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Treatment of Staphylococcal Synovitis of Turkeys
676
J. J. BEGIN
SUMMARY
A study was conducted to compare metabolizable energy values calculated from analysis of ingredients with those determined in a bomb calorimeter. The results indicate that there was very close agreement between the two methods of evaluation.
REFERENCES Anderson, D. L., F. W. Hill and R. Renner, 19S8. Studies of the metabolizable and productive energy of glucose for the growing chick. J. Nutrition, 65: 561-574. Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, 1950. Official Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. Seventh Edition, Washington, D.C. Axelsson, J., and S. Eriksson, 1951. Determination of metabolizable energy in poultry foodstuffs and rations. Proc. Ninth World's Poultry Congress 2 : 160-162. Fraps, G. S., E. C. Carlyle and J. F. Fudge, 1940. Metabolizable energy of some chicken feeds. Texas Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 589. Hill, F. W., and D. L. Anderson, 1958. Comparison of metabolizable energy and productive energy determination with growing chicks. J. Nutrition, 64: 587-604. Titus, H. W., 1955. The Scientific Feeding of Chickens. The Interstate, Danville, III., 2nd Edition. Titus, H. W., 1956. Energy values and feed efficiency. Proc. Semi-Annual Meeting Nutrition Council, American Feed Manufacturers' Association, 10-14. Titus, H. W., 1957. Energy values of feedstuffs for poultry. Mimeo-Limecrest Research Laboratories, Limestone Products Corporation of America, Newton, N.J.
Treatment of Staphylococcal Synovitis of Turkeys R. A. SMART AND M. L. MINER Department of Veterinary Science, Utah State University, Logan, Utah (Received for publication July 18, 1960)
I
NFECTIONS in the domestic fowl caused by the staphylococci have been reported periodically for the past 30 years in Europe, North America, South America, Japan, and Australia. According to Hinshaw and McNeil, (1952), and Jungherr (1959), Prahl (1870) in Prussia reported a widespread lameness in young geese, and from the description it was inferred by Van Heelsbergen (1929) that the condition was "Approved as Journal Paper No. 137, 1960 Utah Agricultural Experiment Station."
caused by staphylococci. Jungherr (1933) was the first to report the disease in turkeys in the United States. Madsen (1942) recognized the condition in turkeys and gave it the name synovitis. Hofstad (1952) has reviewed the literature on avian staphylococcosis, and Jungherr (1959) has reviewed the arthritic conditions in the avian species caused by bacteria. Staphylococcal synovitis can be seen in turkeys from 3 weeks of age to maturity, but is more prevalent in birds from 9-16 weeks of age. Affected birds sit on their
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energy values is dependent upon the reliability of the digestibility data of the individual ingredients used in the diet. In this experiment the ingredients used to formulate the diets were of a relatively uniform composition and adequate digestibility data were readily available. This no doubt accounts for the close agreement obtained for the two methods of energy evaluation. In other work in this laboratory, when less common ingredients were incorporated into the diet, the calculated metabolizable energy values did not agree nearly so well with the determined values. This was accounted for by the fact that inadequate digestibility and energy data were available on these ingredients.
STAPHYLOCOCCAL SYNOVITIS
given at the same time as the staphylococcal challenge. They also indicated that penicillin and probenecid orally did not protect artificially infected birds. Miner et al. (1957) found that the combination of penicillin and streptomycin sulfate given parenterally to turkeys reduced losses temporarily in natural outbreaks. This combination completely controlled losses in artificially produced staphylococcal synovitis when the blood level was sufficiently maintained. They found that a parenteral preparation of novobiocin, 160 mg. intramuscularly, given simultaneously with the staphylococcal challenge protected 56% of the turkeys. Two doses of 160 mg. of novobiocin, one given at the time of challenge with staphylococci and one 30 hours later, protected 89% of the turkeys. Their attempt to treat a natural outbreak of staphylococcal synovitis in turkeys with chlorotetracycline proved unsuccessful. Miner et al. (1958) reported that novobiocin in the mash protected turkeys artificially infected with staphylococci, and that furazolidone, NF-260, furazolidone (micronized), and the combination of furazolidone and chlortetracycline in the mash before and during challenge of turkeys with staphylococci did little to alter the course of the disease. The present investigation was conducted to continue the study of various materials for the treatment of artificially infected turkeys, and to evaluate the use of novobiocin as a treatment for staphylococcal synovitis occurring naturally in commercial flocks of turkeys. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Artificially Produced Staphylococcal Synovitis. Several trials have been conducted to determine the value of various treatments in controlling artificially produced staphylococcal infection in turkeys. Three trials are reported here.
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hocks with wings partially spread. The turkeys move only when forced, and then, with difficulty, showing severe pain. Close inspection of these turkeys reveals that one or more joints are frequently affected. The tibiometatarsal joint is more commonly involved with a hot, fluctuating, swelling occurring proximal to the joint and involving the tendon sheaths. The swelling may become firm, cool, and excoriated in the later stages. Although the lesion involves the joint, a tenosynovitis and synovitis are more evident grossly and the articular cartilage rarely shows involvement. The incidence, occurrence, and severity vary considerably from flock to flock and from year to year. In general, the flocks hatched from January to March are more heavily infected. Investigations in recent years using various available antibiotics and chemotherapeutic agents have shown that most of them have little or no beneficial effect in the treatment of staphylococcal synovitis of turkeys. Madsen (1942) reported that sulfapyridine was of no value in treating this condition in turkeys. An outbreak of staphylococcal arthritis in turkeys was reported by Fahey (1954). He found that a parenteral treatment of a mixture containing penicillin, dihydrostreptomycin, and oxytetracycline followed by oxytetracycline in the feed, resulted in complete recovery of the birds. Hinshaw and McNeil (1952) attempted treatments of field cases in turkeys with penicillin, sulfanilamide, sulfathiazole, sulfamerazine, and sulfamethazine. None of these drugs were effective. Smith (1954) reported the experimentally produced staphylococcosis in chickens was satisfactorily treated with penicillin, streptomycin, chlortetracycline, and oxytetracycline, but not chloramphenicol. Miner et al. (1956) found that the parenteral combination of penicillin and streptomycin sulfate protected 50% of the turkeys when
677
678
R. A. SMART AND M. L. MINER
teriological cultures were taken. Moribund birds were allowed to advance to a stage that death was impending. Field Outbreaks of Staphylococcal Synovitis. Five commercial flocks of Broad Breasted Bronze turkeys, three flocks of sexed hens, and two flocks of sexed toms were used to evaluate the effectiveness of the antibiotic novobiocin as a therapeutic agent to control losses from staphylococcal synovitis. Study was continued over two growing seasons; during the first season two flocks were treated, and three flocks were treated during the following season. Serious losses from staphylococcal synovitis commenced in the flocks at the ages of 10 to 12 weeks and treatment was started in all the flocks 8 to 14 days following the initial losses. Each flock was divided into two groups and placed in adjacent pens, so that each treated flock had a comparable untreated control group. Each trial was numbered from 1 to 5 in sequence of study. In trial 1, 3, and 4 the selection of the turkeys was at random. In trials 2 and 5 the control group of turkeys were driven into the new pen, and the weaker birds that remained behind constituted the treated group. In trials 1 and 4, at the time of treatment, the treated and control groups were placed in two adjacent clean range pens. In the other three trials the two pens were made by dividing the existing pen into two pens. All flocks were maintained on a commercial type turkey growing mash. In trials one and two feed grade novobiocin equivalent to 520 grams of novobiocin (U.S.P.) was mixed with one ton of growing mash. In the other three trials feed grade novobiocin equivalent to 350 grams of novobiocin (U.S.P.) was mixed with one ton of growing mash. Mixing was done by a commercial feed company. Medicated mash was
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In trial No. 1, twelve-week old Broad Breasted Bronze turkeys were divided into groups of 20 birds each except for two groups of 19 each. Inoculation consisted of 0.2 c.c. of 1:80 dilution of 24 hour broth culture of Staphylococcus aureus, strain PP-304, given intravenously. The medicated feed was given to the turkeys 24 hours before the inoculation. The injected drugs were given at the time of inoculation. Novobiocin, penicillin streptomycin mixture, nithiazide, sulfaquinoxaline, and erythromycin were mixed with the feed for the different groups, and oleandomycin, magnamycin, erythromycin, and SFK-320S were used parenterally. The birds were observed for eleven days. In trial No. 2, nine-week old Broad Breasted Bronze turkeys were assigned to groups of 11 birds each. In one group three turkeys were accidentally killed on the fifth day of the experiment. Each inoculated bird received intravenously 0.2 c.c. of a 1:80 dilution of a 24 hour broth culture of Straphylococcus aureus, strain PP-304. Treatment and inoculation were given at the same time. All treatments consisted of different levels of novobiocin in the feed. The birds were observed for eleven days. In trial No. 3, ten-week old Broad Breasted Bronze turkeys were divided into groups of 11 birds each. Inoculation consisted of 0.2S c.c. of 1:80 dilution of broth culture of Staphylococcus aureus, strain PP-304, which was given intravenously. Novobiocin, erythromycin, bacitracin, nithiazide, ethylenediamine dihydriodide, iodinated casein, and thiouracil were mixed with the feed for the different groups; and nitrofuran HC-0260 was used in the water. The medication was commenced five days before inoculation and continued for fifteen days post inoculation. In all trials the birds were clinically examined daily and the dead birds were removed. Necropsies were performed and bac-
679
STAPHYLOCOCCAL SYNOVITIS
fed to the treated group for 5-10 days. The flocks were clinically examined daily and all moribund and dead birds were removed. Necropsies were performed and bacteriological cultures were made to determine the cause of death.
DISCUSSION Little is known about the pathogenesis of staphylococcal infections of turkeys. The host parasite relationship and factors that influence subsequent infection are difficult to elucidate. How the healthy turkey host apparently manages to live in peace with the staphylococci and then may eventually succumb to effects of the organism are poorly understood. It is assumed that in the pathogenesis of the disease there is a hematogenous stage, since the experimentally produced staphylococcal infection in turkeys can only be made by the injection of staphylococci intravenously. Experimentally, attempts to introduce the staphylococci by minor accidental injuries such as bruising and scratching of the skin have not been successful. It appears that staphylococcal synovitis is a focal pathological expression of a septicemic disease. In turkeys that are infected artificially with staphylococci, symptoms and clinical signs are first noted about 72 hours follow-
SUMMARY Attempts to control or enhance infections in turkeys that were injected intravenously with Staphylococcus aureus, strain PP-304, were made with novobiocin erythromycin, bacitracin, nithiazide, ethylenedi-
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RESULTS Artificially Produced Staphylococcal Synovitis. The results of the studies with various agents used orally and parenterally to control or enhance artificially produced staphylococcal infection in turkeys are presented in Tables 1 through 3. Field Outbreaks of Staphylococcal Synovitis. The results of the series of experiments dealing with the effectiveness of novobiocin in the mash in controlling field outbreaks of staphylococcal synovitis of turkeys are presented in Tables 4 through 8.
ing the intravenous injections. Infected turkeys exhibit leg weakness and signs that are identical to the naturally occurring disease. Many birds progressively become weaker and die in S to 8 days. Most of the remaining birds develop local abscessation on the various synovial membranes of the body, and are permanently crippled. Rarely will one recover. Any treatment that is effective against artificially infected turkeys must be administered within 24 hours of intravenous injection of staphylococci to be of any value. In the trials with artificially infected turkeys novobiocin in the feed consistently controlled losses while the many other materials tried had little or no beneficial effect. Examination of the data of these field experiments indicates that novobiocin significantly reduced the losses from staphylococcal synovitis as compared with the control groups in trials 1, 3, and 4. In trials 2 and 5 about one-half of the total loss in the treated group occurred during the first and second days of treatment. It is inferred that these turkeys were sufficiently advanced in the incubation period that treatment was not effective. It it also noted that in trials 2 and 5 the incidence of the disease in the entire flock was reduced rather abruptly with beginning of the treatment study. The incidence and course of staphylococcal synovitis infection occurring naturally in flocks of growing turkeys are extremely variable. With the limited knowledge about the basic nature of the disease that is available, it is difficult to determine the most advantageous time to attempt a treatment.
680
R. A. SMART AND M. L. MINER
TABLE 1.—Results of various treatments in controlling artificially produced staphylococcal infection in turkeys Group no.
Novobiocin1 feed grade, 600 gm./ton feed
20
0
100.0
2
Novobiocin-feed grade, 400 gm./ton feed
20
4
80.0
3
Novobiocin-feed grade, 200 gm./ton feed
14
30.0
20
16
20.0
3
Penicillin-streptomycin mixture, 10 lbs./ton Penicillin-streptomycin mixture, 20 lbs./ton
20
16
20.0
6
Penicillin-streptomycin mixture, 10 lbs./ton nithiazide 0.025% 4 and sulfaquinoxaline 0.0175%6
20
8
60.0
Penicillin-streptomycin mixture, 20 lbs./ton nithiazide 0.025% and sulfaquinoxaline 0.0175%
20
10
50.0
6
8
Oleandomycin, 10 mg./lb. body weight injected I.M. at time of inoculation
20
17
15.0
9
Oleandomycin, 5 mg./lb. body weight injected I.M. at time of inoculation
20
19
5.0
Carbomycin sulfate, 100 mg./bird injected I.M. at time of inoculation
20
20
0
Carbomycin sulfate, 200 mg./bird injected I.M. at time of inoculation
20
18
10.0
Erythromycin, 50 mg./5 lbs. body weight injected I.M. at time of inoculation
20
19
5.0
Erythromycin, 100 mg./5 lbs. body weight injected I.M. at time of inoculation
19
18
5.3
20
20*
0
20
19
5.0
10 11 12 13 14
7
8
9
SKF 3205, 125 mg./lb. body weight injected I.M. at time of inoculation 10
15
Erythromycin,
16
Inoculated—no treatment
19
19
0
17
No inoculation—no treatment
20
0
100.0
400 gm./ton
Supplied by The Upjohn Company. Equivalent to 50 gm. penicillin and 150 gm. streptomycin sulfate per ton of feed. Supplied as pro-strep by Merck, Sharp, and Dohme. 3 Equivalent to 100 gm. penicillin and 300 gm. streptomycin sulfate per ton of feed. r 4 Hepzide supplied by Merck, Sharp, and Dohme. 5 S.Q. supplied by Merck, Sharp, and Dohme. 6 Matromycin supplied by Chas. Pfizer & Co., Inc. 7 Magnamycin supplied by Chas. Pfizer & Co., Inc. 8 Gallimycin-injectable form, supplied by Abbott Laboratories. 9 23-dimethylquinoxaline-l,4-dioxide, supplied by Smith, Kline, & French Laboratories. 10 Gallimycin for feed supplied by Abbott Laboratories. * Deaths due to effects of drug. 2
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20
2
5
7
1
No. died and % Survived crippled and saleable
1
4
L
No. of birds
Treatment
681
STAPHYLOCOCCAL SYNOVITIS
TABLE 2.—Results of feeding novobiocin at three levels in controlling artificially produced staphylococcal synovitis in turkeys No. died and % survived crippled and saleable
Treatment
No. of birds
1
Novobiocin* (U.S.P. grade), 600 gm./ton feed
11
5
54.5
2
Novobiocin (U.S.P. grade), 400 gm./ton feed
8
8
0
3
Novobiocin (U.S.P. grade), 200 gm./ton feed
11
11
0
4
Novobiocin (feed grade), 600 gm./ton feed
11
3
72.7
5
Novobiocin (feed grade), 400 gm./ton feed
11
5
54.5
6
Novobiocin (feed grade), 200 gm./ton feed
11
9
18.1
7
Control—no inoculation, no treatment
11
0
100.0
8
Control—inoculation, no treatment
11
11
0
Supplied by The Upjohn Company. TABLE 3.—Results of various treatments used in Ihe control or enhancing of artificially induced staphylococcus aureus infection in turkeys Group no.
Novobiocin1 (feed grade), 200 gm./ton feed
11
0
100.0
11
Novobiocin (feed grade), 400 gm./ton feed
11
1
90.9
15
Novobiocin (feed grade), 600 gm./ton feed
11
0
100.0
Erythromycin, 200 gm./ton feed
11
10
9.1
3
Erythromycin, 400 gm./ton feed
11
8
27.3
6
Erythromycin, 600 gm./ton feed
11
6
45.5
Bacitracin, 200 gm./ton feed
11
9
18.2
1
Bacitracin, 600 gm./ton feed
11
9
18.2
11
10
9.1
8 12
4
4
Nithiazide, .025% in feed 5
11
5
54.6
6
11
7
36.4
7
11
8
27.3
11
7
36.4
Nitrofuran HC-0260, 30.2 gm./gal. water Ethylenediamine dihydriodide, 83.2 gm./ton feed Ethylenediamine dihydriodide, 83.2 gm./ton feed 8
Iodinated casein, 0.011% in feed 9
5
Thiouracil, 0.125% in feed
11
6
45.5
7
Inoculation control
11
9
18.2
Control—no treatment, no inoculation
11
0
100.0
14
6
3
10
9
3
2
16
2
1
No. died and % survived and saleable crippled
4
13
2
No. of birds
Treatment
Supplied by The Upjohn Company. Supplied as Gallimycin by Abbott Laboratories. Supplied by Commercial Solvent Corporation. Supplied as hepzide by Merck, Sharp, & Dohme. Supplied by Hess & Clark.
6 7 8 9
H I amine. Supplied as BU Vita Dine by H. C. Burns Co. Supplied as Protamone by Agric-Tech Inc. Supplied by American Cyanamid Co.
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Group no.
682
R. A. SMART AND M. L. MINER
TABLE 4.- Loss from staphylococcal synovitis in flock no. 1 (14 week old toms) part of which were treated with novobiocin (520 gm./tonfeed) Control Treated group group 2,350 2,350 birds birds
Observation period
Total
5 days duration (before treatment)
58
5 days duration (treatment period)
38
26
12
91
81
10
129
107
22
4.55
0.94
13 days duration (after treatment) Total Percent
TABLE 7.—Loss from staphylococcal synovitis in flock no. 4 (14 week old hens) part of which were treated with novobiocin (350 gm./tonfeed)
-
Observation period
Total
Control Treated group group 1,300 1,300 birds birds
14 days duration (before treatment)
75
-
7 days duration (treatment period)
58
55*
3
39 days duration (after treatment)
11
8
3
Total
69
63
6
4.8
0.46
Percent
-
Observation period
Total
8 days duration (before treatment)
57
10 days duration (treatment period)
36
14 days duration (after treatment)
Control Treated group group 3,000 3,000 birds birds
-
4
2
20 0.67
Percent
20*
16
6 42
Total
TABLE 8.—Loss from staphylococcal synovitis in flock no. 5 (12 week old toms) part of which were treated with novobiocin (350 gm./tonfeed)
22 0.73
Observation period
Total
14 days duration (before treatment)
254
~
-
7 days duration (treatment period)
81
28
53*
46
19
27
127
47
80
1.67
2.58
99 days duration (after treatment) Total Percent
* Eleven birds lost first and second day of treatment.
* Thirty-seven birds lostfirstand second day of treatment.
TABLE 6.—Loss from staphylococcal synovitis in flock no. 3 (12 week old hens) part of 'which were treated with novobiocin (350 gm./tonfeed) Control Treated group group 1,950 3,500 birds birds
Observation period
Total
14 days duration (before treatment)
124
-
10 days duration (treatment period)
27
19
8
30 days duration (after treatment)
43
32
11
Total
70
Percent
Control Treated group group 3,100 2,800 birds birds
-
51
19
1.46
0.97
amine dihydriodide, iodinated casein, thiouracil, a mixture of penicillin streptomycin, a mixture of penicillin, streptomycin, nithiazide, and sulfaquinoxaline in the feed;nitrofuran HC-0260 in the water; and oleandomycin, carbomycin, erythromycin, and SKF 320S intramuscularly. Novobiocin in the feed consistently reduced losses while the many other materials had little or no beneficial effect. Novobiocin medicated mash reduced the
losses from staphylococcal synovitis in three out of five groups of turkeys undergoing naturally occurring outbreaks as compared with comparable untreated control groups. Implications of treating flocks of turkeys with staphylococcal infections are discussed. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was partly supported financially by Utah Turkey Federation, National Turkey Federation, The Upjohn Company of Kalamazoo, Michigan, Abbott Laboratories of North Chicago, Illinois, and the Chas. Pfizer Company of Terre Haute, Indiana. REFERENCES Fahey, T. E., 1954. An outbreak of staphylococcal arthritis in turkey poults. Poultry Sci. 33: 661664. Hinshaw, W. R., and E. McNeil, 1952. Staphylo-
Downloaded from http://ps.oxfordjournals.org/ at Northern Arizona University on May 31, 2015
* Eleven birds lost first and second day of treatment.
TABLE 5.—Loss from staphylococcal synovitis in flock no. 2 (13 week old hens) part of which were treated with novobiocin (520 gm./tonfeed)
STAPHYLOCOCCAL SYNOVITIS
Miner, M. L., W. W. Smith, C. I. Draper, J. O. Anderson, G. James, J. A. Thomas, R. A. Bagley and P. B. Carter, 1957. Unpublished data. Miner, M. L., R. A. Smart and W. W. Smith, 1958. The use of nitrofurans and antibiotics in staphylococcosis of turkeys. Proceedings, 2nd National Symposium on Nitrofurans in Agriculture: 135-137. Prahl, M., 1870, Mittl. ad. Tierarzt, parx. in preuss. State, LXXI, p. 168. (Cited by Hinshaw and McNeil, and Jungherr). Smith, H. W., 1954. Experimental staphylococcus infection in chickens. J. Path. Bact. 67: 81-87. Van Heelsbergen, T., 1929. Handbuch der Gefliigelkrankheiten und der Gefiugelzucht. Stuttgart, Enke, pp. 203-205. (Cited by Hinshaw and McNeil, and Jungherr).
Effect of Duration and Type of Chilling and Thawing on Tenderness of Frozen Turkeys A. A. KXOSE, A. A. CAMPBELL, H. L. HANSON AND HANS LINEWEAVER Western Regional Research Laboratory? Albany 10, California (Received for publication July 19, 1960)
INTRODUCTION V
' I HE poultry industry is ever alert to -*- possibilities of increasing processing efficiency and product quality through modifications of chilling procedures and related processes. Chilling methods providing mechanical agitation of the carcasses result in markedly greater chilling rates than conventional chilling in tanks of ice slush, and hence are highly desirable if optimum quality, including adequate tenderization, can be assured under the modified conditions. A previous publication from this laboratory (Klose et al., 1960) reviewed the literature and reported laboratory scale chilling studies on chicken broilers and small fryer-roaster turkeys, cooked from the frozen state. These studies demon' A laboratory of the Western Utilization Research and Development Division, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
strated that in rapid ice slush chilling accomplished with laboratory scale, mechanical tumbling, the minimum required tenderizing period is much in excess of that time required for adequate chilling of the carcass; that is, rapid chilling in itself does not appear to have any important effect on rate of tenderization. Kahlenberg et al. (1960) in chilling studies with chilled (unfrozen) chicken broilers held from 2 to 10 days before cooking (and hence adequately aged), found no difference in tenderness or flavor between birds chilled in still ice slush for 21 hours and birds chilled within 30 minutes by mechanical agitation in ice slush. In order to extend our previous laboratory scale tests to a commercial scale, to include larger size turkeys, and to provide comparisons with turkeys thawed before cooking, as well as turkeys cooked from the
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coccosis (synovitis) in turkeys. Poultry Sci. 3 1 : 320-327. Hofstad, M. S., 1952. Streptococcosis, Staphylococcosis, Arthritis, Colibacillosis, and Coligranuloma (Hj'arre's Disease). Chapter XVI in H. E. Biester and L. H. Schwarte, Diseases of Poultry (ed. 4), Ames, Iowa, Iowa State College Press, 369-370. Jungherr, E., 1933. Staphylococcal arthritis in turkeys. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 82: 243-249. Jungherr, E., 1959. Bacterial arthritis and tenosynovitis in poultry. Laboratory Investigation, 8: 1376-1383. Madsen, D. E., 1942. Synovitis of turkeys. Turkey World, 17 ( 2 ) : 24. Miner, M. L., W. W. Smith, C. L. Draper, J. O. Anderson, R. A. Bagley, J. A. Thomas and G. James, 1956. Unpublished data.
683
J. J. BEGIN
SUMMARY
A study was conducted to compare metabolizable energy values calculated from analysis of ingredients with those determined in a bomb calorimeter. The results indicate that there was very close agreement between the two methods of evaluation.
REFERENCES Anderson, D. L., F. W. Hill and R. Renner, 19S8. Studies of the metabolizable and productive energy of glucose for the growing chick. J. Nutrition, 65: 561-574. Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, 1950. Official Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. Seventh Edition, Washington, D.C. Axelsson, J., and S. Eriksson, 1951. Determination of metabolizable energy in poultry foodstuffs and rations. Proc. Ninth World's Poultry Congress 2 : 160-162. Fraps, G. S., E. C. Carlyle and J. F. Fudge, 1940. Metabolizable energy of some chicken feeds. Texas Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 589. Hill, F. W., and D. L. Anderson, 1958. Comparison of metabolizable energy and productive energy determination with growing chicks. J. Nutrition, 64: 587-604. Titus, H. W., 1955. The Scientific Feeding of Chickens. The Interstate, Danville, III., 2nd Edition. Titus, H. W., 1956. Energy values and feed efficiency. Proc. Semi-Annual Meeting Nutrition Council, American Feed Manufacturers' Association, 10-14. Titus, H. W., 1957. Energy values of feedstuffs for poultry. Mimeo-Limecrest Research Laboratories, Limestone Products Corporation of America, Newton, N.J.
Treatment of Staphylococcal Synovitis of Turkeys R. A. SMART AND M. L. MINER Department of Veterinary Science, Utah State University, Logan, Utah (Received for publication July 18, 1960)
I
NFECTIONS in the domestic fowl caused by the staphylococci have been reported periodically for the past 30 years in Europe, North America, South America, Japan, and Australia. According to Hinshaw and McNeil, (1952), and Jungherr (1959), Prahl (1870) in Prussia reported a widespread lameness in young geese, and from the description it was inferred by Van Heelsbergen (1929) that the condition was "Approved as Journal Paper No. 137, 1960 Utah Agricultural Experiment Station."
caused by staphylococci. Jungherr (1933) was the first to report the disease in turkeys in the United States. Madsen (1942) recognized the condition in turkeys and gave it the name synovitis. Hofstad (1952) has reviewed the literature on avian staphylococcosis, and Jungherr (1959) has reviewed the arthritic conditions in the avian species caused by bacteria. Staphylococcal synovitis can be seen in turkeys from 3 weeks of age to maturity, but is more prevalent in birds from 9-16 weeks of age. Affected birds sit on their
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energy values is dependent upon the reliability of the digestibility data of the individual ingredients used in the diet. In this experiment the ingredients used to formulate the diets were of a relatively uniform composition and adequate digestibility data were readily available. This no doubt accounts for the close agreement obtained for the two methods of energy evaluation. In other work in this laboratory, when less common ingredients were incorporated into the diet, the calculated metabolizable energy values did not agree nearly so well with the determined values. This was accounted for by the fact that inadequate digestibility and energy data were available on these ingredients.
STAPHYLOCOCCAL SYNOVITIS
given at the same time as the staphylococcal challenge. They also indicated that penicillin and probenecid orally did not protect artificially infected birds. Miner et al. (1957) found that the combination of penicillin and streptomycin sulfate given parenterally to turkeys reduced losses temporarily in natural outbreaks. This combination completely controlled losses in artificially produced staphylococcal synovitis when the blood level was sufficiently maintained. They found that a parenteral preparation of novobiocin, 160 mg. intramuscularly, given simultaneously with the staphylococcal challenge protected 56% of the turkeys. Two doses of 160 mg. of novobiocin, one given at the time of challenge with staphylococci and one 30 hours later, protected 89% of the turkeys. Their attempt to treat a natural outbreak of staphylococcal synovitis in turkeys with chlorotetracycline proved unsuccessful. Miner et al. (1958) reported that novobiocin in the mash protected turkeys artificially infected with staphylococci, and that furazolidone, NF-260, furazolidone (micronized), and the combination of furazolidone and chlortetracycline in the mash before and during challenge of turkeys with staphylococci did little to alter the course of the disease. The present investigation was conducted to continue the study of various materials for the treatment of artificially infected turkeys, and to evaluate the use of novobiocin as a treatment for staphylococcal synovitis occurring naturally in commercial flocks of turkeys. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Artificially Produced Staphylococcal Synovitis. Several trials have been conducted to determine the value of various treatments in controlling artificially produced staphylococcal infection in turkeys. Three trials are reported here.
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hocks with wings partially spread. The turkeys move only when forced, and then, with difficulty, showing severe pain. Close inspection of these turkeys reveals that one or more joints are frequently affected. The tibiometatarsal joint is more commonly involved with a hot, fluctuating, swelling occurring proximal to the joint and involving the tendon sheaths. The swelling may become firm, cool, and excoriated in the later stages. Although the lesion involves the joint, a tenosynovitis and synovitis are more evident grossly and the articular cartilage rarely shows involvement. The incidence, occurrence, and severity vary considerably from flock to flock and from year to year. In general, the flocks hatched from January to March are more heavily infected. Investigations in recent years using various available antibiotics and chemotherapeutic agents have shown that most of them have little or no beneficial effect in the treatment of staphylococcal synovitis of turkeys. Madsen (1942) reported that sulfapyridine was of no value in treating this condition in turkeys. An outbreak of staphylococcal arthritis in turkeys was reported by Fahey (1954). He found that a parenteral treatment of a mixture containing penicillin, dihydrostreptomycin, and oxytetracycline followed by oxytetracycline in the feed, resulted in complete recovery of the birds. Hinshaw and McNeil (1952) attempted treatments of field cases in turkeys with penicillin, sulfanilamide, sulfathiazole, sulfamerazine, and sulfamethazine. None of these drugs were effective. Smith (1954) reported the experimentally produced staphylococcosis in chickens was satisfactorily treated with penicillin, streptomycin, chlortetracycline, and oxytetracycline, but not chloramphenicol. Miner et al. (1956) found that the parenteral combination of penicillin and streptomycin sulfate protected 50% of the turkeys when
677
678
R. A. SMART AND M. L. MINER
teriological cultures were taken. Moribund birds were allowed to advance to a stage that death was impending. Field Outbreaks of Staphylococcal Synovitis. Five commercial flocks of Broad Breasted Bronze turkeys, three flocks of sexed hens, and two flocks of sexed toms were used to evaluate the effectiveness of the antibiotic novobiocin as a therapeutic agent to control losses from staphylococcal synovitis. Study was continued over two growing seasons; during the first season two flocks were treated, and three flocks were treated during the following season. Serious losses from staphylococcal synovitis commenced in the flocks at the ages of 10 to 12 weeks and treatment was started in all the flocks 8 to 14 days following the initial losses. Each flock was divided into two groups and placed in adjacent pens, so that each treated flock had a comparable untreated control group. Each trial was numbered from 1 to 5 in sequence of study. In trial 1, 3, and 4 the selection of the turkeys was at random. In trials 2 and 5 the control group of turkeys were driven into the new pen, and the weaker birds that remained behind constituted the treated group. In trials 1 and 4, at the time of treatment, the treated and control groups were placed in two adjacent clean range pens. In the other three trials the two pens were made by dividing the existing pen into two pens. All flocks were maintained on a commercial type turkey growing mash. In trials one and two feed grade novobiocin equivalent to 520 grams of novobiocin (U.S.P.) was mixed with one ton of growing mash. In the other three trials feed grade novobiocin equivalent to 350 grams of novobiocin (U.S.P.) was mixed with one ton of growing mash. Mixing was done by a commercial feed company. Medicated mash was
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In trial No. 1, twelve-week old Broad Breasted Bronze turkeys were divided into groups of 20 birds each except for two groups of 19 each. Inoculation consisted of 0.2 c.c. of 1:80 dilution of 24 hour broth culture of Staphylococcus aureus, strain PP-304, given intravenously. The medicated feed was given to the turkeys 24 hours before the inoculation. The injected drugs were given at the time of inoculation. Novobiocin, penicillin streptomycin mixture, nithiazide, sulfaquinoxaline, and erythromycin were mixed with the feed for the different groups, and oleandomycin, magnamycin, erythromycin, and SFK-320S were used parenterally. The birds were observed for eleven days. In trial No. 2, nine-week old Broad Breasted Bronze turkeys were assigned to groups of 11 birds each. In one group three turkeys were accidentally killed on the fifth day of the experiment. Each inoculated bird received intravenously 0.2 c.c. of a 1:80 dilution of a 24 hour broth culture of Straphylococcus aureus, strain PP-304. Treatment and inoculation were given at the same time. All treatments consisted of different levels of novobiocin in the feed. The birds were observed for eleven days. In trial No. 3, ten-week old Broad Breasted Bronze turkeys were divided into groups of 11 birds each. Inoculation consisted of 0.2S c.c. of 1:80 dilution of broth culture of Staphylococcus aureus, strain PP-304, which was given intravenously. Novobiocin, erythromycin, bacitracin, nithiazide, ethylenediamine dihydriodide, iodinated casein, and thiouracil were mixed with the feed for the different groups; and nitrofuran HC-0260 was used in the water. The medication was commenced five days before inoculation and continued for fifteen days post inoculation. In all trials the birds were clinically examined daily and the dead birds were removed. Necropsies were performed and bac-
679
STAPHYLOCOCCAL SYNOVITIS
fed to the treated group for 5-10 days. The flocks were clinically examined daily and all moribund and dead birds were removed. Necropsies were performed and bacteriological cultures were made to determine the cause of death.
DISCUSSION Little is known about the pathogenesis of staphylococcal infections of turkeys. The host parasite relationship and factors that influence subsequent infection are difficult to elucidate. How the healthy turkey host apparently manages to live in peace with the staphylococci and then may eventually succumb to effects of the organism are poorly understood. It is assumed that in the pathogenesis of the disease there is a hematogenous stage, since the experimentally produced staphylococcal infection in turkeys can only be made by the injection of staphylococci intravenously. Experimentally, attempts to introduce the staphylococci by minor accidental injuries such as bruising and scratching of the skin have not been successful. It appears that staphylococcal synovitis is a focal pathological expression of a septicemic disease. In turkeys that are infected artificially with staphylococci, symptoms and clinical signs are first noted about 72 hours follow-
SUMMARY Attempts to control or enhance infections in turkeys that were injected intravenously with Staphylococcus aureus, strain PP-304, were made with novobiocin erythromycin, bacitracin, nithiazide, ethylenedi-
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RESULTS Artificially Produced Staphylococcal Synovitis. The results of the studies with various agents used orally and parenterally to control or enhance artificially produced staphylococcal infection in turkeys are presented in Tables 1 through 3. Field Outbreaks of Staphylococcal Synovitis. The results of the series of experiments dealing with the effectiveness of novobiocin in the mash in controlling field outbreaks of staphylococcal synovitis of turkeys are presented in Tables 4 through 8.
ing the intravenous injections. Infected turkeys exhibit leg weakness and signs that are identical to the naturally occurring disease. Many birds progressively become weaker and die in S to 8 days. Most of the remaining birds develop local abscessation on the various synovial membranes of the body, and are permanently crippled. Rarely will one recover. Any treatment that is effective against artificially infected turkeys must be administered within 24 hours of intravenous injection of staphylococci to be of any value. In the trials with artificially infected turkeys novobiocin in the feed consistently controlled losses while the many other materials tried had little or no beneficial effect. Examination of the data of these field experiments indicates that novobiocin significantly reduced the losses from staphylococcal synovitis as compared with the control groups in trials 1, 3, and 4. In trials 2 and 5 about one-half of the total loss in the treated group occurred during the first and second days of treatment. It is inferred that these turkeys were sufficiently advanced in the incubation period that treatment was not effective. It it also noted that in trials 2 and 5 the incidence of the disease in the entire flock was reduced rather abruptly with beginning of the treatment study. The incidence and course of staphylococcal synovitis infection occurring naturally in flocks of growing turkeys are extremely variable. With the limited knowledge about the basic nature of the disease that is available, it is difficult to determine the most advantageous time to attempt a treatment.
680
R. A. SMART AND M. L. MINER
TABLE 1.—Results of various treatments in controlling artificially produced staphylococcal infection in turkeys Group no.
Novobiocin1 feed grade, 600 gm./ton feed
20
0
100.0
2
Novobiocin-feed grade, 400 gm./ton feed
20
4
80.0
3
Novobiocin-feed grade, 200 gm./ton feed
14
30.0
20
16
20.0
3
Penicillin-streptomycin mixture, 10 lbs./ton Penicillin-streptomycin mixture, 20 lbs./ton
20
16
20.0
6
Penicillin-streptomycin mixture, 10 lbs./ton nithiazide 0.025% 4 and sulfaquinoxaline 0.0175%6
20
8
60.0
Penicillin-streptomycin mixture, 20 lbs./ton nithiazide 0.025% and sulfaquinoxaline 0.0175%
20
10
50.0
6
8
Oleandomycin, 10 mg./lb. body weight injected I.M. at time of inoculation
20
17
15.0
9
Oleandomycin, 5 mg./lb. body weight injected I.M. at time of inoculation
20
19
5.0
Carbomycin sulfate, 100 mg./bird injected I.M. at time of inoculation
20
20
0
Carbomycin sulfate, 200 mg./bird injected I.M. at time of inoculation
20
18
10.0
Erythromycin, 50 mg./5 lbs. body weight injected I.M. at time of inoculation
20
19
5.0
Erythromycin, 100 mg./5 lbs. body weight injected I.M. at time of inoculation
19
18
5.3
20
20*
0
20
19
5.0
10 11 12 13 14
7
8
9
SKF 3205, 125 mg./lb. body weight injected I.M. at time of inoculation 10
15
Erythromycin,
16
Inoculated—no treatment
19
19
0
17
No inoculation—no treatment
20
0
100.0
400 gm./ton
Supplied by The Upjohn Company. Equivalent to 50 gm. penicillin and 150 gm. streptomycin sulfate per ton of feed. Supplied as pro-strep by Merck, Sharp, and Dohme. 3 Equivalent to 100 gm. penicillin and 300 gm. streptomycin sulfate per ton of feed. r 4 Hepzide supplied by Merck, Sharp, and Dohme. 5 S.Q. supplied by Merck, Sharp, and Dohme. 6 Matromycin supplied by Chas. Pfizer & Co., Inc. 7 Magnamycin supplied by Chas. Pfizer & Co., Inc. 8 Gallimycin-injectable form, supplied by Abbott Laboratories. 9 23-dimethylquinoxaline-l,4-dioxide, supplied by Smith, Kline, & French Laboratories. 10 Gallimycin for feed supplied by Abbott Laboratories. * Deaths due to effects of drug. 2
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20
2
5
7
1
No. died and % Survived crippled and saleable
1
4
L
No. of birds
Treatment
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STAPHYLOCOCCAL SYNOVITIS
TABLE 2.—Results of feeding novobiocin at three levels in controlling artificially produced staphylococcal synovitis in turkeys No. died and % survived crippled and saleable
Treatment
No. of birds
1
Novobiocin* (U.S.P. grade), 600 gm./ton feed
11
5
54.5
2
Novobiocin (U.S.P. grade), 400 gm./ton feed
8
8
0
3
Novobiocin (U.S.P. grade), 200 gm./ton feed
11
11
0
4
Novobiocin (feed grade), 600 gm./ton feed
11
3
72.7
5
Novobiocin (feed grade), 400 gm./ton feed
11
5
54.5
6
Novobiocin (feed grade), 200 gm./ton feed
11
9
18.1
7
Control—no inoculation, no treatment
11
0
100.0
8
Control—inoculation, no treatment
11
11
0
Supplied by The Upjohn Company. TABLE 3.—Results of various treatments used in Ihe control or enhancing of artificially induced staphylococcus aureus infection in turkeys Group no.
Novobiocin1 (feed grade), 200 gm./ton feed
11
0
100.0
11
Novobiocin (feed grade), 400 gm./ton feed
11
1
90.9
15
Novobiocin (feed grade), 600 gm./ton feed
11
0
100.0
Erythromycin, 200 gm./ton feed
11
10
9.1
3
Erythromycin, 400 gm./ton feed
11
8
27.3
6
Erythromycin, 600 gm./ton feed
11
6
45.5
Bacitracin, 200 gm./ton feed
11
9
18.2
1
Bacitracin, 600 gm./ton feed
11
9
18.2
11
10
9.1
8 12
4
4
Nithiazide, .025% in feed 5
11
5
54.6
6
11
7
36.4
7
11
8
27.3
11
7
36.4
Nitrofuran HC-0260, 30.2 gm./gal. water Ethylenediamine dihydriodide, 83.2 gm./ton feed Ethylenediamine dihydriodide, 83.2 gm./ton feed 8
Iodinated casein, 0.011% in feed 9
5
Thiouracil, 0.125% in feed
11
6
45.5
7
Inoculation control
11
9
18.2
Control—no treatment, no inoculation
11
0
100.0
14
6
3
10
9
3
2
16
2
1
No. died and % survived and saleable crippled
4
13
2
No. of birds
Treatment
Supplied by The Upjohn Company. Supplied as Gallimycin by Abbott Laboratories. Supplied by Commercial Solvent Corporation. Supplied as hepzide by Merck, Sharp, & Dohme. Supplied by Hess & Clark.
6 7 8 9
H I amine. Supplied as BU Vita Dine by H. C. Burns Co. Supplied as Protamone by Agric-Tech Inc. Supplied by American Cyanamid Co.
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Group no.
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R. A. SMART AND M. L. MINER
TABLE 4.- Loss from staphylococcal synovitis in flock no. 1 (14 week old toms) part of which were treated with novobiocin (520 gm./tonfeed) Control Treated group group 2,350 2,350 birds birds
Observation period
Total
5 days duration (before treatment)
58
5 days duration (treatment period)
38
26
12
91
81
10
129
107
22
4.55
0.94
13 days duration (after treatment) Total Percent
TABLE 7.—Loss from staphylococcal synovitis in flock no. 4 (14 week old hens) part of which were treated with novobiocin (350 gm./tonfeed)
-
Observation period
Total
Control Treated group group 1,300 1,300 birds birds
14 days duration (before treatment)
75
-
7 days duration (treatment period)
58
55*
3
39 days duration (after treatment)
11
8
3
Total
69
63
6
4.8
0.46
Percent
-
Observation period
Total
8 days duration (before treatment)
57
10 days duration (treatment period)
36
14 days duration (after treatment)
Control Treated group group 3,000 3,000 birds birds
-
4
2
20 0.67
Percent
20*
16
6 42
Total
TABLE 8.—Loss from staphylococcal synovitis in flock no. 5 (12 week old toms) part of which were treated with novobiocin (350 gm./tonfeed)
22 0.73
Observation period
Total
14 days duration (before treatment)
254
~
-
7 days duration (treatment period)
81
28
53*
46
19
27
127
47
80
1.67
2.58
99 days duration (after treatment) Total Percent
* Eleven birds lost first and second day of treatment.
* Thirty-seven birds lostfirstand second day of treatment.
TABLE 6.—Loss from staphylococcal synovitis in flock no. 3 (12 week old hens) part of 'which were treated with novobiocin (350 gm./tonfeed) Control Treated group group 1,950 3,500 birds birds
Observation period
Total
14 days duration (before treatment)
124
-
10 days duration (treatment period)
27
19
8
30 days duration (after treatment)
43
32
11
Total
70
Percent
Control Treated group group 3,100 2,800 birds birds
-
51
19
1.46
0.97
amine dihydriodide, iodinated casein, thiouracil, a mixture of penicillin streptomycin, a mixture of penicillin, streptomycin, nithiazide, and sulfaquinoxaline in the feed;nitrofuran HC-0260 in the water; and oleandomycin, carbomycin, erythromycin, and SKF 320S intramuscularly. Novobiocin in the feed consistently reduced losses while the many other materials had little or no beneficial effect. Novobiocin medicated mash reduced the
losses from staphylococcal synovitis in three out of five groups of turkeys undergoing naturally occurring outbreaks as compared with comparable untreated control groups. Implications of treating flocks of turkeys with staphylococcal infections are discussed. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was partly supported financially by Utah Turkey Federation, National Turkey Federation, The Upjohn Company of Kalamazoo, Michigan, Abbott Laboratories of North Chicago, Illinois, and the Chas. Pfizer Company of Terre Haute, Indiana. REFERENCES Fahey, T. E., 1954. An outbreak of staphylococcal arthritis in turkey poults. Poultry Sci. 33: 661664. Hinshaw, W. R., and E. McNeil, 1952. Staphylo-
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* Eleven birds lost first and second day of treatment.
TABLE 5.—Loss from staphylococcal synovitis in flock no. 2 (13 week old hens) part of which were treated with novobiocin (520 gm./tonfeed)
STAPHYLOCOCCAL SYNOVITIS
Miner, M. L., W. W. Smith, C. I. Draper, J. O. Anderson, G. James, J. A. Thomas, R. A. Bagley and P. B. Carter, 1957. Unpublished data. Miner, M. L., R. A. Smart and W. W. Smith, 1958. The use of nitrofurans and antibiotics in staphylococcosis of turkeys. Proceedings, 2nd National Symposium on Nitrofurans in Agriculture: 135-137. Prahl, M., 1870, Mittl. ad. Tierarzt, parx. in preuss. State, LXXI, p. 168. (Cited by Hinshaw and McNeil, and Jungherr). Smith, H. W., 1954. Experimental staphylococcus infection in chickens. J. Path. Bact. 67: 81-87. Van Heelsbergen, T., 1929. Handbuch der Gefliigelkrankheiten und der Gefiugelzucht. Stuttgart, Enke, pp. 203-205. (Cited by Hinshaw and McNeil, and Jungherr).
Effect of Duration and Type of Chilling and Thawing on Tenderness of Frozen Turkeys A. A. KXOSE, A. A. CAMPBELL, H. L. HANSON AND HANS LINEWEAVER Western Regional Research Laboratory? Albany 10, California (Received for publication July 19, 1960)
INTRODUCTION V
' I HE poultry industry is ever alert to -*- possibilities of increasing processing efficiency and product quality through modifications of chilling procedures and related processes. Chilling methods providing mechanical agitation of the carcasses result in markedly greater chilling rates than conventional chilling in tanks of ice slush, and hence are highly desirable if optimum quality, including adequate tenderization, can be assured under the modified conditions. A previous publication from this laboratory (Klose et al., 1960) reviewed the literature and reported laboratory scale chilling studies on chicken broilers and small fryer-roaster turkeys, cooked from the frozen state. These studies demon' A laboratory of the Western Utilization Research and Development Division, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
strated that in rapid ice slush chilling accomplished with laboratory scale, mechanical tumbling, the minimum required tenderizing period is much in excess of that time required for adequate chilling of the carcass; that is, rapid chilling in itself does not appear to have any important effect on rate of tenderization. Kahlenberg et al. (1960) in chilling studies with chilled (unfrozen) chicken broilers held from 2 to 10 days before cooking (and hence adequately aged), found no difference in tenderness or flavor between birds chilled in still ice slush for 21 hours and birds chilled within 30 minutes by mechanical agitation in ice slush. In order to extend our previous laboratory scale tests to a commercial scale, to include larger size turkeys, and to provide comparisons with turkeys thawed before cooking, as well as turkeys cooked from the
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coccosis (synovitis) in turkeys. Poultry Sci. 3 1 : 320-327. Hofstad, M. S., 1952. Streptococcosis, Staphylococcosis, Arthritis, Colibacillosis, and Coligranuloma (Hj'arre's Disease). Chapter XVI in H. E. Biester and L. H. Schwarte, Diseases of Poultry (ed. 4), Ames, Iowa, Iowa State College Press, 369-370. Jungherr, E., 1933. Staphylococcal arthritis in turkeys. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 82: 243-249. Jungherr, E., 1959. Bacterial arthritis and tenosynovitis in poultry. Laboratory Investigation, 8: 1376-1383. Madsen, D. E., 1942. Synovitis of turkeys. Turkey World, 17 ( 2 ) : 24. Miner, M. L., W. W. Smith, C. L. Draper, J. O. Anderson, R. A. Bagley, J. A. Thomas and G. James, 1956. Unpublished data.
683