- Email: [email protected]
Viability of Hydroelectricity in Nigeria and the Future Prospect
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Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy, Environment and Sustainability, TMREES18, Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy, and Sustainability, TMREES18, 19–21 September 2018,Environment Athens, Greece 19–21 September 2018, Athens, Greece
Viability of Hydroelectricity in Nigeria and the Future Prospect Viability The of Hydroelectricity in Nigeria and the Future Prospect 15th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling
Olutola B. Fakehindea, Ojo S. Fayomib,c*, Uyi K. Efemwenkiekib, Kunle O. Babaremub a b,c* a bb, Kunle O. Babaremub Olutola B. Fakehinde ,David Ojo S.O.Fayomi K. Efemwenkieki Assessing the feasibility of, aUyi using the heat demand-outdoor Kolawole Sunday O. Oyedepo , David O. Kolawole Sunday O. Oyedepob,
temperature for a Engineering, long-term district heat forecast Department offunction Mechanical and Biomedical Bells Univerity of Technology, Ota,demand Ogun State, Nigeria a
a Department of Mechanical Covenant Bells University,Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria Department of Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering, Univerity of Technology, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria b Department a,b,c of Chemical, Metallurgical and Materials Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa c Department Covenant University,Ota, State, Nigeria aof Mechanical a Engineering, b Ogun c c Corresponding Email. [email protected] Department of Chemical, Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa Corresponding Email. [email protected] a IN+ Center for Innovation, Technology and Policy Research - Instituto Superior Técnico, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal b Veolia Recherche & Innovation, 291 Avenue Dreyfous Daniel, 78520 Limay, France c Département Systèmes Énergétiques et Environnement - IMT Atlantique, 4 rue Alfred Kastler, 44300 Nantes, France Abstract b
c
I. Andrić
*, A. Pina , P. Ferrão , J. Fournier ., B. Lacarrière , O. Le Corre
Abstract Nigeria energy industry remains in limbo, almost six decades after independence and the reason for this is not farfetched; the persistence present of corrupt leaders and active players in the sector one major reasons. thefor growing population Nigeria energy industry remains in limbo, almost six decades after is independence and theWith reason this isNigerian not farfetched; the Abstract expected reach over 400million 2050 becoming country, onlyWith led the by growing china and India inpopulation first and persistencetopresent of corrupt leadersinand active players third in themost sectorpopulated is one major reasons. Nigerian second positions Energy in the country is expected to further skyrocket. At china present, country has and not expected to reachrespectively. over 400million in demand 2050addressed becoming most populated only effective led by andtheIndia in first District heating networks are commonly inthird the literature as one country, of the most solutions for decreasing the been able to meets its energy need demand despite in thethevarious policies set in place. Though there exists athe huge potential in second positions respectively. Energy country is expected to further skyrocket. At present, country has greenhouse gas emissions from the building sector. These systems require high investments which are returned through the not heat hydroelectricity but it its hasenergy been underutilized. viability ofpolicies hydroelectric as sustainable energy form was and the been needconditions despiteThe the set inpolicies, place. Though there in exists a examined, hugecould potential in sales.able Duetotomeets the changed climate andvarious building renovation heat demand the future decrease, huge potential it but can itplay inbeen the energy industryThe of Nigeria. At the same time as an sustainable alternative energy form that can set the pace for hydroelectricity has underutilized. viability of hydroelectric energy form was examined, and the prolonging the investment return period. better use of renewable energy discussed; with solar energy used as a caseanstudy. At the end of form the study can it was revealed that huge it can play in theiswas energy industry of Nigeria. At the same for The potential main scope of this paper to assess the feasibility of using the heattime demandalternative – outdoor energy temperature that function set for the heatpace demand both hydroelectric energy and solar energy willwith playsolar critical rolesused in the actualization of Nigeria stable and sustainable energy that bid better use of renewable energy was discussed; energy as a case study. At the end of the study it was revealed forecast. The district of Alvalade, located in Lisbon (Portugal), was used as a case study. The district is consisted of 665 in thehydroelectric foreseeable future. both energy andconstruction solar energy period will play roles Three in the weather actualization of Nigeria and sustainable energy bid buildings that vary in both andcritical typology. scenarios (low,stable medium, high) and three district inrenovation the foreseeable future. scenarios were developed (shallow, intermediate, deep). To estimate the error, obtained heat demand values were © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. compared with results from a dynamic heatLtd. demand model, previously developed and validated by the authors. © 2019 The Authors. by Elsevier This is an open accessPublished article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Theisresults showed when onlythe weather change is license considered, the margin of error could be acceptable for some applications This an open accessthat article under CC BY-NC-ND (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy, This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Selection under of theforscientific committee of Technologies and Materials Renewablerenovation Energy, (the errorand in peer-review annual demand wasresponsibility lower than 20% all weather scenarios considered). However, afterfor introducing Environment and Sustainability, TMREES18. Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of andscenarios Materialscombination for Renewable Energy, Environment and Sustainability, TMREES18. scenarios, the error value increased up to 59.5% (depending on the weatherTechnologies and renovation considered). Environment and Sustainability, TMREES18. The value of slope coefficient increased on average within the range of 3.8% up to 8% per decade, that corresponds to the Keywords: Hydroelectricity; Viability; Energy decrease in the number of heating hours of 22-139h during the heating season (depending on the combination of weather and Keywords: Hydroelectricity; Viability; Energy renovation scenarios considered). On the other hand, function intercept increased for 7.8-12.7% per decade (depending on the coupled scenarios). The values suggested could be used to modify the function parameters for the scenarios considered, and 1.improve Introduction the accuracy of heat demand estimations.
1. Introduction discovery of energy 200Ltd. years ago, all human activities relied mostly on our own energy. © Before 2017 Thethe Authors. Published by Elsevier Before the discovery of and energy 200power. years ago, allofhuman relied onDistrict our of own energy. performed tasks using man But with the boom andmostly the invention machinery Peer-review under responsibility of animal the Scientific Committee The industrial 15thactivities International Symposium on Heating and performed tasks using man and animal power. But with the industrial boom and the invention of machinery Cooling.
We We that that
1876-6102© 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Keywords: Heat demand; Forecast; Climate change license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) This is an open access under the CC by BY-NC-ND 1876-6102© 2018 Thearticle Authors. Published Elsevier Ltd. Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific of Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy, Environment This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND licensecommittee (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) and Sustainability, TMREES18. Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy, Environment and Sustainability, TMREES18. 1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. 1876-6102 © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy, Environment and Sustainability, TMREES18. 10.1016/j.egypro.2018.11.253
872 2
Olutola B. Fakehinde et al. / Energy Procedia 157 (2019) 871–878 Fayomi et al./ Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000
came about by industrial revolution in 1800, energy uses and application took another dimension. Energy, ever since it was discovered has become part of man; virtually all that is created, processed, built by man has a link with energy. No doubt energy is life and itis a wealth generator. Energy roles and applications in the world are continually on the increase with growing world’s population. Since the world energy need is continually on the increase there is a need to generate it more efficiently and effectively so as to avoid and reduce the possible impact of the nonrenewable form to the environment in the process reducing the global warming effect. Over the years energy has evolved into various forms, ranging from the renewable forms of energy to the non-renewable forms. Energy is said to be non-renewable if it cannot replenish itself within a human timescale. It is energy collected from non-renewable sources; examples are fossil fuels (usually crude oil, natural gas, coal) and uranium. Energy is said to be renewable if it can replenish itself within human timescale. It is energy collected from renewable sources such as sunlight, wind, rainfall, tides, waves, geothermal heat etc. transforming into solar energy, wind energy, hydroelectric, wave power, geothermal energy respectively. These various forms of energy find its production in different part of the country depending on the terrain under review. For example, solar energy would be more profitable in the northern part of Nigeria than the southern as oppose other sources that would be more profitable in southern Nigeria. In the study under review the viability of hydroelectricity to Nigeria is discussed. Hydroelectricity in Nigeria is the most used type of energy for power generation in that Nigeria’s geographical area favors’ its usage. Though it is the most used type of energy, it can be utilized even more because of the abundance of the geography and suitable environmental conditions that encourages this form of energy. 2. Literature review Electricity is the most used and desired form of energy across the world owing to the fact that it is a major catalyst of economic development and helps to increase the standard of living for humans generally and Nigeria is no exception to this trend revolving around the world. As a country’s population grows the economy expands and the energy demand in that country also rises [9]. Power is a major component for industrialization and development, and this is inadequate in Nigeria as stated by [10]. Despite the various policy and fund rolled out by the government, Nigeria energy industry is yet to be successful in the quest for attaining stable electricity supply. These are largely attributed to the corruption that finds prominence in government and those responsible for meeting these needs. [6] Stated that industries and residential now use generators due to the problem of power outage in Nigeria, he said
hydroelectric should looked upon in solving the problem associated with power in the country. This is due to the numerous potentials that hydroelectric power holds in the country. In this paper the author agreed on the report emerging that small hydroelectric holds for the country, the author conducted a research on the possible potential site for its instalment across some selected state in Nigeria, due to the huge potentials discovered that is still the increase. Despite the challenges that still militates against the small hydroelectric power sector the benefits do outweighs its challenges [8]. [13] conducted as assessment on small hydroelectric power in Nigeria in line with the energy policy and power sector reform act of the country set in 2005 and discovered that within 1971 and 2005 the hydropower increased by over 360% even if only 5% of its full potential was utilized. Operational and maintenance cost both favour small hydropower development in the country. Various policies are being rolled out by the government further make the industry rewarding to willing investors. [9] Worked on energy is a perspective for development in Nigeria. He argued that energy demand is on the increase despite this and there is need for it to be produced more efficiently due to its impact on the environment. Hence, the need to better push for sustainable ways of energy production is of necessity. However, [15] carried out a study on the current and future prospects on
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873 3
renewable energy in Nigeria, he stated that only 40% of Nigerians population are connected to the national grid those that are connected are plague by frequent failure of electricity supply leading to crippling of many sectors in the country’s economy, he stated that from review of open literature hydropower energy contributes about 30% of the total energy consumption in the country. Since the country is blessed with numerous renewable resources it expected that further research in this area will solve the energy crises in Nigeria. [16] Worked on the potential and the economics of hydropower in West Africa. He however agreed that the reason for the increasing energy demand in the West Africa is population growth, urbanization leading to increase in the economic activities. With a vast hydropower potential West Africa can meet its 21 century energy demands. 3. Concepts and Definitions 3.1Energy Energy is the capacity to do work, generally inphysics, energy is said to be a quantitative property that must be transferred to an object in order to perform work on, or to heat, the object. Energy is a conserved quantity its SI unit is joule (J) or sometimes referred to as kilojoule (kJ). 3.2Sources of Energy The sources of energy as discussed by [1]. •
Solar Energy
•
Wind Energy
•
Geothermal Energy
•
Hydrogen Energy
•
Tidal Energy
•
Wave Energy
•
Biomass Energy
•
Nuclear Power
•
Fossil Fuels (i. e Coal, Oil and Natural Gas)
•
Hydroelectric energy
4. Discussions and Recommendation 4.1 Hydroelectric Energy In this energy from the power of the water is used to turn generators to produce the electricity that is then used. The problems faced with hydropower right now have to do with the aging of the dams. Many of them need major restoration work to remain functional and safe, and that costs enormous sums of money. The drain on the world’s drinkable water supply is also causing issues as townships may wind up needing to consume the water that provides them power too.
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874 4
Figure1: Total World Energy Consumption [3]. 4.1.1 Viability of Hydroelectric The following are the various points that buttress the viability of hydroelectric as stated by sustainability of groundwater resources, USGS Circular 1186 while quoting Itaipu Binacional. •
Hydroelectricity is a renewable energy source: - Hydroelectricity uses the energy of running water, without
reducing its quantity, to produce electricity. Therefore, all hydroelectric developments, of small or large size, whether run of the river or of accumulated storage, fit the concept of renewable energy. •
Hydroelectricity makes it feasible to utilize other renewable sources: while using hydroelectric power
plants with accumulation of reservoirs it offer operational flexibility when compared to other forms, its flexibility allows it to respond immediately to fluctuations in the demand for electricity. The flexibility and storage capacity of hydroelectric power plants make them more efficient and economical in supporting the use of intermittent sources of renewable energy, such as solar energy or Aeolian energy. •
Hydroelectricity promotes guaranteed energy and price stability: since river water is a domestic resource
which (it is abundant in nature), contrary to fuel or natural gas, it does not fluctuate like other products in the market. Furthermore, it is the only large renewable source of electricity and its cost-benefit ratio, efficiency, flexibility and reliability assist in optimizing the use of thermal power plants. •
Hydroelectricity contributes to the storage of drinking water: Hydroelectric power plant reservoirs collect
rainwater, which can then be used for consumption or for irrigation. In storing water, they protect the water tables against depletion and reduce our vulnerability to floods and droughts. •
Hydroelectricity increases the stability and reliability of electricity systems: - The operation of electricity
systems depends on rapid and flexible generation sources to meet peak demands, maintain the system voltage levels,
Olutola B. Fakehinde et al. / Energy Procedia 157 (2019) 871–878 Fayomi et al. / EnergyProcedia 00 (2018) 000–000
875 5
and quickly re-establish supply after a blackout. Energy generated by hydroelectric installations can be injected into the electricity system faster than that of any other energy source. The capacity of hydroelectric systems to reach maximum production from zero in a rapid and foreseeable manner makes them exceptionally appropriate for addressing alterations in the consumption and providing ancillary services to the electricity system, thus maintaining the balance between the electricity supply and demand. •
Hydroelectricity helps fight climate changes: The hydroelectric life cycle produces very small amounts of
greenhouse gases (GHG). In emitting less GHG than power plants driven by gas, coal or oil, hydroelectricity can help retard global warming. Although only 33% of the available hydroelectric potential has been developed, today hydroelectricity prevents the emission of GHG corresponding to the burning of 4.4 million barrels of petroleum per day worldwide. •
Hydroelectricity improves the air we breathe: Hydroelectric power plants do not release pollutants into the
air. They very frequently substitute the generation from fossil fuels, thus reducing acid rain and smog. In addition to this, hydroelectric developments do not generate toxic by-products. •
Hydroelectricity offers a significant contribution to development: Hydroelectric installations bring
electricity, highways, industry and commerce to communities, thus developing the economy, expanding access to health and education, and improving the quality of life. Hydroelectricity is a technology that has been known and proven for more than a century. Its impacts are well understood and manageable through measures for mitigating and compensating the damages. It offers a vast potential and is available where development is most necessary. •
Hydroelectricity is a fundamental instrument for sustainable development: Hydroelectric enterprises that
are developed and operated in a manner that is economically viable, environmentally sensible and socially responsible represent the best concept of sustainable development. That means, "Development that today addresses people's needs without compromising the capacity of future generations for addressing their own needs" [3]. •
Hydroelectricity means clean and cheap energy for today and tomorrow: - With an average lifetime of 50 to
100 years, hydroelectric developments are long-term investments that can benefit various generations. They can be easily upgraded to incorporate more recent technologies and have very low operating and maintenance costs. The table below shows the types of hydroelectric power plants and their distinguishing attributes. Table1: Types of Hydroelectric Power Plants [4] Types of hydropower plants
Attributes
Impoundment
In these, a dam is built across a river with impounding head of water behind it, the water in the reservoir is released through a turbine to generate electricity.
Diversion
It is sometimes referred to as run-of river; a facility channels some of its river water through a canal. It does not necessarily need a dam. Hence, the reason for its low impact on the environment.
Pumped Storage
In this kind of hydro power plant, off the peak period, pumped storage facility stores energy by pumping water from lower reservoir to an
Olutola B. Fakehinde et al. / Energy Procedia 157 (2019) 871–878 Fayomi et al./ Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000
876 6
upper reservoir. During peak periods, the water is then released back through a turbine to generate electricity.
Stating the viability of hydropower plants might be so promising and futuristic however, several factors can hamper the continuous usage of this system of power generation. The following where presented as possible factors that can discourage the continuity of these power generation method according to [6]
Construction of a dam is time consuming and expensive to build.
Hydropower dam construction do disrupt the natural ecology as set by nature, this could result in fishes and livelihood of people are been disrupted.
When Large dam is being constructed it causes serious geological damage.
Large volume of flowing water is required for efficient and effective operation as a decrease in rainfall due to climate change adverse reduce electricity production.
The potential of hydroelectric power plant in some selected states in Nigeria is shown in the table below. Table 2: Summary of Small Hydro Power Plants in Nigeria [7] S/n
State
Potential Sites
Cumulative (Mw)
1
Adamawa
3
2
Akwa Ibom
13
28.600
3
Bauchi
1
0.150
4
Benue
10
1.306(1 site)
5
Cross river
5
3.000
6
Delta
1
1.000
7
Ebonyi
5
1.399
8
Edo
5
3.828
9
Ekiti
6
1.2472
10
Enugu
1
11
Fct
6
12
Gombe
2
13
Imo
71
14
Kaduna
15
25.000
15
Kano
2
14.000
16
Kastina
11
234.34
35.099
17
Kebbi
1
18
Kogi
2
19
Kwara
4
5.200
20
Nassarawa
3
0.454
21
Niger
11
110.580
22
Ogun
13
15.610
23
Ondo
1
1.300
1.050
Power
Estimate
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24
Osun
8
2.622
25
Oyo
3
1.062
26
Plateau
14
89.100
27
Sokoto
1
28
Taraba
9
29
Yobe
5
30
Zamfara
16
877 7
134.720
The Table above shows the enormous potential of hydroelectric in Nigeria. However, this great opportunity has not been utilized as the hydropower electricity in Nigerian stood at 23.9%.In 2007, fossil fuel took the lead in the total energy consumption of the country. Though there has been a steady rise in power generated by hydroelectric power plants in the country, as noticed from 2003 to 2007 when it rose from 14.2% to 23.9% showing almost 100% improvements there is also the need to encourage this trend in order to hamper the imminent threat posed by global warming. No doubt, hydropower can deliver to the developing countries around the world vital electricity especially Nigeria, along with additional services of water management and increased economic activities at significant scale, it is, at best, inappropriate for the authors report’s to have referred to the technology as ineffectual. Governments in developing countries continue to turn to major hydropower projects for their energy needs because the resource is local, the technology reliable, the scale considerable and the resulting electricity price economical and predictable. At a time when energy and water services are at the forefront of policy agendas around the world, hydropower is an investment that makes a lot of sense. One cannot rule hydropower energy out due to it numerous advantages that outweigh its disadvantages. It is expected that hydropower energy continues to play a critical in further contributing its quota to the energy needs of the world. The social and economic development of the Nigeria energy space that will give rise to industrialization, improved standard of living for its citizens will be as result of meeting the energy demands for various sectors of the economic that spurs growth [11].However, as discovered from review of open literature Nigeria energy is yet to be met thereby creating a vacuum for development of sustainable energy in Nigeria. 5 Conclusion Having carefully studied the existing literature some conclusions were arrived upon •
Hydroelectric energy is an energy form that would not face out in years to come due to current successes
recorded and huge potentials that remains utilized. •
That hydroelectric energy should be encouraged to better achieve the energy needs of Nigeria in the 21st
century. •Furthermore, hydroelectric is expected to play a vital role in the development of a sustainable energy model for Nigeria, the challenges been faced currently notwithstanding. Efforts and policy should be put to encourage and develop the technical skills needed for its citizens to be active stakeholders.
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878 8
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Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy, Environment and Sustainability, TMREES18, Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy, and Sustainability, TMREES18, 19–21 September 2018,Environment Athens, Greece 19–21 September 2018, Athens, Greece
Viability of Hydroelectricity in Nigeria and the Future Prospect Viability The of Hydroelectricity in Nigeria and the Future Prospect 15th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling
Olutola B. Fakehindea, Ojo S. Fayomib,c*, Uyi K. Efemwenkiekib, Kunle O. Babaremub a b,c* a bb, Kunle O. Babaremub Olutola B. Fakehinde ,David Ojo S.O.Fayomi K. Efemwenkieki Assessing the feasibility of, aUyi using the heat demand-outdoor Kolawole Sunday O. Oyedepo , David O. Kolawole Sunday O. Oyedepob,
temperature for a Engineering, long-term district heat forecast Department offunction Mechanical and Biomedical Bells Univerity of Technology, Ota,demand Ogun State, Nigeria a
a Department of Mechanical Covenant Bells University,Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria Department of Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering, Univerity of Technology, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria b Department a,b,c of Chemical, Metallurgical and Materials Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa c Department Covenant University,Ota, State, Nigeria aof Mechanical a Engineering, b Ogun c c Corresponding Email. [email protected] Department of Chemical, Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa Corresponding Email. [email protected] a IN+ Center for Innovation, Technology and Policy Research - Instituto Superior Técnico, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal b Veolia Recherche & Innovation, 291 Avenue Dreyfous Daniel, 78520 Limay, France c Département Systèmes Énergétiques et Environnement - IMT Atlantique, 4 rue Alfred Kastler, 44300 Nantes, France Abstract b
c
I. Andrić
*, A. Pina , P. Ferrão , J. Fournier ., B. Lacarrière , O. Le Corre
Abstract Nigeria energy industry remains in limbo, almost six decades after independence and the reason for this is not farfetched; the persistence present of corrupt leaders and active players in the sector one major reasons. thefor growing population Nigeria energy industry remains in limbo, almost six decades after is independence and theWith reason this isNigerian not farfetched; the Abstract expected reach over 400million 2050 becoming country, onlyWith led the by growing china and India inpopulation first and persistencetopresent of corrupt leadersinand active players third in themost sectorpopulated is one major reasons. Nigerian second positions Energy in the country is expected to further skyrocket. At china present, country has and not expected to reachrespectively. over 400million in demand 2050addressed becoming most populated only effective led by andtheIndia in first District heating networks are commonly inthird the literature as one country, of the most solutions for decreasing the been able to meets its energy need demand despite in thethevarious policies set in place. Though there exists athe huge potential in second positions respectively. Energy country is expected to further skyrocket. At present, country has greenhouse gas emissions from the building sector. These systems require high investments which are returned through the not heat hydroelectricity but it its hasenergy been underutilized. viability ofpolicies hydroelectric as sustainable energy form was and the been needconditions despiteThe the set inpolicies, place. Though there in exists a examined, hugecould potential in sales.able Duetotomeets the changed climate andvarious building renovation heat demand the future decrease, huge potential it but can itplay inbeen the energy industryThe of Nigeria. At the same time as an sustainable alternative energy form that can set the pace for hydroelectricity has underutilized. viability of hydroelectric energy form was examined, and the prolonging the investment return period. better use of renewable energy discussed; with solar energy used as a caseanstudy. At the end of form the study can it was revealed that huge it can play in theiswas energy industry of Nigeria. At the same for The potential main scope of this paper to assess the feasibility of using the heattime demandalternative – outdoor energy temperature that function set for the heatpace demand both hydroelectric energy and solar energy willwith playsolar critical rolesused in the actualization of Nigeria stable and sustainable energy that bid better use of renewable energy was discussed; energy as a case study. At the end of the study it was revealed forecast. The district of Alvalade, located in Lisbon (Portugal), was used as a case study. The district is consisted of 665 in thehydroelectric foreseeable future. both energy andconstruction solar energy period will play roles Three in the weather actualization of Nigeria and sustainable energy bid buildings that vary in both andcritical typology. scenarios (low,stable medium, high) and three district inrenovation the foreseeable future. scenarios were developed (shallow, intermediate, deep). To estimate the error, obtained heat demand values were © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. compared with results from a dynamic heatLtd. demand model, previously developed and validated by the authors. © 2019 The Authors. by Elsevier This is an open accessPublished article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Theisresults showed when onlythe weather change is license considered, the margin of error could be acceptable for some applications This an open accessthat article under CC BY-NC-ND (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy, This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Selection under of theforscientific committee of Technologies and Materials Renewablerenovation Energy, (the errorand in peer-review annual demand wasresponsibility lower than 20% all weather scenarios considered). However, afterfor introducing Environment and Sustainability, TMREES18. Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of andscenarios Materialscombination for Renewable Energy, Environment and Sustainability, TMREES18. scenarios, the error value increased up to 59.5% (depending on the weatherTechnologies and renovation considered). Environment and Sustainability, TMREES18. The value of slope coefficient increased on average within the range of 3.8% up to 8% per decade, that corresponds to the Keywords: Hydroelectricity; Viability; Energy decrease in the number of heating hours of 22-139h during the heating season (depending on the combination of weather and Keywords: Hydroelectricity; Viability; Energy renovation scenarios considered). On the other hand, function intercept increased for 7.8-12.7% per decade (depending on the coupled scenarios). The values suggested could be used to modify the function parameters for the scenarios considered, and 1.improve Introduction the accuracy of heat demand estimations.
1. Introduction discovery of energy 200Ltd. years ago, all human activities relied mostly on our own energy. © Before 2017 Thethe Authors. Published by Elsevier Before the discovery of and energy 200power. years ago, allofhuman relied onDistrict our of own energy. performed tasks using man But with the boom andmostly the invention machinery Peer-review under responsibility of animal the Scientific Committee The industrial 15thactivities International Symposium on Heating and performed tasks using man and animal power. But with the industrial boom and the invention of machinery Cooling.
We We that that
1876-6102© 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Keywords: Heat demand; Forecast; Climate change license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) This is an open access under the CC by BY-NC-ND 1876-6102© 2018 Thearticle Authors. Published Elsevier Ltd. Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific of Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy, Environment This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND licensecommittee (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) and Sustainability, TMREES18. Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy, Environment and Sustainability, TMREES18. 1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. 1876-6102 © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/) Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy, Environment and Sustainability, TMREES18. 10.1016/j.egypro.2018.11.253
872 2
Olutola B. Fakehinde et al. / Energy Procedia 157 (2019) 871–878 Fayomi et al./ Energy Procedia 00 (2018) 000–000
came about by industrial revolution in 1800, energy uses and application took another dimension. Energy, ever since it was discovered has become part of man; virtually all that is created, processed, built by man has a link with energy. No doubt energy is life and itis a wealth generator. Energy roles and applications in the world are continually on the increase with growing world’s population. Since the world energy need is continually on the increase there is a need to generate it more efficiently and effectively so as to avoid and reduce the possible impact of the nonrenewable form to the environment in the process reducing the global warming effect. Over the years energy has evolved into various forms, ranging from the renewable forms of energy to the non-renewable forms. Energy is said to be non-renewable if it cannot replenish itself within a human timescale. It is energy collected from non-renewable sources; examples are fossil fuels (usually crude oil, natural gas, coal) and uranium. Energy is said to be renewable if it can replenish itself within human timescale. It is energy collected from renewable sources such as sunlight, wind, rainfall, tides, waves, geothermal heat etc. transforming into solar energy, wind energy, hydroelectric, wave power, geothermal energy respectively. These various forms of energy find its production in different part of the country depending on the terrain under review. For example, solar energy would be more profitable in the northern part of Nigeria than the southern as oppose other sources that would be more profitable in southern Nigeria. In the study under review the viability of hydroelectricity to Nigeria is discussed. Hydroelectricity in Nigeria is the most used type of energy for power generation in that Nigeria’s geographical area favors’ its usage. Though it is the most used type of energy, it can be utilized even more because of the abundance of the geography and suitable environmental conditions that encourages this form of energy. 2. Literature review Electricity is the most used and desired form of energy across the world owing to the fact that it is a major catalyst of economic development and helps to increase the standard of living for humans generally and Nigeria is no exception to this trend revolving around the world. As a country’s population grows the economy expands and the energy demand in that country also rises [9]. Power is a major component for industrialization and development, and this is inadequate in Nigeria as stated by [10]. Despite the various policy and fund rolled out by the government, Nigeria energy industry is yet to be successful in the quest for attaining stable electricity supply. These are largely attributed to the corruption that finds prominence in government and those responsible for meeting these needs. [6] Stated that industries and residential now use generators due to the problem of power outage in Nigeria, he said
hydroelectric should looked upon in solving the problem associated with power in the country. This is due to the numerous potentials that hydroelectric power holds in the country. In this paper the author agreed on the report emerging that small hydroelectric holds for the country, the author conducted a research on the possible potential site for its instalment across some selected state in Nigeria, due to the huge potentials discovered that is still the increase. Despite the challenges that still militates against the small hydroelectric power sector the benefits do outweighs its challenges [8]. [13] conducted as assessment on small hydroelectric power in Nigeria in line with the energy policy and power sector reform act of the country set in 2005 and discovered that within 1971 and 2005 the hydropower increased by over 360% even if only 5% of its full potential was utilized. Operational and maintenance cost both favour small hydropower development in the country. Various policies are being rolled out by the government further make the industry rewarding to willing investors. [9] Worked on energy is a perspective for development in Nigeria. He argued that energy demand is on the increase despite this and there is need for it to be produced more efficiently due to its impact on the environment. Hence, the need to better push for sustainable ways of energy production is of necessity. However, [15] carried out a study on the current and future prospects on
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873 3
renewable energy in Nigeria, he stated that only 40% of Nigerians population are connected to the national grid those that are connected are plague by frequent failure of electricity supply leading to crippling of many sectors in the country’s economy, he stated that from review of open literature hydropower energy contributes about 30% of the total energy consumption in the country. Since the country is blessed with numerous renewable resources it expected that further research in this area will solve the energy crises in Nigeria. [16] Worked on the potential and the economics of hydropower in West Africa. He however agreed that the reason for the increasing energy demand in the West Africa is population growth, urbanization leading to increase in the economic activities. With a vast hydropower potential West Africa can meet its 21 century energy demands. 3. Concepts and Definitions 3.1Energy Energy is the capacity to do work, generally inphysics, energy is said to be a quantitative property that must be transferred to an object in order to perform work on, or to heat, the object. Energy is a conserved quantity its SI unit is joule (J) or sometimes referred to as kilojoule (kJ). 3.2Sources of Energy The sources of energy as discussed by [1]. •
Solar Energy
•
Wind Energy
•
Geothermal Energy
•
Hydrogen Energy
•
Tidal Energy
•
Wave Energy
•
Biomass Energy
•
Nuclear Power
•
Fossil Fuels (i. e Coal, Oil and Natural Gas)
•
Hydroelectric energy
4. Discussions and Recommendation 4.1 Hydroelectric Energy In this energy from the power of the water is used to turn generators to produce the electricity that is then used. The problems faced with hydropower right now have to do with the aging of the dams. Many of them need major restoration work to remain functional and safe, and that costs enormous sums of money. The drain on the world’s drinkable water supply is also causing issues as townships may wind up needing to consume the water that provides them power too.
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Figure1: Total World Energy Consumption [3]. 4.1.1 Viability of Hydroelectric The following are the various points that buttress the viability of hydroelectric as stated by sustainability of groundwater resources, USGS Circular 1186 while quoting Itaipu Binacional. •
Hydroelectricity is a renewable energy source: - Hydroelectricity uses the energy of running water, without
reducing its quantity, to produce electricity. Therefore, all hydroelectric developments, of small or large size, whether run of the river or of accumulated storage, fit the concept of renewable energy. •
Hydroelectricity makes it feasible to utilize other renewable sources: while using hydroelectric power
plants with accumulation of reservoirs it offer operational flexibility when compared to other forms, its flexibility allows it to respond immediately to fluctuations in the demand for electricity. The flexibility and storage capacity of hydroelectric power plants make them more efficient and economical in supporting the use of intermittent sources of renewable energy, such as solar energy or Aeolian energy. •
Hydroelectricity promotes guaranteed energy and price stability: since river water is a domestic resource
which (it is abundant in nature), contrary to fuel or natural gas, it does not fluctuate like other products in the market. Furthermore, it is the only large renewable source of electricity and its cost-benefit ratio, efficiency, flexibility and reliability assist in optimizing the use of thermal power plants. •
Hydroelectricity contributes to the storage of drinking water: Hydroelectric power plant reservoirs collect
rainwater, which can then be used for consumption or for irrigation. In storing water, they protect the water tables against depletion and reduce our vulnerability to floods and droughts. •
Hydroelectricity increases the stability and reliability of electricity systems: - The operation of electricity
systems depends on rapid and flexible generation sources to meet peak demands, maintain the system voltage levels,
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and quickly re-establish supply after a blackout. Energy generated by hydroelectric installations can be injected into the electricity system faster than that of any other energy source. The capacity of hydroelectric systems to reach maximum production from zero in a rapid and foreseeable manner makes them exceptionally appropriate for addressing alterations in the consumption and providing ancillary services to the electricity system, thus maintaining the balance between the electricity supply and demand. •
Hydroelectricity helps fight climate changes: The hydroelectric life cycle produces very small amounts of
greenhouse gases (GHG). In emitting less GHG than power plants driven by gas, coal or oil, hydroelectricity can help retard global warming. Although only 33% of the available hydroelectric potential has been developed, today hydroelectricity prevents the emission of GHG corresponding to the burning of 4.4 million barrels of petroleum per day worldwide. •
Hydroelectricity improves the air we breathe: Hydroelectric power plants do not release pollutants into the
air. They very frequently substitute the generation from fossil fuels, thus reducing acid rain and smog. In addition to this, hydroelectric developments do not generate toxic by-products. •
Hydroelectricity offers a significant contribution to development: Hydroelectric installations bring
electricity, highways, industry and commerce to communities, thus developing the economy, expanding access to health and education, and improving the quality of life. Hydroelectricity is a technology that has been known and proven for more than a century. Its impacts are well understood and manageable through measures for mitigating and compensating the damages. It offers a vast potential and is available where development is most necessary. •
Hydroelectricity is a fundamental instrument for sustainable development: Hydroelectric enterprises that
are developed and operated in a manner that is economically viable, environmentally sensible and socially responsible represent the best concept of sustainable development. That means, "Development that today addresses people's needs without compromising the capacity of future generations for addressing their own needs" [3]. •
Hydroelectricity means clean and cheap energy for today and tomorrow: - With an average lifetime of 50 to
100 years, hydroelectric developments are long-term investments that can benefit various generations. They can be easily upgraded to incorporate more recent technologies and have very low operating and maintenance costs. The table below shows the types of hydroelectric power plants and their distinguishing attributes. Table1: Types of Hydroelectric Power Plants [4] Types of hydropower plants
Attributes
Impoundment
In these, a dam is built across a river with impounding head of water behind it, the water in the reservoir is released through a turbine to generate electricity.
Diversion
It is sometimes referred to as run-of river; a facility channels some of its river water through a canal. It does not necessarily need a dam. Hence, the reason for its low impact on the environment.
Pumped Storage
In this kind of hydro power plant, off the peak period, pumped storage facility stores energy by pumping water from lower reservoir to an
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876 6
upper reservoir. During peak periods, the water is then released back through a turbine to generate electricity.
Stating the viability of hydropower plants might be so promising and futuristic however, several factors can hamper the continuous usage of this system of power generation. The following where presented as possible factors that can discourage the continuity of these power generation method according to [6]
Construction of a dam is time consuming and expensive to build.
Hydropower dam construction do disrupt the natural ecology as set by nature, this could result in fishes and livelihood of people are been disrupted.
When Large dam is being constructed it causes serious geological damage.
Large volume of flowing water is required for efficient and effective operation as a decrease in rainfall due to climate change adverse reduce electricity production.
The potential of hydroelectric power plant in some selected states in Nigeria is shown in the table below. Table 2: Summary of Small Hydro Power Plants in Nigeria [7] S/n
State
Potential Sites
Cumulative (Mw)
1
Adamawa
3
2
Akwa Ibom
13
28.600
3
Bauchi
1
0.150
4
Benue
10
1.306(1 site)
5
Cross river
5
3.000
6
Delta
1
1.000
7
Ebonyi
5
1.399
8
Edo
5
3.828
9
Ekiti
6
1.2472
10
Enugu
1
11
Fct
6
12
Gombe
2
13
Imo
71
14
Kaduna
15
25.000
15
Kano
2
14.000
16
Kastina
11
234.34
35.099
17
Kebbi
1
18
Kogi
2
19
Kwara
4
5.200
20
Nassarawa
3
0.454
21
Niger
11
110.580
22
Ogun
13
15.610
23
Ondo
1
1.300
1.050
Power
Estimate
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24
Osun
8
2.622
25
Oyo
3
1.062
26
Plateau
14
89.100
27
Sokoto
1
28
Taraba
9
29
Yobe
5
30
Zamfara
16
877 7
134.720
The Table above shows the enormous potential of hydroelectric in Nigeria. However, this great opportunity has not been utilized as the hydropower electricity in Nigerian stood at 23.9%.In 2007, fossil fuel took the lead in the total energy consumption of the country. Though there has been a steady rise in power generated by hydroelectric power plants in the country, as noticed from 2003 to 2007 when it rose from 14.2% to 23.9% showing almost 100% improvements there is also the need to encourage this trend in order to hamper the imminent threat posed by global warming. No doubt, hydropower can deliver to the developing countries around the world vital electricity especially Nigeria, along with additional services of water management and increased economic activities at significant scale, it is, at best, inappropriate for the authors report’s to have referred to the technology as ineffectual. Governments in developing countries continue to turn to major hydropower projects for their energy needs because the resource is local, the technology reliable, the scale considerable and the resulting electricity price economical and predictable. At a time when energy and water services are at the forefront of policy agendas around the world, hydropower is an investment that makes a lot of sense. One cannot rule hydropower energy out due to it numerous advantages that outweigh its disadvantages. It is expected that hydropower energy continues to play a critical in further contributing its quota to the energy needs of the world. The social and economic development of the Nigeria energy space that will give rise to industrialization, improved standard of living for its citizens will be as result of meeting the energy demands for various sectors of the economic that spurs growth [11].However, as discovered from review of open literature Nigeria energy is yet to be met thereby creating a vacuum for development of sustainable energy in Nigeria. 5 Conclusion Having carefully studied the existing literature some conclusions were arrived upon •
Hydroelectric energy is an energy form that would not face out in years to come due to current successes
recorded and huge potentials that remains utilized. •
That hydroelectric energy should be encouraged to better achieve the energy needs of Nigeria in the 21st
century. •Furthermore, hydroelectric is expected to play a vital role in the development of a sustainable energy model for Nigeria, the challenges been faced currently notwithstanding. Efforts and policy should be put to encourage and develop the technical skills needed for its citizens to be active stakeholders.
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