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Three Mile Island, Stress Effects of*
Three Mile Island, Stress Effects of 735
Three Mile Island, Stress Effects of A L Dougall and A Baum University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA ã 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. This article is a revision of the previous edition article by A L Dougall and A Baum, volume 3, pp 595–597, ã 2000, Elsevier Inc.
Stressors at Three Mile Island Short-term Consequences The Effects of Venting Unit 2 Long-term Consequences and Issues Summary
Glossary Anticipatory stress
Disaster
Stress
Technological disaster
Uncertainty
Stress experienced as one waits and/or prepares for a stressful event. In some studies, this stress is similar to that experienced once a stressor is experienced. An unusual event of large scope that overwhelms the social system. Disasters can be of natural origin (e.g., earthquake, tornado) or of technological origin (e.g., Three Mile Island, war). A psychobiological process initiated by events that threaten, harm, or challenge an organism or that exceed available coping resources. Stress is characterized by psychological, behavioral, and physiological responses that are directed toward adaptation, but can become pathological if they persist or are inappropriate. A powerful stressor that disrupts and overwhelms the social system and has a human origin, by either direct action (e.g., sabotage) or failure of technology (e.g., air disasters, industrial accidents). The human causes of these events introduce issues related to blame and control and may cause longer-lasting distress than natural disasters. A state characterized by ambiguity or lack of information pertinent to a particular situation or outcome. It is hypothesized that uncertainty is often experienced as stressful and unpleasant. Uncertainty about the extent of exposure to radiation at Three Mile Island contributed to area residents’ distress.
One of the most prominent industrial disasters in United States history occurred on March 28, 1979. Failure in the core of Three Mile Island (TMI) Unit 2
resulted in the release of radioactivity into the surrounding community. For days, residents of the surrounding area, as well as people all over the nation, watched as this unprecedented nuclear accident and emergency unfolded. The accident itself was relatively brief, but uncertainty and fear about explosions and radiation release persisted for several days afterward. Authorities were unable to determine whether and to what extent residents were exposed to radiation. Poor management of the situation and conflicting reports made by authorities led to loss of trust and credibility, contributing further to uncertainty and fear among area residents. An evacuation advisory was issued for pregnant women and young children residing within 5 miles of TMI, resulting in a substantial evacuation of nearly 150 000 residents. After the initial accident and 2-week acute emergency period, the residents of the TMI area continued to deal with potentially stressful issues, such as disposal of the radioactive gas, water, and solid waste inside the reactor complex and the possible restart of the undamaged reactor at TMI (TMI Unit 1 had been shut down for routine maintenance when the accident occurred in Unit 2).
Stressors at Three Mile Island The circumstances surrounding the disaster at TMI set it apart from other disasters such as tornados, earthquakes, and floods. Natural disasters typically cause widespread destruction of property and often involve injury or fatalities. Following the accident at TMI, however, there were no tangible negative effects, only the invisible threat of radiation and worries about its possible long-term consequences. While exposure to low-level radiation has a range of suspected effects, scientific knowledge of its effects is not well characterized. Nonetheless, many people believe that exposure to radiation causes cancers or genetic abnormalities. Area residents were uncertain about how much radiation was released during and after the accident, whether they were personally exposed to radiation, whether their exposure was sufficient to cause negative health outcomes, and whether they would develop cancer or pass on genetic defects. This occurred in the context of the loss of control suggested by analyses of human-caused disasters. The resultant stress experienced by many area residents appeared to be unusually persistent because of the continued presence of sources of new exposure and the intractability of the residents’ worries about harm already done by previous exposures. The
736 Three Mile Island, Stress Effects of
primary stressors in the TMI environment were related to uncertainty and the life threat associated with possible consequences of radiation exposure.
Short-term Consequences State and federal government initiatives after the accident at TMI resulted in several studies of the accident’s impact on surrounding communities. In the first month after the accident, most residents reported stress and distrust of authorities, especially those residents who lived closest to the reactors, who were younger, or who were women, particularly women with preschool-aged children. Although levels of stress decreased as time passed, significant amounts of stress were still reported 9 and 12 months later, especially among residents who lived close to TMI, mothers of young children, and people who had evacuated. Residents living close to the TMI plant also reported more stress than residents living near an undamaged nuclear power plant, suggesting that it was not just the fear or distrust of nuclear power that resulted in high stress levels, but also the possible exposure to radiation following the damage at TMI.
The Effects of Venting Unit 2 While a year is usually sufficient for most people to recover from natural disasters, the events at TMI made adaptation difficult during the ensuing 12 months. Radioactive krypton gas had been trapped in the TMI Unit 2 containment building during the accident, and, beginning 16 months after the accident, officials started venting the radioactive gas directly into the environment. While the residents were assured that the amounts of radiation vented were low and safe, the venting occurred nearly every day for weeks and carried with it the threat of new contamination. Before, during, and after the venting, TMI area residents exhibited more symptoms of stress than residents living in a comparison community 80 miles away. Although there was no change in stress levels in the control sample over time, stress levels in the TMI residents decreased during and after the venting. It is possible that TMI residents were exhibiting anticipatory stress before the venting began and, once it occurred, returned to lower levels of responding. Whether this was due to an anticipatory stress response or a possible remedial effect of venting could not be addressed by available data. Regardless, TMI residents continued to experience significant stress following the venting, and by 2 years after the accident many area residents exhibited chronically elevated symptoms of stress.
Long-term Consequences and Issues Researchers continued to follow TMI area residents during the 6-year period between the accident and restart of the undamaged TMI Unit 1 reactor. Those residents who remained in the area continued to exhibit elevated stress levels as compared to groups of people living in other communities. Negative effects were not limited to measures of self-reported distress. Heightened indicators of physiological arousal (urinary catecholamines and systolic and diastolic blood pressure), more health complaints, greater use of prescription drugs, and poorer task performance were also evident as compared to control groups. Additionally, the incident was not isolated to central Pennsylvania; people all over the country responded to the media attention given to TMI and the fears associated with use of nuclear energy and radiation exposure. During this time, the issues surrounding the restart of the undamaged TMI Unit 1 resulted in intense legal battles that culminated in a unanimous decision from the U.S. Supreme Court to allow the TMI Unit 1 to be restarted. In October 1985, more than 6 years after the incident at Unit 2, Unit 1 was brought back online, despite protests from residents and serious concerns from community groups about the stress it would cause and the damage it would do to the healing TMI communities. Because there were no tangible environmental effects of the TMI Unit 2 accident, the possibility of psychological distress was not considered by the courts to be sufficient grounds for curtailing national efforts for nuclear energy use. However, data indicated that stress levels increased as the restart of Unit 1 approached, and, while stress levels appeared to decrease for some residents after the restart occurred, there was continued evidence for higher stress levels in area residents when compared to groups of people living in other communities. Additionally, evidence of chronic stress responding was still apparent in TMI residents up to 10 years after the Unit 2 disaster. In addition to the factors described earlier (e.g., distance from TMI, having small children), psychosocial variables played a prominent role in the selective vulnerability of TMI residents to stress. People who reported higher perceived threat and worry over possible radiation exposure and its consequences, as well as loss of trust in officials and loss of perceived control, were also more likely to report higher levels of stress. In addition, those who felt they had fewer people to turn to for support and who tried to deny the situation or use active, problem-focused efforts to try to control an uncontrollable situation were more vulnerable to the effects of stress. In contrast, people
Three Mile Island, Stress Effects of 737
who tried to control their own negative emotions instead of the environment fared much better.
Summary Although the residents of TMI suffered long-term stress and worry from the incident at TMI Unit 2, their experiences have taught stress researchers and government officials important lessons about the consequences of technological disasters. There is now greater awareness of the significant psychological and physical health effects that can occur following technological catastrophes, even when there is no tangible evidence of destruction. Perceived threat and other psychosocial mediators, such as loss of control and loss of trust in authorities, are sufficient by themselves to promote stress responding and its negative consequences. Additionally, the long-term followup of TMI residents has provided insight into the possible determinants of chronic stress responding. Factors such as the experience of unwanted, distressing thoughts about TMI and continued reminders of the possible danger are important determinants of vulnerability to long-term negative consequences. This information has prompted further research into these vulnerability factors as well as aided the development of interventions aimed at helping victims of other disasters.
See Also the Following Articles Chernobyl, Stress Effects of; Community Studies; Disasters and Mass Violence, Public, Effects of; Nuclear Warfare, Threat of.
Further Reading Baum, A. (1990). Stress, intrusive imagery, and chronic distress. Health Psychology 9, 653–675. Baum, A. and Fleming, I. (1993). Implications of psychological research on stress and technological accidents. American Psychologist 48, 665–672.
Bromet, E. J. and Litcher-Kelly, L. (2002). Psychological response of mothers of young children to the Three Mile Island and Chernobyl nuclear plant accidents one decade later. In: Havenaar, J. M., Cwikel, J. G. & Bromet, E. J. (eds.) Toxic turmoil: psychological and societal consequences of ecological disasters, pp. 69–84 New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Bromet, E. J., Parkinson, D. K. and Dunn, L. O. (1990). Long-term mental health consequences of the accident at Three Mile Island. International Journal of Mental Health 19, 48–60. Davidson, L. M., Baum, A. and Collins, D. L. (1982). Stress and control-related problems at Three Mile Island. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 12, 349–359. Davidson, L. M., Weiss, L., O’Keefe, M. K. and Baum, A. (1991). Acute stressors and chronic stress at Three Mile Island. Journal of Traumatic Stress 4, 481–493. Dew, M. A. and Bromet, E. J. (1993). Predictors of temporal patterns of psychiatric distress during 10 years following the nuclear accident at Three Mile Island. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 28, 49–55. Dew, M. A., Bromet, E. J., Schulberg, H. C., Dunn, L. O. and Parkinson, D. K. (1987). Mental health effects of the Three Mile Island nuclear reactor restart. American Journal of Psychiatry 144, 1074–1077. Dohrenwend, B. P., Dohrenwend, S. N. and Warheit, G. J. et al. (1985). A psychophysiological field study of stress at Three Mile Island. Psychophysiology 22, 175–181. Goldsteen, K. and Martin, J. L. (1981). Stress in the community: A report to the President’s Commission on the Accident at Three Mile Island. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 365, 159–174. Hartsough, D. M. and Savitsky, J. C. (1984). Three Mile Island: psychology and environmental policy at a crossroads. American Psychologist 39, 1113–1122. Houts, P. S., Cleary, P. D. and Hu, T. (1988). The Three Mile Island crisis: psychological, social, and economic impacts on the surrounding population. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press. MacGregor, D. (1991). Worry over technological activities and life concerns. Risk Analysis 11, 315–324. Prince-Embury, S. and Rooney, J. F. (1988). Psychological symptoms of residents in the aftermath of the Three Mile Island nuclear accident and restart. Journal of Social Psychology 128, 779–790.
Three Mile Island, Stress Effects of A L Dougall and A Baum University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA ã 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. This article is a revision of the previous edition article by A L Dougall and A Baum, volume 3, pp 595–597, ã 2000, Elsevier Inc.
Stressors at Three Mile Island Short-term Consequences The Effects of Venting Unit 2 Long-term Consequences and Issues Summary
Glossary Anticipatory stress
Disaster
Stress
Technological disaster
Uncertainty
Stress experienced as one waits and/or prepares for a stressful event. In some studies, this stress is similar to that experienced once a stressor is experienced. An unusual event of large scope that overwhelms the social system. Disasters can be of natural origin (e.g., earthquake, tornado) or of technological origin (e.g., Three Mile Island, war). A psychobiological process initiated by events that threaten, harm, or challenge an organism or that exceed available coping resources. Stress is characterized by psychological, behavioral, and physiological responses that are directed toward adaptation, but can become pathological if they persist or are inappropriate. A powerful stressor that disrupts and overwhelms the social system and has a human origin, by either direct action (e.g., sabotage) or failure of technology (e.g., air disasters, industrial accidents). The human causes of these events introduce issues related to blame and control and may cause longer-lasting distress than natural disasters. A state characterized by ambiguity or lack of information pertinent to a particular situation or outcome. It is hypothesized that uncertainty is often experienced as stressful and unpleasant. Uncertainty about the extent of exposure to radiation at Three Mile Island contributed to area residents’ distress.
One of the most prominent industrial disasters in United States history occurred on March 28, 1979. Failure in the core of Three Mile Island (TMI) Unit 2
resulted in the release of radioactivity into the surrounding community. For days, residents of the surrounding area, as well as people all over the nation, watched as this unprecedented nuclear accident and emergency unfolded. The accident itself was relatively brief, but uncertainty and fear about explosions and radiation release persisted for several days afterward. Authorities were unable to determine whether and to what extent residents were exposed to radiation. Poor management of the situation and conflicting reports made by authorities led to loss of trust and credibility, contributing further to uncertainty and fear among area residents. An evacuation advisory was issued for pregnant women and young children residing within 5 miles of TMI, resulting in a substantial evacuation of nearly 150 000 residents. After the initial accident and 2-week acute emergency period, the residents of the TMI area continued to deal with potentially stressful issues, such as disposal of the radioactive gas, water, and solid waste inside the reactor complex and the possible restart of the undamaged reactor at TMI (TMI Unit 1 had been shut down for routine maintenance when the accident occurred in Unit 2).
Stressors at Three Mile Island The circumstances surrounding the disaster at TMI set it apart from other disasters such as tornados, earthquakes, and floods. Natural disasters typically cause widespread destruction of property and often involve injury or fatalities. Following the accident at TMI, however, there were no tangible negative effects, only the invisible threat of radiation and worries about its possible long-term consequences. While exposure to low-level radiation has a range of suspected effects, scientific knowledge of its effects is not well characterized. Nonetheless, many people believe that exposure to radiation causes cancers or genetic abnormalities. Area residents were uncertain about how much radiation was released during and after the accident, whether they were personally exposed to radiation, whether their exposure was sufficient to cause negative health outcomes, and whether they would develop cancer or pass on genetic defects. This occurred in the context of the loss of control suggested by analyses of human-caused disasters. The resultant stress experienced by many area residents appeared to be unusually persistent because of the continued presence of sources of new exposure and the intractability of the residents’ worries about harm already done by previous exposures. The
736 Three Mile Island, Stress Effects of
primary stressors in the TMI environment were related to uncertainty and the life threat associated with possible consequences of radiation exposure.
Short-term Consequences State and federal government initiatives after the accident at TMI resulted in several studies of the accident’s impact on surrounding communities. In the first month after the accident, most residents reported stress and distrust of authorities, especially those residents who lived closest to the reactors, who were younger, or who were women, particularly women with preschool-aged children. Although levels of stress decreased as time passed, significant amounts of stress were still reported 9 and 12 months later, especially among residents who lived close to TMI, mothers of young children, and people who had evacuated. Residents living close to the TMI plant also reported more stress than residents living near an undamaged nuclear power plant, suggesting that it was not just the fear or distrust of nuclear power that resulted in high stress levels, but also the possible exposure to radiation following the damage at TMI.
The Effects of Venting Unit 2 While a year is usually sufficient for most people to recover from natural disasters, the events at TMI made adaptation difficult during the ensuing 12 months. Radioactive krypton gas had been trapped in the TMI Unit 2 containment building during the accident, and, beginning 16 months after the accident, officials started venting the radioactive gas directly into the environment. While the residents were assured that the amounts of radiation vented were low and safe, the venting occurred nearly every day for weeks and carried with it the threat of new contamination. Before, during, and after the venting, TMI area residents exhibited more symptoms of stress than residents living in a comparison community 80 miles away. Although there was no change in stress levels in the control sample over time, stress levels in the TMI residents decreased during and after the venting. It is possible that TMI residents were exhibiting anticipatory stress before the venting began and, once it occurred, returned to lower levels of responding. Whether this was due to an anticipatory stress response or a possible remedial effect of venting could not be addressed by available data. Regardless, TMI residents continued to experience significant stress following the venting, and by 2 years after the accident many area residents exhibited chronically elevated symptoms of stress.
Long-term Consequences and Issues Researchers continued to follow TMI area residents during the 6-year period between the accident and restart of the undamaged TMI Unit 1 reactor. Those residents who remained in the area continued to exhibit elevated stress levels as compared to groups of people living in other communities. Negative effects were not limited to measures of self-reported distress. Heightened indicators of physiological arousal (urinary catecholamines and systolic and diastolic blood pressure), more health complaints, greater use of prescription drugs, and poorer task performance were also evident as compared to control groups. Additionally, the incident was not isolated to central Pennsylvania; people all over the country responded to the media attention given to TMI and the fears associated with use of nuclear energy and radiation exposure. During this time, the issues surrounding the restart of the undamaged TMI Unit 1 resulted in intense legal battles that culminated in a unanimous decision from the U.S. Supreme Court to allow the TMI Unit 1 to be restarted. In October 1985, more than 6 years after the incident at Unit 2, Unit 1 was brought back online, despite protests from residents and serious concerns from community groups about the stress it would cause and the damage it would do to the healing TMI communities. Because there were no tangible environmental effects of the TMI Unit 2 accident, the possibility of psychological distress was not considered by the courts to be sufficient grounds for curtailing national efforts for nuclear energy use. However, data indicated that stress levels increased as the restart of Unit 1 approached, and, while stress levels appeared to decrease for some residents after the restart occurred, there was continued evidence for higher stress levels in area residents when compared to groups of people living in other communities. Additionally, evidence of chronic stress responding was still apparent in TMI residents up to 10 years after the Unit 2 disaster. In addition to the factors described earlier (e.g., distance from TMI, having small children), psychosocial variables played a prominent role in the selective vulnerability of TMI residents to stress. People who reported higher perceived threat and worry over possible radiation exposure and its consequences, as well as loss of trust in officials and loss of perceived control, were also more likely to report higher levels of stress. In addition, those who felt they had fewer people to turn to for support and who tried to deny the situation or use active, problem-focused efforts to try to control an uncontrollable situation were more vulnerable to the effects of stress. In contrast, people
Three Mile Island, Stress Effects of 737
who tried to control their own negative emotions instead of the environment fared much better.
Summary Although the residents of TMI suffered long-term stress and worry from the incident at TMI Unit 2, their experiences have taught stress researchers and government officials important lessons about the consequences of technological disasters. There is now greater awareness of the significant psychological and physical health effects that can occur following technological catastrophes, even when there is no tangible evidence of destruction. Perceived threat and other psychosocial mediators, such as loss of control and loss of trust in authorities, are sufficient by themselves to promote stress responding and its negative consequences. Additionally, the long-term followup of TMI residents has provided insight into the possible determinants of chronic stress responding. Factors such as the experience of unwanted, distressing thoughts about TMI and continued reminders of the possible danger are important determinants of vulnerability to long-term negative consequences. This information has prompted further research into these vulnerability factors as well as aided the development of interventions aimed at helping victims of other disasters.
See Also the Following Articles Chernobyl, Stress Effects of; Community Studies; Disasters and Mass Violence, Public, Effects of; Nuclear Warfare, Threat of.
Further Reading Baum, A. (1990). Stress, intrusive imagery, and chronic distress. Health Psychology 9, 653–675. Baum, A. and Fleming, I. (1993). Implications of psychological research on stress and technological accidents. American Psychologist 48, 665–672.
Bromet, E. J. and Litcher-Kelly, L. (2002). Psychological response of mothers of young children to the Three Mile Island and Chernobyl nuclear plant accidents one decade later. In: Havenaar, J. M., Cwikel, J. G. & Bromet, E. J. (eds.) Toxic turmoil: psychological and societal consequences of ecological disasters, pp. 69–84 New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Bromet, E. J., Parkinson, D. K. and Dunn, L. O. (1990). Long-term mental health consequences of the accident at Three Mile Island. International Journal of Mental Health 19, 48–60. Davidson, L. M., Baum, A. and Collins, D. L. (1982). Stress and control-related problems at Three Mile Island. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 12, 349–359. Davidson, L. M., Weiss, L., O’Keefe, M. K. and Baum, A. (1991). Acute stressors and chronic stress at Three Mile Island. Journal of Traumatic Stress 4, 481–493. Dew, M. A. and Bromet, E. J. (1993). Predictors of temporal patterns of psychiatric distress during 10 years following the nuclear accident at Three Mile Island. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 28, 49–55. Dew, M. A., Bromet, E. J., Schulberg, H. C., Dunn, L. O. and Parkinson, D. K. (1987). Mental health effects of the Three Mile Island nuclear reactor restart. American Journal of Psychiatry 144, 1074–1077. Dohrenwend, B. P., Dohrenwend, S. N. and Warheit, G. J. et al. (1985). A psychophysiological field study of stress at Three Mile Island. Psychophysiology 22, 175–181. Goldsteen, K. and Martin, J. L. (1981). Stress in the community: A report to the President’s Commission on the Accident at Three Mile Island. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 365, 159–174. Hartsough, D. M. and Savitsky, J. C. (1984). Three Mile Island: psychology and environmental policy at a crossroads. American Psychologist 39, 1113–1122. Houts, P. S., Cleary, P. D. and Hu, T. (1988). The Three Mile Island crisis: psychological, social, and economic impacts on the surrounding population. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press. MacGregor, D. (1991). Worry over technological activities and life concerns. Risk Analysis 11, 315–324. Prince-Embury, S. and Rooney, J. F. (1988). Psychological symptoms of residents in the aftermath of the Three Mile Island nuclear accident and restart. Journal of Social Psychology 128, 779–790.