Water quality and resident perceptions of declining ecosystem services at Shitalakka wetland in Narayanganj city

Accepted Manuscript Water Quality and Resident Perceptions of Declining Ecosystem Services at Shitalakkah Wetland in Narayangonj City Mohammad Zahangeer Alam, Lynne Carpenter-Boggs, Abdur Rahman, Md. Manjurul Haque, Md. Ramiz Uddin Miah, M. Moniruzzaman, Md. Abdul Qayum, Hasan Muhammad Abdullah PII: DOI: Reference:

S2212-6139(16)30089-7 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.swaqe.2017.03.002 SWAQE 59

To appear in:

Sustainability of Water Quality and Ecology

Received Date: Accepted Date:

8 October 2016 14 March 2017

Please cite this article as: M.Z. Alam, L. Carpenter-Boggs, A. Rahman, d.M. Haque, d.R.U. Miah, M. Moniruzzaman, d.A. Qayum, H.M. Abdullah, Water Quality and Resident Perceptions of Declining Ecosystem Services at Shitalakkah Wetland in Narayangonj City, Sustainability of Water Quality and Ecology (2017), doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.swaqe.2017.03.002

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Water Quality and Resident Perceptions of Declining Ecosystem Services at Shitalakkah Wetland in Narayangonj City Mohammad Zahangeer Alam1*, Lynne Carpenter-Boggs2 Abdur Rahman1, Md. Manjurul Haque1, Md. Ramiz Uddin Miah3, M. Moniruzzaman4, Md. Abdul Qayum5, Hasan Muhammad Abdullah6 *Corresponding email address: [email protected] 1

Department of Environmental Science, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU), Gazipur-1706, Bangladesh 2 Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman WA 991646420 USA

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Abstract

Departement of Entomology, BSMRAU, Gazipur-1706, Bangladesh Soil and Environment Section, Biological Research Division, BCSIR Laboratories, Dhaka. 5 Agricultural Statistics Division, Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI), Gazipur-1701, Bangladesh 4

Department of Agroforestry and Environment, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU), Gazipur-1706, Bangladesh

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Wetland ecosystem services provide social benefits. These services are vulnerable due

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to human activities. The present research concerns perceptions of declining wetland

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ecosystem services and their effects on water quality parameters. The percentages of

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provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting services were found to overshadow

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ecosystem services, such that generation of goods and values in the studied wetlands are in

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jeopardy. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), turbidity,

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conductivity, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Dissolved Oxygen (DO), heavy metals and salts

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were measured as indicators of water quality. Many significant correlations were observed

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and many of these parameters exceeded regulatory limits. Lead (Pb) in wetland 0.09 mg/L

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far exceeded the safe limit (0.01 to 0.05 mg/L), while turbidity in wetland 21.12 was too high

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to sustain fish. Wetland water pH was significantly correlated (p≤0.01) with Cd. TDS was

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found to have a significant (p≤0.01; p≤0.05; p≤0.1) correlation with conductivity, Ca2+, 1

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BOD, and DO. The conductivity increased (p≤0.01) with increasing Ca2+ concentrations.

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COD was significantly different (p≤0.1) with Pb, Cd and Cl-. BOD increased with increasing

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Ca2+ concentrations (p≤0.05). Continuous monitoring of water quality indicators (turbidity,

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EC, pH, DO, TDS, COD, BOD, cations, and anions) is crucial for improving of wetland

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ecosystem services and sustainability of communities.

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Keywords: Ecosystem services, residents, water quality, wetland, values, goods

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1. Introduction

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Healthy ecosystems provide “the benefits of nature to households, communities, and

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economies” (Gasparatos et al., 2011). These ecosystem services include provisioning,

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regulating, cultural and supporting services (Wardrop et al., 2011). Resources of wetland

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ecosystem services such as, food, fresh water, fiber, and fuel; biochemical and genetic

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diversity; climate and nutrient regulation and water purification; protection of erosion and

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natural hazards; and spiritual, inspirational, recreational, aesthetic and educational values all

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represent goods provided through ecosystem processes (MEA, 2005). Humans rely upon the

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connectivity between wetland species and ecosystem services to provide essential foods,

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fibers, potable water, shelter, and medicines (Diaz, 2014; Donlon et al., 2012), while

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vegetation, bird songs, and scents enhance humans’ recreation (Fennessy and Craft, 2011).

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Wetlands ecosystems include marshes, fens, peat lands or marine water that does not

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exceed six meters’ depth at low tide; whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary;

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with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salty (Ramsar, 2009b; Jones et al.,

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2009). The wetlands of Bangladesh are classified as inland freshwater and tidal brackish

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wetlands (Chowdhury et al., 2016). Shitalakkah is a permanent natural inland wetland

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(Ramsar Convention Secretariat, 2013). This wetland provide habitat for mammals, birds, 2

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fish, and aquatic plants (Natuhara, 2013). It also provides a range of ecosystem services that

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benefit surrounding communities, including water filtration, storm protection, flood control

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and recreation (Personal visit, R. Abdur, 2015).

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Human sustainability has been widely dependent upon wetland ecosystems for

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resources (Horwitz and Finlayson, 2011; Boyed and Banzhaf, 2006). Wetland ecosystem

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services improve resilience of human habitats by stabilizing environmental factors such as

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climate, nutrient and carbon cycles, hydrological cycles, soil-forming dynamics, and

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biodiversity; by supporting natural-resource-driven livelihoods; and by reducing vulnerability

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of crops to pests, disease, drought, and flooding, thereby alleviating poverty through

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enhanced food security (UNEP, 2011; MEA, 2005; Ossola et al., 2015; Horwitz and

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Finlayson, 2011; Semmens et al., 2011). For this reason, natural resources in wetland

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ecosystem have been applied for the substantial gain in human well-being and economic

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development over the past century (Yamaguchi, 2015; Guo et al., 2010).

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Water is an important natural resource for the regulation of ecosystems service

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(Barbier et al., 2011; Costanza et al., 1997; Cowardin, 1979). This fresh water ecosystem

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provides goods and services to sustainable environments (Aylward and Fernandez-Gonzalez,

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1998). These qualitative benefits warrant protection of fresh-water wetland ecosystems

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through social coordination (Sanon et al., 2012). Governance and economic incentives are

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both critical factors for using this freshwater in the wetland ecosystem (Mukherjee et al.,

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2014). Inadequate governance has created negative impacts on naturally active inland

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wetland ecosystems (WCD, 2000).

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Wetland water often regulates supporting and regulating functions such as preserving

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nutrients and removing pollutants (Falkenmark, 2003). Water in wetland ecosystems is an 3

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interface towards achieving sustainable food production (Glavan et al., 2012). These concepts

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interconnect ecosystem services, water quality and food security (Coates et al., 2013).

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However, human activities have tremendously altered the water cycle in wetland ecosystems

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(Zhang et al., 2015). As a result, a quarter of mammals and aquatic species, including those

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reliant upon wetlands for habitat, are threatened by human activities over the last 100 years

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(MEA, 2005; Green facts, 2015).

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Recently, the aquatic resources of Bangladesh have been exposed to rapid degradation

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as a result of high population density, unplanned industrialization and urbanization, habitat

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destruction and waste water disposal as well as natural hazards (Natarajan and Kuppusamy,

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2011; Beher et al., 2014), and ecosystem services have been lost, creating further negative

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impacts on natural resources (MEA, 2005). In response to these threats to critical ecosystem

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services, human beings have been suffering for their sustainable livelihood due to lack of fresh

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water (DOE, 2013). We studied the benefits of ecosystem services, and major environmental

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concerns such as water quality constituents in the Shitalakkah wetland ecosystem. We found

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water is the most valuable natural resource provided by this wetland ecosystem. We

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hypothesize that regular monitoring of water quality parameters and their linkage with several

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ecosystem services will provide information necessary to supporting healthy food and

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sustainable environment.

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2. Materials and methods

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2.1. Description of study areas

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The study was conducted at five locations of Shitalakkah wetland: Ispahani,

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Jamalsop, Bandar, School Ghat and Launch Ghat of Narayangonj city in 2014 to 2016. The

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Geographical Positioning System (GPS) of the study locations are highlighted in Table 1. 4

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These study locations are mapped in Figure 1. The chronological changes of land use patterns

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are also depicted in Figure 2. Physical properties of the study locations are described in

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Table 2.

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2.2. Inception meeting

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An inception meeting was arranged at the Department of Agricultural Extension

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(DAE), Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB), Bangladesh Agricultural

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Development Corporation (BADC) office. This meeting was conducted with visitors,

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government officials, scientists, fishermen, and local people who have been living in the

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surrounding areas of Shitalakkah wetland in Narayangonj city. The government officials and

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scientists both were concerned regarding indicators of water quality parameters and benefits

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for surrounding communities from wetland ecosystem service. This meeting concerned

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ecosystem service and their connectivity with water quality parameters. During this meeting,

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participants contributed their unique voices regarding water pollution and its impact upon

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wetland ecosystem services. Based on this meeting, a questionnaire was developed for the

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collection of data on the perceived status of wetland ecosystem services, major environmental

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threats to ecosystem services and their link with water quality constituents.

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2.3. Data collection of wetland ecosystem services

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Based on the inception meeting, data regarding present and previous status of various

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ecosystem services were collected according to proposed criterion by the (MEA, 2005). We

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interviewed 50 people for each location, among these, average 10-12 were women and rests

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of people were men. They were average 40-60 years old. The interviewees were involved in

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diverse professions such as fishing, boating, industry, government officials and research at

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the DAE, BWDB, and BADC. Information regarding present and previous status of 5

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ecosystem services classified as provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting were

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recorded in questionnaires from each study location. Residents were responded the status of

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different ecosystem services as, 0 for very poor ecosystem service, ≤ 25 indicate a poor

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ecosystem service, 40-50 ranges indicate moderate ecosystem service, 50-70 indicate highly

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moderate ecosystem service, 70- 85 indicate good ecosystem service, ≥ 90 Healthy ecosystem

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service. Only interviewees 50 years or older were asked to assess these ecosystem services 20

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years ago. All noted information of ecosystem services are presented in Table 3.

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2.4. Information regarding major environmental concerns

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Data regarding perceived major environmental threats were collected through

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interviews with five groups of people who had been living nearest to the study areas. Each

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group was comprised of 50 people from the specified locations. Several questions were

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discussed with respondents such as water pollution, bathing and crop production status,

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riverbank area, vegetation, visitor’s recreation, sewerage water and waste disposal systems.

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During discussions, several people brought up their experiences with the negative

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environmental impacts associated with the wetland ecosystem due to water pollution.

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Information pertaining to causes of wetland ecosystem service degradation was also garnered

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through discussions with WDB and DAE personnel in Bangladesh. Several threats such as,

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reduction of cropping and homestead vegetation areas, increasing of urbanization, wetland

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bank erosion and lessening of water body were also reported in Figure 2.

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2.5. Collection of water samples

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Wetland water samples (1.5 meter below from surface layer) were collected from

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each location for the analysis of physico-chemical properties. Distance of each collected

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water samples were 50 meters; three collected water samples were mixed together for making 6

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a sample for each location in this wetland. All samples were collected in 100 mL plastic

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bottles which were washed with dilute HCl followed by distilled water (1:1). Water samples

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in plastic bottles were brought into the Laboratory of Environmental Science at Bangabandhu

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Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Agricultural University (BSMRAU). The water samples were

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filtered with filter paper (Whatman 42) to remove suspended solids. The samples were then

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transferred to fresh bottles containing 10 mL 2 M HCl. Prepared sample solutions were

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sealed immediately to minimize exposure to air, and carried to the Laboratory of

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Environmental Science of BSMRAU and Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial

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Research (BCSIR) in Dhaka for analysis of water quality constituents.

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2.6. Detection of physical parameters

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Wetland water samples were transferred to a clean transparent test tube for visual

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evaluation of water color. The temperature (0C) of water samples was recorded immediately

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during sample collection at the experimental site by mercury thermometer with range 0 to

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500C (Gupta, 2000). Turbidity of water samples was determined using a turbidity meter

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(Model: HACH 2100Q) followed by APHA 2130B (APHA, 1998).

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2.7. Detection of chemical parameters

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Sample pH was determined by glass electrode pH meter (Jackson, 1967). The

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electrical conductivity (EC) was determined during sample collection by EC meter (Model:

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HANNA HI-8633) (Jackson, 1967). Total dissolved solids (TDS) was determined by TDS

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meter (Model: Mettler-Toledo Ag, CH-8603) (Todd, 1980).

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Dissolved oxygen (DO) in water was determined during the collection of water

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samples using a DO meter (Model: HACH HQ 30d) (APHA, 1998). The salinity was

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measured by salinity meter (Model: DDSJ-308A) (Todd, 1980). Biochemical oxygen demand 7

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(BOD) of samples was determined by respirometric method (APHA 5210D) using BOD

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Sensor Set (Model: HACH BOD TRACK II) (APHA, 1998). Chemical oxygen demand

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(COD) was determined by closed reflux, titrimetric method (APHA 5220C) using certified

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HACH COD vials and COD Reactor (Model: HACH COD Reactor) (APHA, 1998).

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Nitrite (NO2-) and nitrate (NO3-) were determined by micro kjeldahl distillation

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method (Jackson, 1967). Sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+) of water samples were

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determined by flame emission spectrophotometry method (flame photometer, Jencons, PEP7)

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at 589 nm and 769 nm wavelength, respectively (Jackson, 1967). The chloride and fluoride in

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water samples were determined by Mhor volumetric method (Jackson, 1967). The sulfate and

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phosphate contents in water samples were determined by turbidimetric method (Hunt, 1981).

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Lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), calcium (Ca), and zinc (Zn) in

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water samples were determined by atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS) (Model: AA-7000,

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Shimadzu) (APHA 3111), which was re-calibrated for every 10 mL sample using a certified

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reference material (CRMs) (APHA, 1998).

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2.8. Statistical analysis

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Water quality parameters were analyzed through Pearson correlation coefficient using

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the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Significant correlations between water

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quality parameters were identified using R Software. The Chronological changes of land use

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pattern were analyzed through ArcGIS. Resident perception regarding the status of present

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and previous wetland ecosystem service were analyzed through descriptive statistical analysis

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using MS-Excel.

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3. Results

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3.1. Provisioning ecosystem service 8

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Provisioning ecosystem services include provision of food, fresh water, fiber and fuel,

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and biochemical and genetic biodiversity. Interviewees perceived the current status of

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provisioning services to be an average 13.5% at the study sites, the lowest being at Jamal

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shop. Interviewees (50 years and older) recalled previous provisioning services at an average

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74% (Table 3, and Figure 3). All provisioning ecosystem services had degraded to about five

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times from their prior status in each study sites (Figure 3). Among all provisioning services,

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current cropping areas are squeezed to about 50% since recorded in 1993 (Figure 2).

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3.2. Regulating ecosystem service

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Regulating ecosystem services include climate stabilization, water purification, and

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mitigation of soil erosion and natural hazards in the wetland ecosystem. The current

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perceived status of regulating services averaged 49% at all study locations from the survey

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respondents. Twenty years ago the regulating services were much better, but still only in the

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moderate to high moderate range (10-70). The status of regulating services recorded

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previously was nearly similar to the present status. Among these services, water purification

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was found degraded condition in each study location (Table 3 and Figure 3).

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3.3. Cultural ecosystem service

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Cultural ecosystem services include spiritual, recreational, aesthetic and educational.

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The present status of cultural services ranged between 40 and 55 percent at each study

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location. Twenty years ago, the percentages of cultural services were an averaged 71, 69, 66,

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73, and 71 at Launch Ghat, Bandar, Ispahani, Jamal shop and School Ghat areas,

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respectively. The previously recorded statuses of cultural services were therefore roughly

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50% healthier than the present cultural services (Table 3 and Figure 3).

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3.4. Supporting ecosystem service 9

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Supporting ecosystem services include soil formation and nutrient cycling. The

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present status of supporting services at each study site ranged between 30 to 40. Twenty years

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ago, the percentages of supporting services were an averaged 75, 75, 55, 55, and 65 at

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Launch Ghat, Bandar, Ispahani, Jamal shop and School Ghat areas, respectively. The

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previously recorded statuses of supporting services were therefore 100% healthier than the

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present status of ecosystem services (Table 3 and Figure 3).

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3.5. Major environmental threats on the wetland ecosystem

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Major environmental concerns were recorded in the questionnaire for each study site.

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Among these threats, unplanned urbanization and industrialization, soil and water pollution,

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and waste and effluent disposal into the wetland ecosystem were highly visible. These threats

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were not as frequently observed twenty years ago as they were in this study (Figure 4 and 5).

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Agriculture production areas were 10.70 and 18. 49 km2 in 2014 and 1993, respectively.

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Similarly, urban areas were found 0.43 km2 in 1993; currently urban areas are 6.98 km2 in the

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wetland of Narayangonj city. An existing wetland bank erosion 0.14 km2 which is about two

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times higher than recorded in 1993 (0.06 km2) (Figure 2).

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3.6. Goods and values of the Shitalakkah wetland ecosystem

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Fishes and other aquatic species, biological diversity, religious festivals, boating,

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recreation, bathing, and genetic biodiversity were found on a small scale in this study.

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Quantitative, qualitative and monetary values are at extreme risk (Figure 4). According to the

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resident perception, the generation of values and goods through ecosystem processes was

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observed to be satisfactory twenty years ago (Figure 5). About 65% of survey respondents

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believe that the wetland no longer offers goods and values at the same level as it did 20 years

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ago. 10

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3.7. Physical parameters of wetland water

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Temperature was significantly different (p≤0.05) at different levels of COD, Pb and

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Cl-. Turbidity was found significant different (p≤0.1) at different levels of BOD and Na+

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(p≤0.05) (Table 4). Turbidity was 21.12 [Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU)] higher than

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recommended value (10 NTU) for drinking, bathing, recreation and fish culture (Table 5).

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3.8. Chemical parameters of wetland water

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Water pH was significantly different (p≤0.01) with at different Cd levels. TDS was

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statistically significant with conductivity, Ca2+ (p≤0.01), BOD, the percent of salinity

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(p≤0.05) and DO (p≤0.1). Electrical conductivity was positively correlated with Ca2+

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(p≤0.01) and the percentage of salinity, BOD, and DO (p≤0.05). The percentage of salinity

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was strongly correlated with BOD (p≤0.01), Ca

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significantly correlated (p≤0.1) with Pb, Cd and Cl-. BOD was positively correlated with Ca2+

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(p≤0.05) and F-(p≤0.1). The DO was positively correlated (p≤0.1) with Ca2+ (Table 4). The

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average value of conductivity, COD, BOD, Pb, Cr, Na+, K+, and PO43- were 692 NTU, 232.1,

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52.8, 0.09, 0.07 (mg/L), 65.56, 21.12, and 2.02 found higher than recommended values,

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respectively (Table 4 and 5).

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3.9. Heavy metals, cations and anions

2+

and F- (p≤0.05). The COD was

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The significant correlation was observed among the heavy metals Pb, Ni, Cr, and Cd.

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The positive correlation was found between Pb and F- (p≤0.1). Among the cations and anions

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tested, significant correlations were observed between K+ and Cl- (p ≤ 0.05), nitrite and

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nitrate (p ≤ 0.05) (Table 4).

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4. Discussion 11

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4.1. Wetland ecosystem services

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The present status of wetland ecosystem services is much poorer than 20 years back in

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all study location of Shitalakkah. Goods and values for human benefits have been decreased

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due to many human activities. A community person has been suffering through lack of

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healthy environment for their survival in these wetland areas. In fact, aquatic and terrestrial

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food crops, fiber, fresh water, and genetic biodiversity are delivered by wetlands as

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provisional ecosystem services (Ramsar, 2009e; Dempsey and Robertson, 2012). Unplanned

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industrialization, reduction of agricultural crop production, waste disposal, sewerage lines

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and increased unplanned urbanization impose negative effects upon wetland ecosystem

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services (Figure, 2, 4 and 5). Similar negative effects have been also observed for food crops,

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livestock and leafy vegetables (Kronberg et al., 1993). These resources are the most

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important provisioning ecosystem service (Dempsey and Robertson, 2012; Deventer et al.,

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2016) for wetlands habitat. This provisioning ecosystem service is critically deteriorated in

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many regions (Gorgens and van Wilgen 2004) as well as Shitalakkah wetland due to the high

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demand of water, habitat, genetic, biochemical, and pharmaceuticals resources (Charles and

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Dukes, 2007).

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The regulation of water sustains multiple aquatic resources (Vigerstol and Aukema,

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2011). For instance, common carp (Cyprinus carpio) is at risk (70%) in this wetland water

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compared to other healthy wetlands (≤ 20%) due to high turbidity and nutrient concentrations

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(Angeler et al., 2002). Notwithstanding, the regulation of river bank is also one of the most

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important aquatic resources for resiliency of wetland ecosystem. This river erosion has

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accelerated tremendously in the marshes of California as well as in the Shitalakkah wetland

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(Talley et al., 2001). Since 1993 to 2014, the riverbank areas have been amplified fairly 12

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which is jeopardy for this wetland ecosystem service (Figure 2). Also, wetland water cycles

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regulate climate, diseases and pests, and natural hazards (Marquès et al., 2013). These types

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of hazards including several many human activities have altered climate, and as a result, have

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negatively impacted the wetland ecosystems (ICIMOD, 2007).

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Wetland ecosystems also have recreational and aesthetic value (Camacho-Valdez et

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al., 2014). In this study, these cultural services were found to have deteriorated from previous

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condition (Figure 3). Among these cultural services, vegetation across the wetland enhances

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the natural magnificence and multiplies an aesthetic value for the surrounding communities

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of wetland ecosystem. This wetland is an inadequately protected area which provides less

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vegetation and natural scenic views (Figure 2) than well-protected wetlands (Keith, 2011).

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For example, due to inadequate protection and governance, wetland protection is insufficient

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for sustaining biodiversity through ecological processes (South Africa Environmental

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Outlook [SAEA], 2012). In one study, the majority of 300,000 wetlands have lost their

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aestethic value due to loss of biodiversity (Nel and Driver, 2012). As a result, the percentages

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of wetlands that are threatened, critically endangered, endangered and vulnerable worldwide

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are 65, 48, 12, and 5, respectively (SAEA, 2012). This scenario has also been negatively

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impacted on several many cultural ecosystem services in these study locations as well as

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worldwide in different wetland ecosystem.

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Elemental ratios in wetlands are influenced by water tides (Dunn et al., 2008). The

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human impact on wetland ecosystems has received relatively less attention (Koerselman and

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Meuleman, 1996). Carbon (C), Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorous (P) concentrations are

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influenced by wetland water cycles. Currently, rapid development of the global economy

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stimulates human disturbance of natural ecosystems (Peñuelas et al., 2012). As a result,

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wetlands ecosystem services have been degraded in some regions throughout the world, 13

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creating a harmful impact upon the sustainability of human livelihoods (Shen and Zhu, 1999;

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Cliquet, 2014; An et al., 2007). Similarly, these wetland areas are critically vulnerable due to

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rapid growth of urbanization, and the intensity of human disturbance, with much replacement

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of natural undisturbed areas by the pollution of water (Figure 2).

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However, human activities threaten wetland ecosystem functions (Cliquet, 2014;

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Bassi et al., 2014; Anderson et al., 2002). In this study, such threats have impacted ecosystem

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services, decreasing their benefit to humans (Figure 2). Despite, wetlands provide numerous

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goods and services through ecosystem process (Holzman, 2012), but the regulatory

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framework for the conservation of wetlands is very weak throughout the world as well as

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Shitalakkah wetland (Bassi et al., 2014). Most of the natural (rivers, lakes, coastal lagoons,

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mangroves, peat land, coral reefs) and artificial (ponds, farm ponds, irrigated fields, sacred

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groves, salt pans, reservoirs, gravel pits, sewage farms and canals) wetlands have been

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designated as Ramsar Sites (Ramsar, 2013). Many of these wetlands have lost their values

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and goods through ecosystem process (Central Pollution Control Board, 2008). Similarly, this

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studied wetland also provides less goods and values for human benefits because of severe

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threats on the ecosystem function.

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Clear goals must be designated to protect wetland ecosystems, and the value of the

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ecosystem services provided by wetlands is worthy of a large investment of human resources

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(Barbier et al., 2009). These values might be enhanced through the increasing an agricultural

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productivity and consumption levels (Ma and Swinton, 2011). This type of provisioning

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services is sustained by soil, water, species, vegetation and climate regulation (Zhang et al.,

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2007; Patterson and Coelho, 2009). While these services are difficult to quantify, their

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benefits might be measured by the conditions of wetlands. On the consumption side, land

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provides home sites and open space for natural amenities (Gebauer et al., 2011; Knoche and 14

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Lupi, 2007). These types of ecosystem services are also served by wetland ecosystem (Table

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3). It is fairly concluded that the wetland ecosystem can be harvested qualitative, quantitative,

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and monetary goods and values for human utilization (Figure 4 and 5).

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4.2. Link between water quality parameters and wetland ecosystem services

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Wetland water pH, TDS, turbidity, conductivity, salinity, temperature, COD, BOD,

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DO, Ni, Pb, Cr, Cd, Zn, Ca 2+, Na+, K+, F-, Cl-, NO2-, NO3-, PO43-, and SO42- are the principal

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water quality constituents in wetland ecosystems. These constituents regulate many

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ecosystem services. Many of these parameters are significantly correlated with one another,

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and some are considerably higher than recommended values. The water temperature,

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nutrients, pH, and heavy metals are significantly correlated with ion concentration in wetland

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water. The average value of turbidity, conductivity, COD, BOD, Pb, Cr, Na+, K+, and PO43-

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were found higher than recommended values (Table 5). These water quality constituents have

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directly linked with many ecosystem services (Horwitz and Finlayson, 2011; Agboola, 2014).

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Due to this connectivity, the production of food crops such as, pulse, cereal, grains, cash, oil,

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vegetable and aquatic species are significantly decreased throughout the world as well as this

347

studied wetland (Marsh, 2012) (Figure 2 and 3). Recently, these valuable ecosystem services

348

are negatively affected by water pollution, waste water disposal, unplanned increased

349

urbanization and industrialization (Figure 2 and Table 5). As a result, wetlands become

350

unable to produce food crops and prevent the spread of contaminants (Kaul and Trisal, 2006;

351

Sallenave, 2016).

352

Water quality constituents regulate the climate and natural hazards (MEA, 2005).

353

Water has plays a vital role in the regulation of climate in wetland ecosystems (Bishop-

354

Taylor et al., 2015; Guo et al., 2015). The National Academies (2012) note that natural 15

16

355

hazards and disasters becoming more frequent in the biosphere due to uneven water

356

distribution. Earthquakes, landslides, and other natural disasters impact social, cultural, and

357

environmental systems, and often result from improper management of water resources. As a

358

result, natural hazards are being increased in farming communities around the world, and

359

agricultural systems that are already stressed by the direct effects of climate change are

360

further threatened by natural disasters indirectly caused by climate change (Bishop-Taylor et

361

al., 2015). Wetland water has incredibly important role for the regulation of such hazards

362

through biogeochemical and biophysical processes (MEA, 2005).

363

Drinking and bathing ecosystem services rely on water quality parameters

364

(Vlachopoulou et al., 2014). We found several positive correlations among the tested water

365

quality parameters (Table 4). Similarly, other studies have also found significant correlations

366

among water quality parameters (DO, TDS, pH and heavy metal) (Church et al., 2015). The

367

Shitalakkah wetland water was undesirable for drinking and bathing as well as Indian rivers

368

(Ravichandran and Teneson, 2015). These systems triggered high levels of turbidity,

369

suspended solids, BOD, harmful microbes and parasites in the wetland waters (Rajakumar,

370

2012; Sivakumarand and Jaganathan, 2002; Krishnan et al., 2007; AWWA, 2001; Lawler et

371

al., 2015). Both of these ecosystem services in this wetland-dependent urban community have

372

been affected by water pollution (Table 3).

373

Wetlands serve recreational benefits for human aesthetic needs. These recreational

374

benefits include: boating, scenic beauty, botanical gardening, and picnic spots (Holzman,

375

2012). These recreational activities depend on the flow of water and its quality (Bowling et

376

al., 2016). In this study, various recreational or aesthetic values of wetlands were drastically

377

distorted due to the impurity of water quality parameters and reduction of water body through 16

17

378

unplanned urbanization (Figure 2). In this regards, water quality such as, turbidity has a

379

particularly large impact on the aesthetic quality of lakes and streams, and on recreation and

380

tourism at many wetlands throughout the world (Lloyd and Dendy, 2004; Kaoru et al., 2005).

381

As a result, swimming, water polo, fishing, and boat racing have been drastically declined in

382

this turbid wetland area (Table 5).

383

Pollutants typically increase nutrients in wetland waters, leading to excessive bacterial

384

growth (Li et al., 2014). Nutrient pollution and warm weather stimulates the growth of

385

harmful algal blooms, and blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) (Li et al., 2014; Montgomery et

386

al., 2005; Anwar et al., 2006; Smith et al., 2009). High concentration of nitrate in drinking

387

water leads to serious illness. Sixty-four percent of shallow monitoring wells in agricultural

388

and urban areas were shown to carry nutrients directly into rivers, lakes and reservoirs in

389

Bangladesh which served as sources of drinking water (Poma et al., 2012). This type of

390

organic pollutants threatens reproductive and developmental health in the surrounding

391

communities of wetland ecosystem (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2015).

392

Similarly, these types of water pollutants were severely found in this wetland’s water samples

393

which are actively participated to the declination of ecosystem services (Table 6).

394

Water quality in wetland ecosystems also affects religious activities (Shegal and sunil,

395

2005). Many religions consider particular sources of water to be sacred or auspicious. For

396

instance, Lourdes in Roman Catholicism, Jordan River

397

the Zamzam Well in Islam and the River Ganges in Hinduism (Englin et al., 2005). This

398

wetland water is a central sacrament of Christianity where it is utilized for baptism (Jakus et

399

al., 2007). A ritual bath in pure water is performed for many religions (Shegal and Sunil,

400

2005; Horwitz and Finlayson, 2011). Many of the water quality parameters measured in this

in some Christian churches,

17

18

401

study exceed standard limits (Table 5), indicating that the Shitalakkah wetland is polluted.

402

Parameters that exceed safe limits include several metals, DO, BOD, COD, Na+ and K (Table

403

4 and 5). It is therefore likely that spiritual activities associated with the Shitalakkah wetland

404

are at risk, as in many other wetland ecosystems (Horwitz and Finlayson, 2011).

405

Wetlands water serve as sinks, sources and transformers of nutrients and chemicals.

406

However, these constituents significantly impact wetland ecosystems (Hanemann et al.,

407

2008). In fact, the primary driver of wetland ecosystems is biogeochemistry, which involves

408

the exchange or flux of materials between living and non-living components in a wetland

409

(Lipton et al., 2008). This biogeochemical processes control exchange and transport of

410

elements or compounds into wetlands, including exchanges with the atmosphere (Bolou-Bi et

411

al., 2012). Due to the determination of water quality parameters, this wetland biogeochemical

412

processes unable to control of ecosystem functions on a global level. It can be stated that all

413

wetland ecosystem services such as, provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting are

414

directly connected with water quality constituents (De steven and Lawrance, 2011).

415

5. Conclusion

416

Wetland ecosystem services are dependent on wetland resources. Water is the most

417

prominent natural resource for wetland ecosystem services. Recently, water quality is

418

degraded due to unplanned urbanization, intensive agricultural production, industrialization,

419

soil erosion across the wetland bank, climate changes, natural hazards and disasters. In fact,

420

wetland water pH, TDS, turbidity, conductivity, salinity, temperature, COD, BOD, DO, Ni,

421

Pb, Cr, Cd, Zn, Ca

422

quality constituents in wetland ecosystems. These water quality parameters enrich goods and

423

values in the surrounding communities of Shitalakkah riverine wetland. However, the

2+

, Na+, K+, F-, Cl-, NO2-, NO3-, PO43-, and SO42- are the principal water

18

19

424

average value of conductivity, turbidity, COD, BOD, Pb, Cr, Na+, K+, and PO43- were 692,

425

21.12 (NTU), 232.1, 52.8, 0.09, 0.07 (mg/L), 65.56, 21.12, and 2.02 found higher than

426

recommended values. Due to the connectivity of ecosystem services and water quality

427

constituents, goods and values for nearby community benefits are negatively affected in the

428

Shitalakkah wetland ecosystem. In this consequences, wetland ecosystem service and their

429

resources could be conserved through the following approaches: dredging of the wetland,

430

regular monitoring of water quality constituents, increased vegetation across the wetland

431

bank, special rules and regulations for the construction of houses and industrial facilities,

432

protection of natural vegetation, regular monitoring of aquatic and terrestrial species,

433

discourage of waste and effluent disposal into the wetland waters, develop public awareness

434

through seminar, workshop, conference, print and electronic medias,

435

collaborative research works between scientist and policy makers, and organization of a

436

monitoring team for the protection of aquatic species. Further studies regarding water quality

437

indicators, public perception for the declining of ecosystem service and maintaining of

438

resiliency of ecosystem services for community’s benefits are significantly essential through

439

the collaboration between scientist and policy makers.

440

Conflict of interest

conduction of

Authors declare that no conflict of interests exists regarding the publication of this

441 442

paper.

443

Acknowledgement

444

Authors would like to thank to Melissa Letourneau, Graduate student at Washington

445

State University, WA, USA for her language editing. The authors also thank to the

446

Laboratory of Environmental Science at BSMRAU and BCSIR. 19

20

447

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Increasing National Resilience to Hazards and Disasters; Committee on Science,

683

Engineering,

684

http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=13457

and

Public

Policy;

National

Academies

Press.

685

Todd, D. K., 1980. Ground Water Hydrology. Jhon Willy and Sons. Inc., New York. 5-76.

686

U.S. EPA (U. S. Environmental Protection Agency)., 2015.

687

688 689

http://www.epa.gov/nutrientpollution/effects-human-health

UNEP (United Nation Environment Program)., 2011. http://www.unep.org/pdf/DEPIECOSYSTEMS-FOOD-SECUR.pdf

690

USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency), 2000. Water Quality Standards.

691

Vigerstol, K. L., Aukema, J. E., 2011. A comparison of tools for modeling freshwater

692

ecosystem services. J. Environ. Manage. 92, 10, 2403-2409.

693

Vlachopoulou, M., Coughlin, D., Forrow, D., Kirk, S., Logan, P., Voulvoulis, N., 2014. The

694

potential of using the Ecosystem Approach in the implementation of the EU Water

695

Framework Directive. Sci. Tot. Environ. 470-471, 684-694.

30

31

696

Wardrop, D. H., Glasmeier, A. K., Peterson-Smith, J., Eckles, D., Ingram, H., Brooks, R. P.,

697

2011. Wetland ecosystem services and coupled socioeconomic benefits through

698

conservation practices in the Appalachian Region. Ecol. Appl. 21, 3, S93-S115.

699

WCD (World Commission on Dams), 2000. Dams and Development: A New Framework for

700

701 702

703 704

705 706

Decision-Making, Earth scan, London, UK.

WHO (World Health Organization), 2009. Rapid assessment of sources of air, water and land pollution, WHO offset Publication, England, p. 62.

Worlds Wetland Day (WWD), 2015. https://www.cbd.int/waters/doc/wwd2015/wwd-2015press-briefs-en.pdf

Yamaguchi, A., 2015. Influences of Quality of Life on Health and Well-Being. Social Indicators Res. 123, 1, 77-102.

707

Zhang, L., Wu, B., Yin, K., Li, X., Kia, K., Zhu, L., 2015. Impacts of human activities on the

708

evolution of estuarine wetland in the Yangtze Delta from 2000 to 2010. Environ.

709

Earth Sci. 73, 1, 435-447.

710 711

Zhang, W., Ricketts, T. H., Kremen, C., Carney, K., Swinton, S. M., 2007. Ecosystem services and dis-services to agriculture. Ecol. Econ. 64, 253–260.

712 713 714 715 716 717 31

32

718

Table 1

719

Geographical position of different study areas Locations

latitude

longitude

Ispahani

23°39’25.00704”

90°37’33.15864”

Jamalsop

23°37‘21.50328”

90°29’59.27028”

Bandar

23°37‘53.21712”

90°32’64.84815”

School Ghat

23°31‘41.26968”

90°30’18.3996”

Launch Ghat

23°38‘26.10704”

90°35’34.16864”

720 721 722 723 724 725 726 727 728 729 730 731 732 733 734 735 736 32

33

737

Table 2

738

Physical properties of study areas at Shitalakkah wetland in Narayangonj city

Properties of wetland

Present status

Previous status

Water levels- winter

3.5 meter

7 meter

Water levels- rainy

6 meter

15 meter

Source of water

Rainfall and Padma river

Rainfall and Padma river

Topography

High elevation

High slope

Major crops

Tomato and amaranth vegetables

Rice (Orayza sativa), Wheat (Triticum capsularis), Maize( Zea mays), Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum)

Water life

Hilly area

High slopes

Uses of Water

Industrial and bathing

Drinking, cooking, irrigation, bathing and religious purposes

Type of river

Natural

Natural

Waste disposal

Polythene, papers, textile byproducts, animal excreta, household and industrial waste with pharmaceutical chemicals

A few papers and household waste

Industrial sewerage lines

80% industries release their waste water through sewerage lines

Not industrial activities or wastes

Water color

Black, dark and bad odor

Natural color

739 740 741 742 743 744 745 746 33

34

747

Table 3

748 749

Resident perception regarding the status of ecosystem services at different location of Shitalakkah Wetland Ecosystem services

Various services

Food

Present status

Rice, Wallago (Wallago attu), and Catla (Gibelion catla) are rarely seen. Currently common carp (Cyprinus carpio) is in risk (70%).

Previous status (20 years back) Major fishes: Rui (Cephalopholis argusrice), Chital (Chitala Chitala), Wallago (Wallago attu), Catla (Gibelion catla); . Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and other small fishes were available. Grain crops (Rice) (Orayza sativa), local fruits (Mango) (Mangifera indica), and Tamarind (Tamarind indica).

Fresh water

Use for raw materials production

Used for domestic and agricultural purposes

Fiber and Fuel

Currently not produced.

Fuel wood, fodder crops and peat moss were found.

Biochemical

Medicinal plants are not available.

Medicinal plants and other natural resources were available.

Genetic materials

Breeding materials are not available.

Wild rice and indigenous tree species were visible. Aquatic breeding materials such as large fishes and aquatic plants were found remarkably as breeding stock.

Provisioning

34

35

Climate regulation

Aquatic plants such as, common water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), Topapana (Pistia stratiotes), are available during rainy season. Water flow and rainfall are influenced by climate change.

Water Not available regulation (hydrological flows) Regulating

Cultural

Aquatic green fungal species, Shapla (Nymphaea nouchali), Padma (Nymphaea lotus) and various micro-organisms were abundant. Water flow and seasonal rainfall were highly visible.

Not available

Water purification and waste treatment

Sewerage lines are not found It was not visible prior to in good condition. Drinking the industrial development. and bathing both were found jeopardy in this wetland.

Erosion regulation

Trees and sand-filled sacks placed across the river bank.

Natural hazard regulation

Sand sacks placed across the river bank about 100 meter length of wetland shore

Abundant trees for protection from storms.

Spiritual and Currently, people are less inspirational interested to perform their religious activities because of water pollution.

Hindu people used water for their bathing and floating of Durga sculpture during the celebration of holidays.

Recreational

Boating with friends, and family is available for only crossing the riverine wetland

Boating and fishing spectacles

Aesthetic

Boating is less available for the recreation aspect

Boating and natural scenery had aesthetic value.

Educational

It has scope for formal and informal education.

Formal and informal education with training programs

35

36

Supporting

Soil formation

Few soil formation processes observed

Soil formation process was apparent

Nutrient cycling

Nutrient cycling apparent

Sustainable nutrient cycling was apparent.

750 751 752 753 754 755 756 757 758 759 760 761 762 763 764 765 766 767 768 769

36

37

770

Table 4

771

Correlation coefficient and level of significant between water quality parameters

Parameters

pH

TDS ppm

Turbidity

Conductivity

Salinity %

Temperature 0C

COD mg/L

BOD mg/L

pH TDS mg/L Turbidity Conductivity Salinity %

1 0.14 -0.69 0.12 0.23

1 -0.77 1.00*** 0.91**

1 -0.76 -0.78

1 0.92**

1

Temperature COD mg/L BOD mg/L DO mg/L Ni mg/L Pb mg/L Cr mg/L Cd mg/L Zn mg/L ++ Ca

-0.48 -0.76 0.30 -0.11 0.41 -0.52 -0.55 -0.98*** -0.70 -0.06

-0.16 -0.29 0.92** 0.87* 0.23 -0.29 -0.69 -0.28 0.11 0.96***

0.38 0.64 -0.82* -0.44 -0.61 0.60 0.80 0.78 0.20 -0.65

-0.18 -0.29 0.92** 0.88** 0.20 -0.30 -0.67 -0.26 0.13 0.97***

-0.54 -0.58 1.00*** 0.76 0.17 -0.62 -0.46 -0.41 0.17 0.93**

1 0.92** -0.54 -0.07 0.06 0.89** -0.16 0.59 0.06 -0.21

1 -0.61 -0.11 -0.14 0.87* 0.20 0.86* 0.34 -0.24

1 0.75 0.20 -0.62 -0.51 -0.47 0.11 0.91**

Na+

0.55

0.71

-0.94**

0.70

0.74

-0.37

-0.56

0.77

+

K

0.00

-0.40

0.15

-0.43

-0.63

0.70

0.55

-0.60

-

0.18 0.38

0.65 0.38

-0.62 -0.39

0.66 0.40

0.89** 0.67

-0.75 -0.90**

-0.67 -0.84*

0.87* 0.66

NO2

-

0.52

-0.43

-0.06

-0.46

-0.58

0.39

0.11

-0.52

-

0.56

-0.55

0.03

-0.57

-0.64

0.26

0.02

-0.58

3-

-0.70

-0.58

0.70

-0.58

-0.65

0.55

0.76

-0.69

2-

0.21

0.40

-0.19

0.41

0.43

-0.344

-0.40

0.44

F Cl NO3 PO4 SO4

772 773 774 775

*** indicate significantly correlated at 1% level of significance, ** indicate significantly correlated at 5% level of significance, * indicate significantly correlated at 10% level of significance

776 777 778 779 780 781 37

38

782

Table 4

783

Continued Ni mg/L

Pb mg/L

Cr mg/L

Cd mg/L

Zn mg/L

DO Ni Pb Cr Cd Zn Ca 2+ Na+

DO mg/L 1 -0.26 0.01 -0.51 -0.02 0.01 0.85* 0.29

1 -0.38 -0.46 -0.41 0.17 0.16 0.77

1 -7.21 0.64 -0.14 -0.34 -0.69

1 0.56 0.46 -0.48 -0.63

1 0.61 -0.11 -0.64

1 0.35 0.10

K+

-0.61

0.60

-0.13

0.15

F-

0.44

0.23

0.41 0.85*

-0.09

Cl-

0.44

-0.34

-0.67

NO2-

-0.59

0.46

NO3-

-0.67

PO43-

-0.58

SO42-

0.69 784

Ca 2+

Na+

0.02

1 0.65 0.48

1 0.02

-0.36

0.39

0.75

0.71

0.00

-0.51

-0.20

0.26

0.26

-0.34

-0.36

-0.58

0.35

0.20

-0.21

-0.39

-0.64

0.08

0.41

0.61

0.78

0.63

0.40 0.62 0.73 0.43

-0.65

0.00

-0.27

-0.27

-0.53

0.32

0.00 0.09 0.45 0.10

K+

F-

Cl-

NO2-

NO3- PO43- SO42-

1 -0.61 0.92**

1 1

0.59

0.70 0.64 0.64 0.42

-0.78

0.16

0.78 0.69

-0.55

1

-0.44

0.98*** 1

-0.75

0.08

0.71

-0.36

0.06 0.31

785 786 787

*** indicate significantly correlated at 1% level of significance, ** indicate significantly correlated at 5% level of significance, * indicate significantly correlated at 10% level of significance

788 789 790 791 792 793 794 38

1 0.79

1

39

795

Table 5

796

Water quality parameters and their standard values for wetland ecosystem service

797

Water quality parameters

pH TDS mg/L Turbidity NTU Conductivity NTU Salinity % Temperature oC COD mg/L BOD mg/L DO mg/L Ni mg/L Pb mg/L Cr mg/L Cd mg/L Zn mg/L Ca2+ Na+ K+ FClNO2NO3PO43SO42798 799 800 801

Ispahani Bandar Jamal shop

Launch Ghat

School Ghat

Mean value

Maximum recommended

7.33 288 16.5 575

6.16 285 38.8 571

7.26 276 29.8 553

7.14 306 11.8 612

7.1 300 9.03 600

6.9 291 21.12 692

GOB (2007) 6.5–8.5 315 10 -

0.02 27.7 280.45 23 2.15 0.03 0.09 0.06 0.00 0.01 2.07 67.9 29.7 0.27 36.69 2.77 4.69 2.31 31.08

0.02 27.7 385.48 13 2.43 0.02 0.10 0.08 0.01 0.02 2.8 56.8 22.6 0.28 37.66 0 0 4.01 31.43

0.02 27.4 158.12 18 1.97 0.02 0.07 0.08 0.00 0.01 0.89 59.8 18.8 0.29 42.52 1.11 2.88 1.81 32.47

0.03 27.5 183.44 106 3.22 0.02 0.08 0.06 0.00 0.01 5.12 67.5 14.7 0.31 43.49 0 0 0 34.25

0.03 27.4 153.46 104 2.48 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.00 0.02 4.9 75.8 19.9 0.34 41.95 0 0 2.01 31.17

0.02 27.22 232.1 52.8 2.45 0.02 0.09 0.07 0.01 0.01 2.98 65.56 21.12 0.29 38.98 0.77 1.51 2.02 32.08

≤5 40 6 10 5 0.05 0.01 5 75 20 12 150–600 3 10 0.6 400

WHO (2009) 6.5–9.2 350 250

USEPA (2000) 6.0–8.5 350 250

30 40 5-5.9 0.07 0.01 0.05 100 6.5 1.2 1.5 500 3 10 0.1 100

5 44 0.07 0.05 5.5 100 10 1.5 1.5 250 3 10 0.1 100

GOB = Government of Bangladesh, WHO =World Health Organization, USEPA =United States Environmental Protection Agency.

802 803 804 805 39

40

806

807 808 809 810 811

40

41

812 813 814

41

42

815 816 817

42

43

818 819 820 821

43

44

822 823 824 825 826

44