to map sediment transport plumes, sediment densities, submerged aquatic vegetation and algal blooms.
Forestry Remote sensing is an important tool in the management of timber resources. Crown closure assessments made from satellite imagery, combined with cartographic and field-acquired data are used to plan harvests, predict yields, and to make economic models. Remote sensing is also used to identify and map areas of disease, insect infestation and fire damage within timber stands. Applications research is being further expanded by private companies so that digital information from space can be used for ground inventories.
Coastal Zone Management Remote sensing has been used to monitor tidal wetlands, beach erosion and barrier island migration. The lack of detail and infrequent coverage from previous satellite systems has limited their effectiveness, particularly where a major concern is getting current imagery. SPOT’s ability to provide up-to-date, detailed imagery, can thus offer a significant role in coastal zone studies.
Land Use/ Urban Planning Because of the comprehensive, synoptic view that remote sensing provides, planners use it as a tool for creating and updating land use maps, economic analyses, resource inventories, and siting/suitability assessments. SPOT’s sharper resolution brings into focus previously undetectable features, such as buildings in densely populated areas and essential details of transportation systems. At scales of 1:24,000 and greater (more details), SPOT imagery has the potential to replace aerial photography to analyze urban, suburban and rural growth patterns. It can also be used for rapid population assessments and density classifications in tax planning and zoning studies. Remote sensing is used in planning-related engineering studies such as: determining impervious surface area for urban watershed mapping and modeling; assessing the need for and siting new utility facilities and services; and planning transportation infrastructure expansion or modifications.
Cartography and Terrain Modeling Thematic mapping and updating and verifying the accuracy of existing maps are also long-established uses. Satellite images are the only accurate source of information for creating maps of remote, unmapped parts of the world and SPOT’s high resolution provides images that reduce the need for any other source of information. Because they are available at a variety of scales and map projections, they can
P. Bescond
36
function as detailed base maps for combination with any other geographical data bases. SPOT’s stereoscopic capabilities allow three-dimensional viewing and interpretation of terrain and cultural features from any location on Earth. This leads to topographic maps with contour intervals as small as 10 meters. These images are also used in digital terrain modeling and the production of three-dimensional perspective views for terrain simulation. News Media The news media are realizing that high resolution images from space are well suited for their needs, especially because satellites can take pictures to order of any location on the globe. Images from SPOT have supported such news coverage as the Chernobyl nuclear accident, arms control activity and other strategic situations in the Soviet Union, the Persian Gulf and elsewhere, the 1986 July Fourth celebration in New York City, and the 1988 Calgary Olympics. Publ’ic Verifcation:
Arms
Control
Verzjkation
Recent advances in arms control by the world superpowers, and in fact by all nations, are becoming increasingly important in this era of complex geopolitics and advanced weaponry. What was once the province of government officials and military organizations is now becoming more and more a forum for public involvement. Private sector organizations are increasingly involved in researching and supporting arms control activities. Non-intrusive means of observing any area in the world, a necessary technique for treaty verification, was once available only to military intelligence groups in the United States and the Soviet Union. Now, with SPOT, public interest groups, the news media and government agencies have a tool which provides a level of information never before publicly available. The SPOT system has three unique attributes of particular significance to arms control and treaty verification applications: 1) high resolution; 2) the capability of “seeing” any location in the world (open skies); and 3) an operational policy of commercially distributing this imagery to any interested party in the world on an unrestricted basis (open access). Commercial
Experience,
Marketing
and F&w-e Deveiopments
The satellite-based remote sensing industry has matured significantly since it was first conceived as a governmental R&D program. The technology is no longer the province of a relatively small group of researchers and scientists, but has become a growing commercial industry with widespread applications. Global recognition of its value is constantly increasing. Commercial distribution of SPOT Data expanded very rapidly in 1987 and 1988. During its first year of operational marketing in 1986, 3,000 products were distributed; the following year, 10,000 products were distributed, and in 1988 SPOT’s
Tbe SPOT System
37
global distribution will far exceed this number. The proportion of digital products continually increases for markets in developed nations, while photographic products are still more common in less developed markets. The market share is also very strongly characterized by large sales in Europe (30 % ), North America (30% ) and the Asia-Pacific region (25 O/b). These sales result from specific satellite imaging requests as well as orders for data already in the archive. The US company has moved aggressively to open new areas of growth. The marketing staff has tripled in size since the company was founded, and the staff has introduced the capabilities of the remote-sensing technology to a whole new group of potential consumers. Indeed, the future of the industry now depends on successful marketing of the available technology. The following five concepts are crucial to SPOT’s marketing strategy: 1. SPOT Image Corporation is working to familiarize users with the new commercial “rules” which govern the availability and use of image data. SPOT has pioneered the use of licenses and copyrighted data in an attempt to react as flexibly as possible to a user’s needs, while ensuring that the appropriate revenues are collected by the suppliers of that data. Data costs have risen when compared with costs during remote sensing’s R&D phase. However, when viewed in terms of system development, launch, and operational costs, and in terms of the actual value of the data to the user, the current costs are not only justified but in fact might be considered low. 2. Industry growth depends on expanding the market for applications and developing new applications based on SPOT’s advanced capabilities: high resolution, rapid revisit and stereoscopic image production. Early results from SPOT’s preliminary evaluation program (PEPS) reveal the increased value of SPOT data to traditional applications in cartography, urban planning, forestry, geology, agriculture and several other disciplines. New and expanded applications include news gathering, disaster monitoring, use in terrain simulators, stereoscopic image analysis and terrain modeling. 3. SPOT is working to market the entire remote sensing package, rather than just the image data which are the program’s main products. This involves working with all components of the industry, including data users, hardware/software manufacturers and value-added companies who take the raw data and process it into usable consumer products. This method ensures that the entire technology becomes more affordable, accessible and user-friendly. SPOT has established very strong relations with several value-added firms which are developing new services, anaIytica.l methods and products and are helping to identify new markets within the expanding user communities. 4. Many established and new applications rely on obtaining data which are as close to “real time” as possible, particularly in agriculture, disaster monitoring and news media applications. SPOT’s one-day turnaround of the initial Chernobyl imagery was more the exception than the rule. However, since then, turnaround time has continued to decrease as the number of receiving stations and data distributors, together with the system’s image processing capabilities, has developed.
38
P. Bescond
5. Central to the SPOT commercial program is the ability to produce imagery on a long-term, reliable basis and the continuation of technological innovations. Current plans call for the launch of a series of at least three additional SPOT satellites to provide a continuous source of data into the next century. While SPOT I, II, and III are identical, SPOT IV will include a number of advanced capabilities described below. Future Developments Driven by the overall commercialization effort, the remote sensing system is continually being expanded to provide new products and new ways to deliver satellite images to the user. Examples of this effort are the SPOT Partners in Applications Development (SPADS) and Operational Pilot Projects (OPPS). Both are geared toward developing new applications and establishing remote sensing data as a valuable input to operational systems. These are marketing outreach programs which develop applications and then demonstrate them to potential users. A number of specific innovations designed into the SPOT IV satellite will enhance the system. The increased capability to detect parts of the wavelength bands is particularly well suited for assessing levels of plant moisture and plant stress, and for performing other vegetation studies. The 10 and 20 meter resolution data produced by SPOT IV will be co-registered onboard the satellite instead of on the ground during image processing. This is in response to the increasingly sophisticated requirements of the cartographic user community for higher levels of accuracy. SPOT IV will also carry an additional, self-contained sensor call “Vegetation” designed to improve the monitoring capabilities of the world’s vegetation and oceans. This new sensor will record light in five separate spectral bands. It will also have increased radiometric sensitivity, allowing it to detect slight variations in Earth surface characteristics over space and time. These innovations are directed toward potential clients in the academic, governmental, agribusiness and ocean mining communities. Conchsion The SPOT program is proving that remote sensing technology has evolved to the point where it can, and in fact, must function successfully in a commercial environment. Satellite-based remote sensing technology has progressed through a series of government R&D programs over the last 15 years. SPOT has taken this technology, geared it toward commercial applications, and improved,the technology to meet commercial needs. In doing so, SPOT has relied on three key concepts: 1) that government and private sector can work together to establish and achieve commercial goals; 2) that traditional business concepts and technical considerations can be applied simultaneously to achieve goals in each realm, and in fact, can serve to enhance one another; and 3) that aggressive marketing of the technology can be a tremendous benefit to society- as its utility is demonstrated, people around the
The SPOT System
39
world then find ways to use it to improve business practices, as well as do government and academic studies. When the French space agency CNES and its partners first devoted their energies to developing a remote sensing system in the mid-1970s, the commercial component was a driving force. Now, as we approach the 1WOs and the next century, that commitment to commercialization has proven to be the cornerstone of the developing technology. The future of remote sensing now depends on the continuing involvement of all sectors of the industry to market and develop new capabilities and benefits based on this valuable technology.
Copyright
0160-791X189 $3.00 + .OO 0 1989 Pergamon Press plc
The SPOT System Commercial Operations in Remote Sensing Pierre Bescond
ABSTRACT. The transhn of tecbno/ogy from the research and development phase, under tbe auspices of government agencies, to the private sector, driven by market forces, is a dymmiG process that can serve the purposes of 1) enhancing the tecbno/ogicd devel’opment; 2) rep/acing pubh funds expended ajier the R&D phase; and 3) making the technology avai&abLe for use by private citizens. The commerch’ization of remote sensing tecbno/ogy by the SPOTprogram pmviah a case study of that process. In marked contrast to the United States’ Lundsat program, tbe commercdization of remote sensing technology by SPOT was not an afterthought. Prom its inception, the commercidpotential of SPOT was a driving force in its development. Indeed, the success of that concept proves that tbe progressive appmacb to marketing sopbdhted technology can have beneficial eflects throughout society. This paper traces the deliberate path taken by tbe French space agency, in cooperation with other European governmental andprivate sector entities, to develop remote sensing tecbno/ogy . It has fuLflh?d tbe initd aim of creating a system that woddpmgress quick/y from the R&D phase to tbe commercd stage, and thereby replace the government as the driving force behind tbe technology.
The Development
of SPOT as a Commercid
Ventwe
On May 2, 1986, an extraordinary image flashed on television screens around the world. A few days before, the Russian nuclear reactor at Chernobyl had burned and blown radioactivity across Europe. The Soviets acknowledged the incident but refused to show images of the burning reactor. However, the recently launched SPOT satellite, orbiting hundreds of miles above the Earth, passed over Eastern Russia and was able to record detailed images of Chernobyl. For the frost time ever, news Pierre Bescond assumed the presidency of SPOT Image Corporation on September 1, 1986. Between 1982 and 1986, be was the Director for Operation of Satellite Systems at Centre Nationd &Etudes Spats&es (CNES), the Prench space agency, in Toulouse, where he was responsible for implementation of the SPOT sateLite system ‘r primary ground receiving stations and the mission controt and image processing centers. He a/so worked on several cooperative safe/life programs with U.S. agencies in&ding NASA and NOAA. Previously, Mr. Bescond served as both Executive Director (1980-1982) and Technicat Director (1977-1980) of the Atine rocket Launch center in Kourou, French Guiana, from which SPOT 1 and many international sate/liter have been Launched. In addition, he has experience with optbat systems, computerizedphotoprocessing, space telemetry and rocket technology. Mr. Bescond’s education includes degrees fbm Eco/e PoLytechnique, and Ecote Nationale Superieure a!r I’Aemnauttque in Prance. He has been a member of severat intemationat committees devoted to developing space technology. 29
30
P. Bescond
organizations had access to detailed SPOT satellite images and used them to illustrate to the world what was happening at Chernobyl on May 2 and during the next harrowing days. The Chernobyl incident was the public debut of images from the SPOT satellite, but it was no accident that the French system was in position to record images from space and convert them expeditiously to marketable pictures. Indeed, it was the fruition of a process begun in the early 1970s. At that time, European space programs were dependent on the United States space program. While the Americans were launching rockets and deploying satellites with regularity, the Europeans were stalled. In 1972, the year that the U.S. Landsat satellite started taking the first images of the Earth from space, the European launcher program Europa was canceled. The French had previously developed weather and telecommunications satellites, but used US launchers. The French Space agency, Centre Nationd d’Etdes Spatiajes (CNES), was not content with its dependency on the US, so by 1973, after the failure of Europa, it had conceived of a two-pronged approach to building Europe’s space capabilities. First, it proposed the development of the Ariane rocket to give Europe its own launching system; second, it proposed the joint development of satellite systems. Thus, during the 1970s and into the 1980s, the Ariane rocket was successfully developed into one of the most dependable launchers in the world. Once Ariane was in hand, CNES set its sights on producing satellite systems, especially an earth observation satellite. CNES names the program Sate&e Pour fobsematioa de l’a Terre, or SPOT. From the outset, the French viewed imaging from space as a technology with commercial potential. Initial market studies showed optimistic numbers. They projected that SPOT had the potential to 1) pay for operation of the satellites; 2) support the operation of a company that would market the images; and 3) finance the development of future satellites. CNES then approached the European Space Agency (ESA) with a proposition for jointly developing an earth observation satellite. ESA turned it down, reasoning that SPOT would be too much like the US Landsat, and that ESA was not focused on technologies that could be commercialized. While ESA sponsored a radar satellite, CNES refused to abandon SPOT and sought other partners. The French government began to support CNES’s SPOT project with appropriations as far back as 1976. CNES wanted the first satellite to be a developmental, noncommercial exercise, but in 1977 and 1978 the government added a key caveat to its SPOT funding: it would support the program only if CNES would agree to start selling data from the first satellite. CNES agreed, and by that time Sweden and Belgium had asked to join the project and to each share 4% of the development costs. Major French aerospace companies later also became partners with the express understanding that SPOT was a commercial venture. Early in the program it was determined that while government coordination and resources were necessary to launch the program and the satellite, CNES was not the proper entity to commercially distribute the SPOT Data. Such commercialization required that a private company, not a public agency, should handle data distribution, and sales and marketing. As a result, in 1982 CNES and its partners created SPOT IMAGE, headquartered in Toulouse, France, to hold and manage worldwide
TheSPOTSystcn
31
data distribution rights. Thus, four years before the SPOT satellite was successfully launched, the private network to distribute its data was already forming. Indeed, the commercial and technical aspects of SPOT progressed hand-in-hand over the next four years. Prior to 1982, a bureau within CNES focused on the commercial side of the program. When SPOT IMAGE came into existence on July 1 of that year, the policy director of SPOT under CNES became chairman of the board of the new, private corporation. CNES was the major shareholder, with 39% of the company. The transition to a commercial venture was made early in the program, quickly and smoothly. The new company’s first marketing studies showed that 25-30% of the world market for satellite images would be in the United States. Therefore, a separate corporation in the United States was established in December, 1982, headquartered in Reston, Virginia, near Washington, DC. Again, it must be stressed that the US Corporation was set up three years prior to the launch of the first SPOT satellite. Now SPOT Data is distributed by SPOT IMAGE in France, SPOT Image Corporation in the US, SATIMAGE in Sweden and over 40 other local distributors around the world. When the SPOT I satellite was successfully launched into earth orbit aboard an Ariane rocket on February 22, 1986, an entire marketing system was in place to realize the commercial potential identified by CNES in 1975. The SPOT System: Designed for Commercial Potential This section describes the technical side of the SPOT system. It will show how the system’s technological innovations were in many cases directed toward serving a potential client base and therefore addressed not only the scientific requirements of a remote sensing system, but also the commercial needs of making the system profitable in the private sector. The SPOT I Satellite The SPOT I satellite launched into sun-synchronous orbit in 1986 is still the only satellite in the system. It orbits at an approximate altitude of 517 miles and covers the globe in 26 days over 369 orbital tracks. Adjustable mirrors allow SPOT to “see” a particular portion of the Earth on an average of once every two and a half days. SPOT I already has surpassed its design life of two years and is expected to perform for at least three years. SPOT II is ready for launch when needed, which is anticipated for mid-1989. SPOT III is under construction. SPOT II and III are identical to the first satellite, but SPOT IV will be an upgraded version with an extended life and an infrared observation band. The continuity of the system is thus assured well beyond the year 2000, allowing commercial users to rely on a consistent product. SPOT I’s platform provides support for the payload, including the power supply, precision orbit and attitude control, three-axis stabilization, and ground control command reception. The payload contains two identical High Resolution Visible, or HRV instruments, consisting of a telescope, an adjustable mirror to control viewing angle, and thou-
32
P. Bescond
sands of individual detectors. Each detector measures light reflected from a 10 by 10 meter area on the Earth’s surface. It converts that measurement to an electronic signal. This signal is then digitized and either recorded by onboard tape recorders or transmitted directly to ground receiving stations. After processing, the data are converted to commercial products in the form of computer compatible tapes or photographic products. With an eye toward commercial applications, the SPOT satellite was endowed with a number of technological advances that would result in better products to fit the needs of the commercial marketplace.
l
l
l
l
The detectors within each HRV are arranged in a multilinear array. Imaging is performed by the pushbroom technique in which the detectors simultaneously collect an entire image scanline of data perpendicular to the satellite’s path. This advanced solid state sensor design is a significant improvement over the mechanical scanning assemblies used on other remote sensing systems. When operated in the panchromatic mode, the HRV acquires a black and white image with a resolution of 10 meters by 10 meters, fine enough to detect objects the size of half a tennis court. This is nine times more detailed than images available from other civilian satellites. In the multispectral mode, incoming light is filtered into three wavelength bands: green, red and near infrared. The readings from each two consecutive detectors are combined to produce an image with a pixel size and ground resolution of 20 meters by 20 meters. The adjustable mirror located at the entrance to the telescope allows each HRV to acquire images from 91 different viewing angles over a range of 27” on each side of the satellite. This significant innovation greatly increases SPOT’s acquisition capability. During vertical viewing, each HRV images an area 60 kilometers wide. Using its mirrors to adjust the viewing angle, SPOT can acquire off-nadir images anywhere within a 950 kilometer swath, and can “see” the same scene from several different orbital paths. This means that SPOT can revisit, or acquire repeat images of the same area on the average of once every two and one half days. In addition to this rapid revisit capability, off-nadir viewing is used to acquire images of the same area from two different angles. Called stereopairs, these images are three-dimensional when viewed through a stereoscope. This unique capability is proving to be a tool of great value for terrain interpretation and topographic mapping in geology, hydrology, cartography and other application areas.
The SPOT Ground Segment The ground segment of the SPOT system consists of a global network of control stations, receiving stations, image processing centers and data distributors. The SPOT Mission and Operations Control Center, located in Toulouse, France, is responsible for satellite orbital control, payload programming for image acquisition, and overall coordination of ground facilities. Receiving stations currently in operation
The SPOT System
33
are located in Toulouse; Kiruna, Sweden; Hyderabad, India; Maspalomas, Canary Islands; Bangkok, Thailand; Cuiaba, Brazil; Hatoyama, Japan; and two in Canada (Prince Albert and Gatineau). Direct receiving stations receive transmissions of image data from the satellite as the data are acquired by the HRVs. The satellite must be within a station’s zone of visibility for this to occur. This zone, roughly 2,500 kilometers in radius around each station, is determined by the satellite’s position relative to the horizon, allowing radiometric reception by the station’s antennae. Plans are underway to expand SPOT ground receiving stations to locations in China, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and Australia, with potential sites under discussion in several other countries.
SPOT Data Distribution The image data are made available on a variety of media, chosen on the basis of existing user needs. These media currently include computer compatible tapes and photographic prints and transparencies. Additional products are being developed in response to advances in the industry and the increasing demands of the user community. SPOT Data distribution is performed according to the United Nations policies referred to as “open skies” and “nondiscriminatory access to data.” Data are made available to users through a worldwide network of disuibutors, each covering a specific geographic area. This system was established to ensure that distributors can tailor their services and products to the specific needs of the users in their region. Worldwide commercial activity is coordinated by the parent company in Toulouse. SPOT Image Corporation in Reston, Virginia is the only subsidiary of SPOT IMAGE, and is the exclusive distributor of SPOT Data to the US market, the largest and most advanced user community in the world. Because of this status and increasing US applications research, it is anticipated that US users may finally constitute 50% of the world market for SPOT products. Activities at the Reston facility include image processing, maintenance of an inhouse archive, filling clients’ orders from that archive, taking clients’ satellite programming requests for specific new images, and scheduling image acquisition by SPOT during passes over the US. SPOT Image Corporation supplies data from anywhere in the world, either from the in-house archive or through connections with SPOT’s worldwide network. The key aspects of SPOT’s technological capabilities that gear it toward serving a commercial client community are: 1) planning for the launch of new satellites to guarantee secure and continuous service for the user; 2) resolutions of lo-meters (panchromatic) and 20-meters (multispectral) for precision images; 3) off-nadir viewing, which provides broader coverage and quick repeat viewing; 4) widespread ground station receivers for broad coverage and images tailored to regional users; and 5) a broad range of products, including an expanding archive, and the capability to expand products to meet consumer needs.
P. Bescond
34
Commercid AppZicution~ of Satellte Imagery New uses for remote sensing images are being discovered on a continuing basis, but SPOT already has been able to exploit the markets described below. Geology Exploration geologists and oil companies frequently use remote sensing to survey large land areas and identify surface indicators of potentially valuable subsurface mineral and oil deposits. By identifying and mapping such indicators as vegetation anomalies and certain geomorphic conditions, these companies can plan for the most efficient use of more expensive ground-based exploration techniques. Remote sensing is common for engineering purposes such as road siting and construction, or dam siting within large drainage basins. Imagery is also used to identify and map faults, fractures and fold systems. These features are often not apparent with the small area coverage provided by aerial photographs, though they are essential to analyzing overall geologic structure. These capabilities also provide a powerful tool for monitoring short-term geologic hazards such as landslides, volcanoes and earthquakes. Agricuhre Remote sensing is useful worldwide for performing up-to-date surveys of existing crops and rangelands, and for estimating yields over large areas. Agribusinesses use satellite images as part of a comprehensive analysis-together with weather data, soil surveys, planting records and on-site studies-for planning and management decisions. US regional, state and federal agencies use remote sensing to monitor the extent and effectiveness of irrigation practices and to assist with determining future allocations of irrigation water resources. Range conditions in the western United States are monitored with regard to surface water availabilitv, carrying capabilities and areas of overgrazing. The US Agency for International Development and the World Bank have used satellite imagery in planning large-scale agricultural development programs in which topography, soil and water conditions must be assessed. In many third world countries no such information exists for these areas, and satellite imagery provides rapid, effective means for preliminary study.
Wuter Resource Studies Satellite imagery is used by federal and regional agencies in the United States for water resource management and control, especially in the mountainous areas of the West, where it provides a convenient method for helping to predict snowmelt runoff and subsequent water yields. This type of information is essential for planning hydropower production and irrigation water allocations. SPOT remote sensing also has been used to monitor characteristics within large
The SPOT System
3s
water bodies to help understand their dynamic nature and to improve water management practices. These include current studies in the Chesapeake and Delaware Bays to map sediment transport plumes, sediment densities, submerged aquatic vegetation and algal blooms.
Forestry Remote sensing is an important tool in the management of timber resources. Crown closure assessments made from satellite imagery, combined with cartographic and field-acquired data are used to plan harvests, predict yields, and to make economic models. Remote sensing is also used to identify and map areas of disease, insect infestation and fire damage within timber stands. Applications research is being further expanded by private companies so that digital information from space can be used for ground inventories.
Coastal Zone Management Remote sensing has been used to monitor tidal wetlands, beach erosion and barrier island migration. The lack of detail and infrequent coverage from previous satellite systems has limited their effectiveness, particularly where a major concern is getting current imagery. SPOT’s ability to provide up-to-date, detailed imagery, can thus offer a significant role in coastal zone studies.
Land Use/ Urban Planning Because of the comprehensive, synoptic view that remote sensing provides, planners use it as a tool for creating and updating land use maps, economic analyses, resource inventories, and siting/suitability assessments. SPOT’s sharper resolution brings into focus previously undetectable features, such as buildings in densely populated areas and essential details of transportation systems. At scales of 1:24,000 and greater (more details), SPOT imagery has the potential to replace aerial photography to analyze urban, suburban and rural growth patterns. It can also be used for rapid population assessments and density classifications in tax planning and zoning studies. Remote sensing is used in planning-related engineering studies such as: determining impervious surface area for urban watershed mapping and modeling; assessing the need for and siting new utility facilities and services; and planning transportation infrastructure expansion or modifications.
Cartography and Terrain Modeling Thematic mapping and updating and verifying the accuracy of existing maps are also long-established uses. Satellite images are the only accurate source of information for creating maps of remote, unmapped parts of the world and SPOT’s high resolution provides images that reduce the need for any other source of information. Because they are available at a variety of scales and map projections, they can
P. Bescond
36
function as detailed base maps for combination with any other geographical data bases. SPOT’s stereoscopic capabilities allow three-dimensional viewing and interpretation of terrain and cultural features from any location on Earth. This leads to topographic maps with contour intervals as small as 10 meters. These images are also used in digital terrain modeling and the production of three-dimensional perspective views for terrain simulation. News Media The news media are realizing that high resolution images from space are well suited for their needs, especially because satellites can take pictures to order of any location on the globe. Images from SPOT have supported such news coverage as the Chernobyl nuclear accident, arms control activity and other strategic situations in the Soviet Union, the Persian Gulf and elsewhere, the 1986 July Fourth celebration in New York City, and the 1988 Calgary Olympics. Publ’ic Verifcation:
Arms
Control
Verzjkation
Recent advances in arms control by the world superpowers, and in fact by all nations, are becoming increasingly important in this era of complex geopolitics and advanced weaponry. What was once the province of government officials and military organizations is now becoming more and more a forum for public involvement. Private sector organizations are increasingly involved in researching and supporting arms control activities. Non-intrusive means of observing any area in the world, a necessary technique for treaty verification, was once available only to military intelligence groups in the United States and the Soviet Union. Now, with SPOT, public interest groups, the news media and government agencies have a tool which provides a level of information never before publicly available. The SPOT system has three unique attributes of particular significance to arms control and treaty verification applications: 1) high resolution; 2) the capability of “seeing” any location in the world (open skies); and 3) an operational policy of commercially distributing this imagery to any interested party in the world on an unrestricted basis (open access). Commercial
Experience,
Marketing
and F&w-e Deveiopments
The satellite-based remote sensing industry has matured significantly since it was first conceived as a governmental R&D program. The technology is no longer the province of a relatively small group of researchers and scientists, but has become a growing commercial industry with widespread applications. Global recognition of its value is constantly increasing. Commercial distribution of SPOT Data expanded very rapidly in 1987 and 1988. During its first year of operational marketing in 1986, 3,000 products were distributed; the following year, 10,000 products were distributed, and in 1988 SPOT’s
Tbe SPOT System
37
global distribution will far exceed this number. The proportion of digital products continually increases for markets in developed nations, while photographic products are still more common in less developed markets. The market share is also very strongly characterized by large sales in Europe (30 % ), North America (30% ) and the Asia-Pacific region (25 O/b). These sales result from specific satellite imaging requests as well as orders for data already in the archive. The US company has moved aggressively to open new areas of growth. The marketing staff has tripled in size since the company was founded, and the staff has introduced the capabilities of the remote-sensing technology to a whole new group of potential consumers. Indeed, the future of the industry now depends on successful marketing of the available technology. The following five concepts are crucial to SPOT’s marketing strategy: 1. SPOT Image Corporation is working to familiarize users with the new commercial “rules” which govern the availability and use of image data. SPOT has pioneered the use of licenses and copyrighted data in an attempt to react as flexibly as possible to a user’s needs, while ensuring that the appropriate revenues are collected by the suppliers of that data. Data costs have risen when compared with costs during remote sensing’s R&D phase. However, when viewed in terms of system development, launch, and operational costs, and in terms of the actual value of the data to the user, the current costs are not only justified but in fact might be considered low. 2. Industry growth depends on expanding the market for applications and developing new applications based on SPOT’s advanced capabilities: high resolution, rapid revisit and stereoscopic image production. Early results from SPOT’s preliminary evaluation program (PEPS) reveal the increased value of SPOT data to traditional applications in cartography, urban planning, forestry, geology, agriculture and several other disciplines. New and expanded applications include news gathering, disaster monitoring, use in terrain simulators, stereoscopic image analysis and terrain modeling. 3. SPOT is working to market the entire remote sensing package, rather than just the image data which are the program’s main products. This involves working with all components of the industry, including data users, hardware/software manufacturers and value-added companies who take the raw data and process it into usable consumer products. This method ensures that the entire technology becomes more affordable, accessible and user-friendly. SPOT has established very strong relations with several value-added firms which are developing new services, anaIytica.l methods and products and are helping to identify new markets within the expanding user communities. 4. Many established and new applications rely on obtaining data which are as close to “real time” as possible, particularly in agriculture, disaster monitoring and news media applications. SPOT’s one-day turnaround of the initial Chernobyl imagery was more the exception than the rule. However, since then, turnaround time has continued to decrease as the number of receiving stations and data distributors, together with the system’s image processing capabilities, has developed.
38
P. Bescond
5. Central to the SPOT commercial program is the ability to produce imagery on a long-term, reliable basis and the continuation of technological innovations. Current plans call for the launch of a series of at least three additional SPOT satellites to provide a continuous source of data into the next century. While SPOT I, II, and III are identical, SPOT IV will include a number of advanced capabilities described below. Future Developments Driven by the overall commercialization effort, the remote sensing system is continually being expanded to provide new products and new ways to deliver satellite images to the user. Examples of this effort are the SPOT Partners in Applications Development (SPADS) and Operational Pilot Projects (OPPS). Both are geared toward developing new applications and establishing remote sensing data as a valuable input to operational systems. These are marketing outreach programs which develop applications and then demonstrate them to potential users. A number of specific innovations designed into the SPOT IV satellite will enhance the system. The increased capability to detect parts of the wavelength bands is particularly well suited for assessing levels of plant moisture and plant stress, and for performing other vegetation studies. The 10 and 20 meter resolution data produced by SPOT IV will be co-registered onboard the satellite instead of on the ground during image processing. This is in response to the increasingly sophisticated requirements of the cartographic user community for higher levels of accuracy. SPOT IV will also carry an additional, self-contained sensor call “Vegetation” designed to improve the monitoring capabilities of the world’s vegetation and oceans. This new sensor will record light in five separate spectral bands. It will also have increased radiometric sensitivity, allowing it to detect slight variations in Earth surface characteristics over space and time. These innovations are directed toward potential clients in the academic, governmental, agribusiness and ocean mining communities. Conchsion The SPOT program is proving that remote sensing technology has evolved to the point where it can, and in fact, must function successfully in a commercial environment. Satellite-based remote sensing technology has progressed through a series of government R&D programs over the last 15 years. SPOT has taken this technology, geared it toward commercial applications, and improved,the technology to meet commercial needs. In doing so, SPOT has relied on three key concepts: 1) that government and private sector can work together to establish and achieve commercial goals; 2) that traditional business concepts and technical considerations can be applied simultaneously to achieve goals in each realm, and in fact, can serve to enhance one another; and 3) that aggressive marketing of the technology can be a tremendous benefit to society- as its utility is demonstrated, people around the
The SPOT System
39
world then find ways to use it to improve business practices, as well as do government and academic studies. When the French space agency CNES and its partners first devoted their energies to developing a remote sensing system in the mid-1970s, the commercial component was a driving force. Now, as we approach the 1WOs and the next century, that commitment to commercialization has proven to be the cornerstone of the developing technology. The future of remote sensing now depends on the continuing involvement of all sectors of the industry to market and develop new capabilities and benefits based on this valuable technology.