Tour member fit and tour member–leader fit on group package tours: Influences on tourists’ positive emotions, rapport, and satisfaction

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 42 (2020) 235–243

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Tour member fit and tour member–leader fit on group package tours: Influences on tourists’ positive emotions, rapport, and satisfaction

T

Shu-Yun Changa, Sheng-Hshiung Tsaura, Chang-Hua Yenb,∗, Hung-Ru Laia a b

Department of Marketing and Tourism Management, National Chiayi University, Chiayi, Taiwan, ROC Department of Leisure and Recreation Management, National Taichung University of Science and Technology, Taichung, Taiwan, ROC

A R T I C LE I N FO

A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Tour leader Positive emotions Rapport Satisfaction Fit theory

Person–environment fit is a mature construct that has been applied in certain academic disciplines; however, it has rarely been applied to the tourism industry. This research examined how tour member fit and tour member–leader fit perceptions in a group package tour affect tourists' positive emotions, tour rapport, and satisfaction. Purposive sampling was conducted, and 482 valid questionnaires were obtained. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling. The results indicated that tour member fit and tour member–leader fit were positively related to tourists' positive emotions and tour rapport. Furthermore, tourists' positive emotions positively affected tour rapport, and tour rapport positively affected tourist satisfaction. This study's contribution is that it incorporates person–environment fit theory into the tourism literature. Moreover, it extends the literature on fit by quantifying associations between group member fit and tourists' positive emotions, rapport, and satisfaction in tourism settings. The findings provide practical information for travel agencies and tour leaders.

1. Introduction The concept of fit is derived from individual–environment interactions (Lewin, 1935). Person–environment (PE) fit means the level of congruence between an individual with the environment (Vogel & Feldman, 2009). Within the framework of PE fit, the construct was differentiated into several aspects (Sekiguchi, 2006), namely person–organization fit, person–job fit (Abdalla, Elsetouhi, Negm, & Abdou, 2018), person–group (PG) fit (Li, Kristof-Brown, & Nielsen, 2019), and person–supervisor (PS) fit (Astakhova, 2016). In a workplace, the fit between employees and their working environment enhances job satisfaction and team performance and reduces turnover (Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005). In an online setting, Shen, Li, Sun, and Zhou (2018) found that PE fit factors influence customers' intention to contribute to virtual communities due to community commitment. In recreational settings, Liang and Peng (2019) found that recreationist–environment fit positively affects recreationists’ level of delight. These studies have indicated the crucial effect that PE fit has on personal cognition and attitude. However, scholars have rarely investigated PE fit in the field of tourism. Group package tours (GPTs) are a popular approach for Asian tourists traveling abroad (Tsaur & Teng, 2017). Such groups generally consist of a tour leader and group members (Wang, Hsieh, & Huan,

2000). These groups persist only temporarily and are informal; thus, they can be regarded as a short-term social group (Foster, 1986). According to PE fit theory (Caplan, 1987), tour member fit in a tourist environment is similar to the concept of PG fit, which refers to the compatibility between individuals and a group (Kristof, 1996). Tour members are often from different backgrounds and must travel together continuously throughout the journey; thus, cooperating with each other is crucial for ensuring that the whole journey runs smoothly. In addition, tour member–leader fit is similar to the concept of PS fit. In a workplace, PS fit refers to the compatibility between employees and their supervisors in terms of their characteristics (including values, personality, and behavior; Van Vianen, Shen, & Chuang, 2011). In the tourism context, tour leaders are usually mentors to their tour members as well as monitors of the itinerary and managers of the entire tour (Tsaur & Teng, 2017). Tour leaders must lead the group, solve problems, and ensure tourist satisfaction (Cheng, Chen, Yen, & Teng, 2017; Tsaur & Ku, 2019). During a group tour, group members may easily perceive other members' emotions because of close interactions or similarities between their characteristics (Brief & Weiss, 2002); therefore, individuals may perceive positive emotions during these interactions (Tsaur & Ku, 2019). Positive emotions are emotions that are generally perceived as both pleasant and desirable (Tugade, Shiota, & Kirby, 2014).

∗

Corresponding author. Tel.: +886 4 22196093; fax: +886 4 22196511. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S.-Y. Chang), [email protected] (S.-H. Tsaur), [email protected] (C.-H. Yen), [email protected] (H.-R. Lai). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2020.01.016 Received 4 August 2019; Received in revised form 22 January 2020; Accepted 24 January 2020 1447-6770/ © 2020 CAUTHE - COUNCIL FOR AUSTRALASIAN TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY EDUCATION. Published by Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved.

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complementary fit refers to the extent to which GPT members are able to meet the needs of other members. Furthermore, this study delineated the demographic characteristics shared by tour leaders and GPT members as well as between GPT members and described the complementary characteristics that can meet the needs of all parties.

Muchinsky and Monahan (1987) defined the concept of fit as individuals possessing characteristics that are similar to those of others. This similarity enables them to form preliminary connections with other people and further establish rapport through smooth communication and sharing experiences (Hwang & Lee, 2019). Rapport refers to favorable contact or interactions between people (Gremler & Gwinner, 2000). On a GPT, when group members have a high level of similarity and the tour leader possesses the professional knowledge and competence required to meet group members’ needs, a high level of tour member fit and tour member–leader fit is achieved and satisfaction with interactions between group members can be enhanced (Lin, Zhang, Gursoy, & Fu, 2019). This further results in a satisfactory group atmosphere and enables group members to perceive positive emotions. In addition, tour member fit and tour member–leader fit are conducive to satisfactory communication and interactions between group members and between them and the tour leader; they can facilitate the establishment of harmonious relationships, which further influences tourist satisfaction (Hwang & Lee, 2019; Tsaur & Ku, 2019). The aforementioned literature demonstrates that tour member fit and tour member–leader fit exert positive effects on positive emotions, tour rapport, and tourist satisfaction. However, studies have only investigated the influence of tour guides' professional competencies (Hwang & Lee, 2019) and tour leaders' emotional intelligence (Tsaur & Ku, 2019) on tourists’ perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors. No studies have explored the influence of tour member fit and tour member–leader fit from the perspective of PE fit theory (Tsaur & Wang, 2010; Yin & Poon, 2016). Moreover, studies have mostly focused on tourist–tour leader interactions (Hwang & Lee, 2019; Tsaur & Ku, 2019) and overlooked the importance of tourist-to-tourist interactions (Lin et al., 2019). Accordingly, this study was inspired by the following research questions: (1) whether tour member fit and tour member–leader fit affect positive emotions and tour rapport on a journey, (2) whether positive emotions affect tour rapport, and (3) whether tour rapport affects tourist satisfaction. To answer these, this study investigated the influences of tour member fit and tour member–leader fit on positive emotions, tour rapport, and tourist satisfaction. The research results can serve as a reference for travel agency managers seeking to develop effective human resource management policies and customer relationship management strategies.

2.2. Tour member fit Tourist-to-tourist relationship refers to the relationship between a tourist and other members on a GPT. Pearce (1980) investigated travelers' help-offering behaviors toward others at a bus terminal and found that they provided more help to those who were of the same sex or race. Grove and Fisk (1997) used the critical incident method to investigate satisfactory and unsatisfactory events experienced by 486 customers who shared the same service environment with others. They found that in the categories of friendly and unfriendly incidents, the participants were particularly satisfied with how they tended to perceive intimacy and familiarity when they encountered travelers of the same nationality on an overseas trip. Supplementary fit also exists among GPT members; their homogeneous characteristics (e.g., gender, age, and values) can strengthen connections between them (Lin et al., 2019) and foster a harmonious atmosphere in the group (Tsaur & Ku, 2019). Thus, homogeneous characteristics positively affect tourist experience and satisfaction. Therefore, this study defined supplementary fit as “the extent to which tour members share similar basic characteristics.” By contrast, it defined complementary fit as “the extent to which tour members can meet the needs of other members.” However, the relationship between tour members is not based on supply and demand, and they are not required to complement each other's abilities or acquire anything from each other. Therefore, the concept of complementation based on heterogeneous characteristics is inapplicable to fit between tour members. As a result, this study only applied supplementary fit to the construct of tour member fit. 2.3. Tour member–leader fit The relationship between a tour leader and tour members can be viewed as one between consumers and frontline workers. Regarding the relationship between employees and customers, Gremler and Gwinner (2008) divided common ground behavior into two types: identifying mutual interests (e.g., hobbies) and finding other similarities (e.g., age or zodiac sign). These behaviors enable employees to build a preliminary connection with customers and further establish a favorable relationship with them through smooth communication and sharing experiences. Crosby, Evans, and Cowles (1990) proposed a relationship quality model and contended that the similarity between salespeople and customers positively influences their relationship quality and in turn affects service results. The variables they used for similarity were image (manner of speaking and personality traits), lifestyle (interests and values), and identity and status (educational level and social class). When this concept is applied to the interaction between a tour leader and tour members on a GPT, supplementary fit can describe this relationship in terms of basic characteristics such as values, demographic variables, and interests. In other words, if a tour leader and members are of the same sex, of a similar age, and possess similar values, they may have common topics to talk about and thus form connections. Therefore, during the trip, a tour leader can shorten the distance with tour members who share similar characteristics, and these members will tend to identify with the tour leader's style of work. From the perspective of complementary fit, customers can have their interests and needs satisfied through interactions with frontline workers. On a GPT, the tour leader is the frontline worker, and his or her duties are leading tour members, controlling itineraries, and fulfilling the needs of tour members. To ensure the entire trip runs smoothly, the tour leader also requires tour members' cooperation and feedback. This feedback includes not only tips but also a sense of

2. Literature review 2.1. Group member fit PE fit is defined as the compatibility between individuals and their environment in terms of various characteristics (Kristof-Brown & Guay, 2010). Two conceptualizations of PE fit are supplementary fit and complementary fit (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). Supplementary fit usually exists when a person possesses characteristics that are similar to those of others (Muchinsky & Monahan, 1987), whereas complementary fit occurs when an environmental need is met by the strength of an individual and vice versa (Muchinsky & Monahan, 1987). Hence, PE fit can exist when a person holds values or traits that are similar to those of other team members (supplementary fit) or when he or she possesses a set of abilities that can help the team perform its task (complementary fit; Seong & Kristof-Brown, 2012). On a GPT, the relationship between the tour leader, a tourist, and other group members can be understood in light of the concept of PE fit. Because the backgrounds of GPT members may vary, their homogeneous and heterogeneous characteristics may influence the fit between them. In addition, because they must continually interact with each other for the entire travel period, they must cooperate with each other to ensure a smooth trip. Therefore, the fit between group members is crucial. Accordingly, this study employed two fit theories to describe the fit between GPT members. Supplementary fit refers to the extent to which GPT members share similar characteristics, and 236

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accomplishment, the opportunity to interact with tourists from various backgrounds, tour members’ recognition and praise of his or her work performance, and friendship or satisfactory relationships with tour members. Simultaneously, tour members require the services provided by the leader or intend to acquire some interests through interacting with him or her. Therefore, complementary fit exists between the two parties, similar to the supply–demand relationship. Accordingly, this study used supplementary fit and complementary fit between a leader and members for the construct of tour member–leader fit.

2019). Wu (2007) asserted that when a tourist forms favorable relationships with other tourists, that tourist is more likely to be satisfied with the tour. This indicates that the quality of interactions between tour members on a GPT affects the members' satisfaction with the tourism products and services.

2.4. Positive emotions

Owing to the inseparability of tourism services, tourists usually become a partner of the service provider, and their interactions are highly intensive. Brief and Weiss (2002) indicated that work group members will understand other people more when their characteristics or interactions are closer. On a GPT, the tour leader and members usually engage in multiple tourism activities as a team. Generally, if tour members share similar characteristics or their tour leader has a strong ability to negotiate, the communication and interactions tend to be smooth. Not only do tour leaders seek to maintain a positive atmosphere on a tour but tour members also dedicate themselves to positive communication and sociability while on a tour. This indicates that the supplementary fit between tour members and tour leaders is conducive to communication and interactions between members. Communication and sociability are essential for the success of a tour (Chang, 2008a). Effective communication leads to a positive atmosphere, and tour members are likely to feel excited, pleased, and relaxed. On a GPT, tourists rely on their tour leader to engage in communication and negotiation to ensure a smooth journey. This indicates that the complementary fit between tour members and tour leaders is conducive to interactions between members and affects their emotional response. Thus, tour member fit and tour member–leader fit are beneficial for ensuring satisfactory communication and interactions between tour members as well as inducing positive emotions in GPT members. On the basis of the foregoing discussion, this study proposes the following two hypotheses:

3. Hypotheses 3.1. Tour member fit, tour member–leader fit, and positive emotions

Emotion refers to customers' feelings about situations they experience (Van Maanen & Kunda, 1989). An increasing number of studies in the field of tourism are related to emotions (Knobloch, Robertson, & Aitken, 2017; Li, Scott, & Walters, 2015; Nawijn & Biran, 2018). In the field of tourism, emotions refer to tourists' emotional state during the tourist experience. Tourists tend to remember positive emotions more than negative emotions (Wirtz, Kruger, Scollon, & Diener, 2003). A positive emotion is a state created by the preexisting mood of an individual tempered by responses to his or her surroundings (Rock & Gardner, 1993). When traveling, people's positive emotions are typically immediate and transitory (Lin & Kuo, 2016). Relevant studies have identified positive feelings such as excitement, happiness, pleasure, interest, and relaxation as tourism-related emotions (Kim & Fesenmaier, 2015; Kim, Lee, & Sirgy, 2016). Studies have reported the effect of positive emotions on customer satisfaction and behavioral intentions (Hosany, Prayag, Van Der Veen, Huang, & Deesilatham, 2017; Io, 2016; Su & Hsu, 2013). Thus, how to foster tourists' positive emotions on a GPT is a crucial topic in tourism management. 2.5. Tour rapport Rapport represents a quality exchange between two parties (Gremler & Gwinner, 2000); therefore, it is one of the most critical constructs for explaining the relationship between customers and service employees. In this study, rapport was defined as a relational state where tourists perceive an enjoyable interaction and have a personal connection with other tour members. Rapport comprises two constructs, namely enjoyment interaction and personal connection (Gremler & Gwinner, 2000). Enjoyment interaction refers to tour members' evaluation of enjoyable interactions with each other during the service. Personal connection represents the close relationship between tourists and other tour members, which can be evident in mutual identification and concern for each other. Lin et al. (2019) contended that tourist–tour leader interaction plays a crucial role on a GPT because tour members’ perceived cohesion and intimacy have positive effects on customer engagement and satisfaction. Because tourists must closely interact with other tour members for a long time, they should develop rapport with each other during the trip.

H1. Tour member fit is positively related to tourists' positive emotions. H2. Tour member–leader fit is positively related to tourists' positive emotions. 3.2. Tour member fit, tour member–leader fit, and tour rapport Enjoyable interaction is a relational assessment of customers' exchange with contact employees (Gremler & Gwinner, 2000). Ample support exists for the proposition that similarity between employees and customers leads to a positive effect on their rapport (Crosby et al., 1990; Gremler & Gwinner, 2000). When people have interpersonal similarities, they are likely to have an initial connection with each other (Gremler & Gwinner, 2008). Consequently, supplementary fit may cultivate rapport. Moreover, complementary fit, as a form of need fulfillment (Edwards & Shipp, 2007; Kristof-Brown & Guay, 2010), is expected to predict more task-related outcomes (Edwards & Shipp, 2007; Kristof, 1996). In tourism settings, supplementary fit between tour members can facilitate positive communication and interactions between members. When tour group members feel close to one another, they are more likely to develop rapport. Hwang and Lee (2019) discovered that tour leaders’ professional skills and attitude are conducive to the establishment of rapport between tour members, indicating that the supplementary and complementary fit between tourists and tour leaders can facilitate a harmonious relationship between these two parties as well as between the tourists. Accordingly, this study proposes the following two hypotheses:

2.6. Tourist satisfaction Satisfaction is a criterion in the assessment of a consumption experience (Oliver, 1981). Bigné, Sánchez, and Sánchez (2001) indicated that tourist satisfaction is a tourist's evaluation of the overall experience of a journey. In this study, tourist satisfaction refers to tourists' satisfaction with the overall tour, including the travel itinerary and tour leaders. Frontline employees deliver services to customers and can significantly affect customers' overall satisfaction (Kim & Ok, 2010). On a GPT, the tour leader is regarded as the key person responsible for customer satisfaction (Cheng et al., 2017); the relationship between the leader and tourists as well as those among the tourists will affect all parties' positive and negative emotions (Tsaur & Ku, 2019). Tour members' satisfaction with a tour is influenced by their interactions with the tourism service provider and other tourists (Hwang & Lee,

H3. Tour member fit is positively related to tour rapport. H4. Tour member–leader fit is positively related to tour rapport. 237

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3.3. Positive emptions and tour rapport

4. Research method

Regarding the relationship between customers and service providers, Mattila and Enz (2002) asserted that a satisfactory service experience will generate positive emotions in customers, which is conducive to the establishment of positive relationships between customers and service providers. Customers' emotional experience during service process is a crucial factor that influences rapport. Lin and Lin (2017) found that customers experiencing positive emotions in service encounters are advantageous to customers' development of rapport with the service employees. According to the affect-as-information model, an individual will use his or her current emotion as evaluation information, which will in turn influence the individual's judgment (Clore, Gasper, & Garvin, 2001). When tour members experience more positive emotions as a result of their positive perceptions of tour member fit and tour member–leader fit, they tend to have more positive evaluations of tour rapport. In addition, according to the affect-priming model, a positive cognitive evaluation is triggered when an individual experiences a positive emotion (Chang, 2008b). Tour members' positive emotions provide a positive retrieval cue for judgments regarding their rapport relationships with other members. Therefore, on group tours, members form positive emotions when they feel a high degree of fit with the leader and other members, which in turn influence their judgment and evaluation of the group travel process, thereby improving their harmonious relationships with other members. Accordingly, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

4.1. Sample collection This study investigated fit between tour members and between members and leaders during a GPT. GPTs are extremely common in Asian countries such as Taiwan, Japan, and China (Tsaur & Teng, 2017). According to statistics compiled by Taiwan's Tourism Bureau, the number of Taiwanese nationals who traveled abroad reached 16.64 million in 2018, 74.1% of whom traveled for touring purposes, 32.6% of which participated in GPTs (Taiwan Tourism Bureau, 2019). In 2017, the number of Japanese nationals who traveled abroad reached 17.87 million, among whom 42.9% participated in GPTs (JTB Corporation, 2018). In 2018, among the 149 million Chinese nationals who traveled abroad, 55.24% chose to travel on GPTs (China National Tourism Administration, 2019). The aforementioned figures indicate the importance of GPTs in the international tourism market. To more effectively reflect the concept of degree of fit when people travel abroad, the survey targets were outbound package tourists in Taiwan. Before the survey, the researchers conducted a pretest with a sample of 60 Taiwanese outbound package tourists to ensure the appropriateness of items in the questionnaire. In the main survey, purposive sampling and field-questionnaire surveys were conducted using Taiwanese outbound GPT participants. Taoyuan, Kaohsiung, and Taichung International Airports were selected as the survey sites. Questionnaires were directly distributed to tourists in the arrival hall who had completed a GPT and were retrieved onsite. In total, 550 questionnaires were delivered; 68 were excluded because of missing data, leading to 482 valid questionnaires being collected for a valid response rate of 87.6%.

H5. Tourists' positive emotions are positively related to tour rapport.

3.4. Tour rapport and tourist satisfaction

4.2. Measures

Studies have argued that tourist-to-tourist interactions play a vital role in the formation of tourist experiences, attitudes, and behaviors (Lin et al., 2019; Torres, 2016). Compared with other consumption experiences, tourism consumption lasts longer, allowing tourists more opportunities to interact and build rapport with other tour members (Lin et al., 2019). In a tourism setting, tour rapport involves a tourists' perception of having pleasant interactions with other tour members. Tour members' satisfaction is perceived as the degree of happiness or pleasure they feel when on a GPT (Song & Cheung, 2010). In other words, tourists’ rapport with other tour members can cause them to feel happy and pleased and in turn increase their satisfaction with the tour. Thus, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

All measures in the present study were taken from relevant studies or adapted in consideration of the characteristics of a GPT. Regarding tour member fit, this study adopted the PG fit scale developed by Vogel and Feldman (2009) and modified it according to the characteristics of a GPT. The scale comprised three questions and was used to measure the supplementary fit between tour members. Regarding tour member–leader fit, which involves supplementary and complementary fit, the aforementioned modified PG fit scale was used to measure the supplementary fit between tour members and the tour leader. Furthermore, this study adopted the tour leader professional performance scale proposed by Huang, Hsu, and Chan (2010) to measure complementary fit between tour members and their tour leader. This scale consisted of eight questions. Positive emotions refer to tour members' positive emotions during their trip (Tsaur & Ku, 2019). This study adopted the positive affect scale developed by Tsaur and Ku (2019) to measure tourists' positive emotions on GPTs. The scale comprised five questions. Tour rapport refers to positive interactions between tour members on a journey (Tsaur & Ku, 2019). To measure tour rapport, this study used the rapport scale proposed by Gremler and Gwinner (2000), which includes the two dimensions of enjoyable interactions (six questions) and personal connections (five questions). Tourist satisfaction refers to tour members' overall judgment regarding the overall tour, including the travel itinerary and tour leaders (Cheng et al., 2017). This study's scale for measuring tourist satisfaction was based on that of Tsaur, Dai, and Liu (2018) and comprised four items. In the questionnaire, the constructs were measured using a Likert 5point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). A high score indicated respondents’ high level of agreement with the question. In addition to the questions for the aforementioned constructs, the questionnaire encompassed questions regarding demographic variables and tour-related information, including sex, age, occupation, marital status, personal monthly income, travel destination, number of days traveling, number of people traveling together, and the

H6. Tour rapport is positively related to tourists' satisfaction. On the basis of the aforementioned hypotheses, this study adopted a research framework, which is depicted in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Hypothetical model. 238

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AGFI ≥ 0.90, CFI ≥ 0.90, RMR ≤ 0.05, and RMSEA ≤ 0.08), indicating that the measurement model adequately fit the data collected in this study. Bagozzi and Yi (1988) suggested that the average variance extracted (AVE) of dimensions must be higher than 0.50. In this study, the AVE ranged between 0.59 and 0.67 (see Table 2), indicating that each scale possessed acceptable convergent validity. Regarding discriminant validity testing, the standard is that the square root of the AVE of each construct should be higher than the constructs' correlation coefficients (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). In Table 2, the square roots of AVE ranged between 0.77 and 0.82, which were all higher than the constructs’ correlation coefficients. Thus, the scales of this study possessed discriminant validity.

number of people on the GPT. The questions were originally in English and translated into Chinese by the researcher and two managers in the tourism industry. To ensure a high-quality translation, the back translation approach proposed by Van de Vijver and Hambleton (1996) was employed. 4.3. Data analyses This study conducted descriptive statistical analysis, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and structural equation modeling (SEM). The calculated descriptive statistics comprised the means and standard deviations of tour member fit, tour member–leader fit, positive emotions, tour rapport, and tourist satisfaction. SPSS 23.0 and AMOS 23.0 were used for the CFA to evaluate the validity of the measure, and SEM was used to verify the hypotheses.

5.3. Correlation analysis Table 2 presents the findings of the correlation analysis. The results indicated that tour member fit was positively related to tourists' positive emotions (r = 0.46) and tour rapport (r = 0.68). Furthermore, tour member–leader fit was positively related to tourists’ positive emotions (r = 0.51) and tour rapport (r = 0.45). Positive emotions were positively linked to tour rapport (r = 0.48) and tourist satisfaction (r = 0.56). Moreover, tour rapport was positively related to tourist satisfaction (r = 0.46). The correlation analysis results revealed the relationship between the variables, which can serve as the basis for further analysis.

5. Results 5.1. Sample profile The descriptive analysis of the sample revealed that 58.7% of respondents were women who had the following characteristics: married (57.9%), mainly 20–29 years old (36.5%) or 30–39 years old (19.5%), had graduated from high school (41.9%) or university or college (34.9%), and worked in commerce (21.1%) or the service industry (21.1%). Monthly incomes mainly fell into the bracket of US$660 or less (32.2%), followed by the bracket of by US$661−1320 (29.0%). The most common travel destinations were Northeast Asia (30.7%); China, Hong Kong, and Macau (29.0%); and Southeast Asia (22.8%). Most respondents traveled for 1–5 days per trip (49.4%), followed by 6–10 days (37.1%). Generally, the number of GPT members was 1–5 people (59.7%), followed by 11–20 people (17.2%) and then 6–10 people (14.1%). The total number of tour members was most commonly in the range of 16–30 people (56.4%). According to the survey data compiled by Taiwan's Tourism Bureau in 2018, consumers of GPTs among Taiwan's outbound tour groups were mainly women (53.9%), married (62.8%), and senior or business high school graduates (35.4%). Most consumers (51.3%) who participated in short-distance tours (e.g., to Japan, China, and Thailand) were aged 20–40 years (Taiwan Tourism Bureau, 2019). This study employed the chi-square test to examine the differences between the demographic profiles of the research sample and population. The results revealed no significant differences in gender (χ2 = 2.083, p = 0.147, p > 0.05), marital status (χ2 = 2.187, p = 0.132, p > 0.05), education level (χ2 = 3.269, p = 0.339, p > 0.05), and age (χ2 = 3.142, p = 0.365, p > 0.05) between the research sample and the population. Thus, the research sample conformed to the sociodemographic profile of the population. Consequently, the collected data can be considered representative data.

5.4. Hypothesis testing In SEM, the normality assumption test was judged by the skewness and kurtosis coefficients of the observable variables. Both absolute values of skewness (from −0.87 to 0.06) and kurtosis (from −0.56 to 1.62) were less than 2 (Kim, 2013); thus, the data distribution was normal. Moreover, the multivariate normality assumption test was judged using Mardia coefficients of constructs of variables. These were 2.19 (tour member fit), 20.48 (tour member–leader fit), 15.73 (positive emotions), 28.30 (tour rapport), and 13.10 (tourist satisfaction), all of which were less than 15, 80, 35, 120, and 24, respectively (Mardia & Foster, 1983); thus, the data appeared not to violate assumptions of normality. After the aforementioned normality tests, SEM was performed to test the fit between constructs in the research model. A set of fit indices was used to examine the structural model. Comparing all fit indices with their corresponding recommended values provided evidence of a good model fit (χ2/df = 2.86, GFI = 0.92, AGFI = 0.90, CFI = 0.94, RMR = 0.03, and RMSEA = 0.04). Table 3 shows the path coefficients that arose from the structural model testing. The path coefficients were 0.23 for tour member fit to positive emotions, and 0.61 for tour member fit to tour rapport. The two path coefficients were significant at the level of p < 0.01, indicating that tour member fit had significant and direct positive effects on tourists’ positive emotions and tour rapport. Thus, H1 and H3 were supported. The aforementioned information suggests that when tour member fit is high, members will have more positive feelings during the trip and be more likely to have greater rapport with other members. Furthermore, the paths of tour member–leader fit on positive emotions and tour rapport were 0.37 and 0.17, respectively, and were positively and significantly related at a level of p < 0.01. Thus, H2 and H4 were supported. In addition, these findings demonstrate that when a tour leader and tour members have a closer fit, they tend to experience positive emotions during the trip, and the harmony between tour members is greater. Furthermore, the coefficient was significant for the path from positive emotions to tour rapport (β = 0.48, p < 0.01). The results indicated that tourists’ positive emotions was positively related to tour rapport. Therefore, H5 was supported. Finally, the results revealed that the coefficient was significant for the path from tour rapport to tourist

5.2. Analyses of reliability and validity Table 1 presents the analysis results. The composite reliabilities of the five constructs ranged from 0.81 to 0.94, and all were greater than the 0.6 recommended by Bagozzi and Yi (1988). Furthermore, the Cronbach's alpha values ranged from 0.80 to 0.94, all of which were greater than the 0.70 recommended by Nunnally (1978); thus, internal reliability was achieved. This information demonstrated that the scales used in this study possessed good reliability. Regarding construct validity, this study performed CFA to evaluate the fitness of the measurement model. One item from tour rapport presented factor loadings of less than 0.5, and thus was excluded (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010). The values of the goodness-of-fit indices (χ2/df = 2.68, goodness of fit index [GFI] = 0.92, adjusted GFI [AGFI] = 0.90, comparative fit index [CFI] = 0.94, root mean residual [RMR] = 0.04, and root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA] = 0.05) all met the criteria suggested by Hair et al. (2010; χ2/df < 5, GFI ≥ 0.90, 239

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Table 1 Results of confirmatory factor analysis. Construct

Factor loading

Tour member fit Traveling with the other members of this group was one of the best parts of the trip. I got along well with the people I traveled with. There was not much conflict among the tour members. Tour member–leader fit Traveling with the tour leader of this group was one of the best parts of the trip. I got along well with the tour leader I traveled with. There was not much conflict with the tour leader. If I had more free time, I would enjoy spending more time with my tour leader socially. The tour leader's professional competence met my needs. The tour leader's interpersonal skills and organizational abilities met my needs. The tour leader's empathy met my needs. The tour leader's problem-solving met my needs. Positive emotions I felt excited. I felt happy. I felt pleasant. I felt interested. I felt relaxed. Tour rapport Enjoyable interaction I enjoyed interacting with the tour members. The tour members created a feeling of warmth in our relationships. The tour members related to me well. I had a harmonious relationship with the tour members. The tour members had a good sense of humor. I was comfortable interacting with the tour members. Personal connection I felt there was a “bond” between tour members and myself. I look forward to seeing those people if I join a package tour again. I strongly care about the other tour members. I have a close relationship with the tour member. Tourist satisfaction I was satisfied with the service quality of the tour. I was satisfied with the service provided by the tour leader. I was satisfied with the professional ability of the tour leader. I got what I wanted from the tour.

CR

Cronbach's

0.81

0.80

0.93

0.91

0.91

0.90

0.94 0.90

0.93 0.94

0.89

0.91

0.88

0.87

0.78 0.87 0.63 0.79 0.84 0.69 0.73 0.75 0.83 0.84 0.80 0.76 0.89 0.88 0.84 0.69

0.78 0.80 0.83 0.81 0.68 0.78 0.79 0.85 0.81 0.80 0.82 0.89 0.83 0.64

Note: CR denotes composite reliability.

satisfaction (β = 0.26, p < 0.01); furthermore, tour rapport was positively related to tourist satisfaction. Thus, H6 was supported.

Table 2 Correlation analysis. Variable

Mean

SD

AVE

1

2

1.Tour member fit 2.Tour member–leader fit 3.Positive emotions 4.Tour rapport 5.Tourist satisfaction

3.85 3.93

.63 .60

.59 .62

.77 .48**

.79

3.86 3.64 3.93

.68 .64 .62

.63 .67 .64

.46** .68** .51**

.51** .45** .73**

3

4

5

6. Discussion

.79 .48** .56**

.82 .46**

This study applied PE fit theory to examine how tour member fit and tour member–leader fit affect tourists' positive emotions and tour rapport. In terms of service interactions, people with similar traits tend to interact more effectively; when this interaction relationship is greater, people feel more pleased with their consumption experience (Gremler & Gwinner, 2008). In a tourism context, tourists interact intensively with the tour leader as well as with each other in a shared tour environment (Liu & Tsaur, 2014). Similar attitudes or personal traits cause tour members to become easily attracted to and have pleasant interactions with each other; this can enhance their favorable impressions of each other and invoke positive emotions, such as happiness

.80

Note: The scores on the diagonal are square root of AVE. **p < 0.01.

Table 3 Hypothesis testing and results. Hypotheses

Path relationships

Path coefficient

Results

H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6

Tour member fit → Positive emotions Tour member–leader fit → Positive emotions Tour member fit → Tour rapport Tour member–leader fit → Tour rapport Tourist positive emotions → Tour rapport Tour rapport → Tourist satisfaction

0.23** 0.37** 0.61** 0.17** 0.48** 0.26**

Supported Supported Supported Supported Supported Supported

Note: All path estimates are standardized. **p < 0.01. 240

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and pleasure. This study demonstrated that tour member fit positively affects tourists' positive emotions and rapport relationships during a trip. This result echoes those of Lin et al. (2019) and Jung and Yoo (2017). On a GPT, favorable interactions between tour members can enhance tourists’ positive emotional response and foster harmonious relationships between tour members. Tour leaders play an indispensable role in fostering perceptions of tour member–leader fit. A tour leader's expertise includes leading tour members, controlling the itinerary, and satisfying various needs of members. Tour leaders, who play dramatic roles and utilize different skills, can be a catalyst for involving tour members (Yen, Tsaur, & Tsai, 2018). If tour members and leaders possess some similarities, such as speaking style, interests, or values, they may resonate with each other and feel comfortable during interactions. Therefore, they are likely to experience positive emotions throughout the entire journey, which leads to a high level of rapport. The results demonstrated that when tourists perceive a higher degree of fit with their tour leader, they tend to experience positive emotions and harmonious relationships with other members. This result is consistent with that of Hwang and Lee (2019), who found that when tourists felt that their tour leader's professional competencies met their needs, their rapport with the leader during the trip was strengthened. In addition, this study identified a positive correlation between positive emotions, tour rapport, and tourist satisfaction. Studies have indicated that positive emotions play a vital role in the tourism experience (Hosany et al., 2017; Knobloch et al., 2017). Interactions between tour leaders and tour members resemble the relationship between service providers and customers. If both parties perceive positive emotions, their relationship can become more harmonious; therefore, tour members may have positive perceptions of the entire travel experience and in turn have higher tourist satisfaction. Thus, on a GPT, tourists’ positive emotions evoked by their interactions with their tour leader or other tour members can enhance the rapport between all parties and further increase tourist satisfaction. This finding is consistent with that of Tsaur and Ku (2019).

7.2. Managerial implications This study proposed several recommendations for management practices. First, understanding the fit of a tour group is critical in the tourism industry because it can lead to quality service provided by tour leaders as well as positive tour experiences for tour members. In the operational practices of group tours, different sociodemographic-profile attributes and groups with various interests—such as honeymooner, adolescent, parent–children, and older adult groups—can be set first when designing and organizing travel products. Different GPT products can be planned through prior market segmentation and product positioning. This arrangement will enable compatible customers to self-select into the service environment and avoid placing incompatible customers together. Subsequently, before a group tour begins, travel agency managers should understand the needs, preferences, and expectations of their customers through formal or informal surveys, thereby forming groups with high homogeneity according to the members' sociodemographic profiles. Second, travel agencies should consider the concept of fit when arranging tour guides for various types of groups to maximize supplementary and complementary fit between the tour leader and members. Travel agency managers can arrange tour leaders with similar attributes and professional backgrounds to the tour members in terms of age, educational level, and occupation, facilitating similar characteristics between the parties. Third, a pretour briefing would help participants to understand other tour members’ various needs as well as create opportunities for communicating with the tour leader; this would also help leaders to manage their tour better. By being offered opportunities to engage in dialogue, tour participants can interact with other tour members and their tour leader; it is likely they can find some common interests and preferences that can, further establish connections. Before a group tour begins, the tour leader should first communicate a code of behavior to establish a tacit understanding and consensus between him or her and the members. Fourth, tour leaders should strive to always enrich their professional knowledge and abilities during the journey. For example, problemsolving skills and communication and coordination abilities are core competencies and key requirements for tour leaders who wish to deliver great service. This can effectively facilitate a complementary fit between the leader and members. Furthermore, tour leaders can use team building activities to stimulate feelings of compatibility among team members, thereby facilitating a supplementary fit between members. Fifth, on the basis of interests and personal traits, including speaking style, customs, and body language, identified during the trip, tour leaders can initiate conversations in which they share their experiences and help meet tour members' requirements. Tour leaders should use their interpersonal skills along with special events to promote compatibility. This can likely maintain a harmonious tour atmosphere and ensure tour members’ satisfaction. Finally, in terms of human resource management, travel agency managers can recruit and select tour leaders with favorable social and interpersonal communication skills to encourage positive interactions between team members, thereby facilitating harmony between leaders and members. Moreover, tour leaders should learn how to avoid potential conflicts between group members as well as how to effectively cultivate harmonious relationships through attending training courses.

7. Conclusions 7.1. Theoretical implications The research contributions of this study are as follows. First, studies on PE fit have mostly focused on organizational behavior or human resource management (Abdalla et al., 2018). This study was the first to use PE fit theory to investigate the relationship between tour leaders and tour members on a GPT. This study extended the concepts of PG fit (Li, Kristof-Brown, & Nielsen, 2019) and PS fit (Astakhova, 2016) and found that tour member fit and tour member–leader fit both had positive effects on tourists' positive emotions and tour rapport. Therefore, PE fit theory (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005) was applied in the field of tourism. Second, relevant studies have examined the effects of tour guides' professional competencies (Hwang & Lee, 2019) and tour leaders' emotional intelligence (Tsaur & Ku, 2019) on tourists' positive emotions and tour rapport. This study found that tour member fit and tour member–leader fit were also crucial antecedents that affected GPT members' emotional responses and perceptions. Thus, this study extends the results of Hwang and Lee (2019) and Tsaur and Ku (2019). Finally, studies have mostly focused on tourist–tour leader interactions (Hwang & Lee, 2019; Tsaur & Ku, 2019) and overlooked the importance of tourist-to-tourist interactions on GPTs (Lin et al., 2019). This study found that tour member fit was a critical factor that influenced tourists’ positive emotions and tour rapport and in turn influenced tourist satisfaction. Thus, this study also extends the results of Lin et al. (2019) and Wu (2007).

7.3. Limitations and future research This study had several research limitations. First, it adopted the selfreport approach, investigating tour member fit, tour member–leader fit, positive emotions, tour rapport, and tourist satisfaction from the perspective of tourists. This may have resulted in response bias. Second, this study employed a cross-sectional research design, which may have influenced the inference of causal relationships from the research results. Therefore, future studies are advised to adopt a longitudinal research design to enhance such inferences. Third, this study only 241

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targeted Taiwanese tourists who had participated in a GPT abroad. Therefore, the results may not be applicable to those in other regions or countries. Thus, future studies are advised to target tourists in other countries. Finally, this study focused on how tour member fit and tour member–leader fit influence tourists' positive emotions and tour rapport; however, the impacts of these variables on behavioral intentions, such as word-of-mouth and repurchase intention, were not discussed in this study, which is one of its limitations. Researchers are suggested to conduct further relevant research in future studies. Also, this study did not consider situational factors such as long- or short-distance travel and tour leaders’ gender. Therefore, future studies can further investigate whether the relationships between these variables in this study are influenced by the moderating variable.

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